biotechnology essay in english

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History of biotechnology

Approaches and tools.

• Applications of biotechnology

Why is biotechnology important?

When did modern biotechnology emerge.

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What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology is the use of  biology  to solve problems and make useful products. The most prominent approach used is genetic engineering, which enables scientists to tailor an organism’s DNA at will.

Biotechnology is particularly important in the field of medicine, where it facilitates the production of therapeutic proteins and other drugs. Synthetic insulin and synthetic growth hormone and diagnostic tests to detect various diseases are just some examples of how biotechnology is impacting medicine. Biotechnology has also proved helpful in refining industrial processes, in environmental cleanup, and in agricultural production.

The first molecular and cellular tools of modern biotechnology emerged in the 1960s and ’70s. A fledgling “biotech” industry began to coalesce in the mid- to late 1970s. Modern biotechnology stands in contrast to older forms of “biotechnology,” which emerged thousands of years ago, when humans began to domesticate plants and animals. Humans have also long tapped the biological processes of microorganisms to make bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese.

biotechnology , the use of biology to solve problems and make useful products. The most prominent area of biotechnology is the production of therapeutic proteins and other drugs through genetic engineering .

People have been harnessing biological processes to improve their quality of life for some 10,000 years, beginning with the first agricultural communities . Approximately 6,000 years ago, humans began to tap the biological processes of microorganisms in order to make bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese and to preserve dairy products. But such processes are not what is meant today by biotechnology , a term first widely applied to the molecular and cellular technologies that began to emerge in the 1960s and ’70s. A fledgling “biotech” industry began to coalesce in the mid- to late 1970s, led by Genentech , a pharmaceutical company established in 1976 by Robert A. Swanson and Herbert W. Boyer to commercialize the recombinant DNA technology pioneered by Boyer, Paul Berg , and Stanley N. Cohen. Early companies such as Genentech, Amgen, Biogen, Cetus, and Genex began by manufacturing genetically engineered substances primarily for medical and environmental uses.

For more than a decade, the biotechnology industry was dominated by recombinant DNA technology , or genetic engineering . This technique consists of splicing the gene for a useful protein (often a human protein) into production cells—such as yeast, bacteria , or mammalian cells in culture—which then begin to produce the protein in volume. In the process of splicing a gene into a production cell , a new organism is created. At first, biotechnology investors and researchers were uncertain about whether the courts would permit them to acquire patents on organisms; after all, patents were not allowed on new organisms that happened to be discovered and identified in nature. But, in 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court , in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty , resolved the matter by ruling that “a live human-made microorganism is patentable subject matter.” This decision spawned a wave of new biotechnology firms and the infant industry’s first investment boom. In 1982 recombinant insulin became the first product made through genetic engineering to secure approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Since then, dozens of genetically engineered protein medications have been commercialized around the world, including recombinant versions of growth hormone , clotting factors, proteins for stimulating the production of red and white blood cells, interferon s, and clot-dissolving agents.

In the early years, the main achievement of biotechnology was the ability to produce naturally occurring therapeutic molecules in larger quantities than could be derived from conventional sources such as plasma , animal organs, and human cadavers. Recombinant proteins are also less likely to be contaminated with pathogens or to provoke allergic reactions. Today, biotechnology researchers seek to discover the root molecular causes of disease and to intervene precisely at that level. Sometimes this means producing therapeutic proteins that augment the body’s own supplies or that make up for genetic deficiencies, as in the first generation of biotech medications. (Gene therapy—insertion of genes encoding a needed protein into a patient’s body or cells—is a related approach.)

The biotechnology industry has also expanded its research into the development of traditional pharmaceuticals and monoclonal antibodies that stop the progress of a disease. Successful production of monoclonal antibodies was one of the most important techniques of biotechnology to emerge during the last quarter of the 20th century. The specificity of monoclonal antibodies and their availability in quantity have made it possible to devise sensitive assays for an enormous range of biologically important substances and to distinguish cells from one another by identifying previously unknown marker molecules on their surfaces. Such advances were made possible through the study of genes ( genomics ), the proteins that they encode (proteomics), and the larger biological pathways in which they act.

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Essay on Biotechnology: Definition, Advancement and Application

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Read this essay to learn about Biotechnology. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Definition of Biotechnology 2. Traditional and Modern Biotechnology 3. Advancement of Biotechnology 4. Applications 5. Scope 6. Biotechnology in India 7. Gene Therapy 8. Genetic Counseling 9. Bio Fertilizers and 10. Gene Bank.

Essay on Biotechnology Contents:

• Essay on  the Gene Bank

Essay # 1. Definition of Biotechnology:

Biotechnology is a term which is a combination of two individual terms: Biology and Technology. As the name suggests “It is the assembly of technology in science of biology”.

Most simply it may be defined as:

“The regulated and controlled use of the biological agents for the manufacture of useful products or for generating beneficial services”.

These biological agents may be microorganisms, animals or plants or their cellular components. However, it is not easy to define biotechnology in a single sentence because of its wide and multidisciplinary applications. Various definitions have been given by different scientific organisations. One of such standard definition as given by the ‘European Federation of Biotechnology’ is as follows:

Biotechnology is the integrated use of biochemistry, microbiology and engineering sciences in order to achieve technological applications of the capabilities of microorganisms, cultured cells/tissues and parts thereof.

U.S. National Science Federation says that “Biotechnology is the controlled use of biological agents such as microorganisms or cellular components for beneficial use.”

According to IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), biotechnology means “the application of biochemistry, biology, microbiology and chemical engineering to industrial processes and products and on environment.”

Essay # 2. Traditional and Modern Biotechnology :

The art of biotechnology is very old. It is as old as human civilization. It actually began when man started the domestication of useful plants and animals and started utilizing microbes for making various beverages (like wine, beer), curd, vinegar, etc.

Alcohol was probably the first product of ancient biotechnology. Such practices which have been in vogue since long by our ancestors and are being used even today are included in the traditional biotechnology. Such practices are very common in day-to-day life and are also used in normal kitchen technology, i.e., while preparing idli, dhokla, cheese, curd, etc.

With the advancement of science and technology, advent of new analytical instruments and recent progress in the field of microbiology, molecular biology, etc. it has become possible for us to discover or improve better strains of microbes for commercial production. This all comprises the modern biotechnology. In simple words we may also differentiate between traditional (old) and modern (new) biotechnology.

It is as follows:

Old Biotechnology is the one which involves the exploitation and utilization of natural capabilities of microbes or cellular components for manufacture of useful products or for services.

New Biotechnology involves the use of recombinant DNA technology, enzyme engineering, genetic engineering practices, etc., for developing newer or improved capabilities of biological agents for production of beneficial services or products.

Essay # 3. Advancement of Biotechnology :

This branch of biology is in use by mankind since very long. Numerous important achievements and advancements have been made by many eminent workers for this discipline.

A few of such important contributions by various workers in the field of biotechnology are enlisted below:

Biotechnology as a Multidisciplinary Activity:

Biotechnology is truly multidisciplinary (or interdisciplinary) in nature and it encompasses several disciplines of basic sciences and engineering. The science disciplines from which biotechnology draws heavily are Microbiology, Chemistry, Biochemistry, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Immunology, Tissue Culture and Physiology.

Recent advancements have led to a multidisciplinary’ applicability of biotechnology. Various areas in which this discipline is very frequently used on large scale are: agriculture, food and beverage industry, environment, medicines, energy and fuels, enzyme technology, waste utilization, biodiversity conservation, etc. (Fig. 1).

Biotechnology has great impact in areas like Environment, Bioinformatics, Genomics Proteomics and Human Genome Project (HGP).

Essay # 4. Applications of Biotechnology :

Biotechnology is such a branch of science which has advanced rapidly and has emerged as a potential science for providing benefits in all the fields of human welfare. It has a great impact in almost all the domains of human life, may it be health, environment, foods or agriculture. Recent advancements have led to a multidisciplinary applicability of biotechnology.

Various areas in which this discipline is very frequently used on a large scale are as follows:

1. Agriculture

2. Food and Beverage Industry

3. Environment

4. Health care and Medicines

5. Energy and Fuels.

6. Enzymes and Biochemical.

7. Other Industrial applications.

8. Forensic cases

9. Conservation of Nature

1. Biotechnology in Agriculture:

Agricultural biotechnology is supposed to be the answer to a hungry world’s food supply. The applications of biotechnology in agriculture rank second (first being in medicines). Biotechnological approaches are used valuably in the fields of horticulture and floriculture also.

Major applicability’s of biotechnology in the field of agriculture and horticulture are: Manufacture of Bio fertilizers which prove to be more beneficial than other synthetic and chemical fertilizers. Bio fertilizers are cost effective, harmless for plants and they also increase soil fertility.

The Nitrogen-fixation and assimilation efficiency of the crops are also being increased by the practices like cloning of nif (nitrogen fixing) genes or by transferring such genes Production of Transgenic plants or Genetically Modified plants (GMP) – The plants whose genome has been modified by introduction of foreign gene(s) of an unrelated organism, are called transgenic plants or GMPs e.g. Br cotton, Flavr Savr Tomato, golden Rice, etc.

The transgenic plants may provide one or more characteristics of the following:

(a) Resistance to insects, fungi, bacteria and virus

(b) Highly resistant to herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals.

(c) Drought, resistance, flood resistance, Salinity resistance, etc.

(d) High productivity.

(e) Crop plants with improved quality.

Plant Tissue Culture:

It aims at the in-vitro culture of plants. It is very beneficial for agriculture.

This is evident by the following points:

(a) Clonal propagation helps in rapid production of commercially important plants and trees like timber trees, ornamental plants, orchids, fruits, rubber plants, etc.

(b) Production of somatic hybrids by hybridization of protoplasts compatible plant species. Such somatic hybrids have characters of both umelated species.

(c) Production of artificial seeds, etc.

2. Biotechnology in Food and Beverage Industry:

A number of microorganisms are Used beneficially in the production of certain foods and beverages like cheese, wine curd beer, vinegar, etc. The underlying process behind such productions is fermentation Natural fermentation has played a vital role in human development and it is the oldest form of production of wine.

Fermentation may be defined as the process which involves the biochemical activity of microorganisms to produce an economically important product like food, beverages or pharmaceuticals. In other words, it is the use of microorganisms for production of commercial products. Natural fermentation is the part of traditional biotechnology.

Several modifications are also done in the genome of microbes by gene transfer methods to achieve better results and this is involved in modern biotechnology. The fermentation may be performed by yeasts, bacteria, molds or by combination of these organisms.

Yeasts are of primary importance in manufacture of bread, beer, wine and distilled liquors. Molds are important in the preparation of some cheeses and oriental foods A few fermented products are listed below along with the substrate name and the name of microorganism involved:

Distilled liquors:

Liquors or spirits of interest produced by distillation of an alcohohcally fermented product.

(a) Rum-Distillate from alcoholically fermented sugarcane juice or molasses

(b) Whiskey—Distillate from fermented grain mashes

(c) Brandy—Distillate from wine

(d) Gin—Distillate from fermented rye malt.

Single Cell Proteins (SCP):

It is the term which designates the high protein food from microorganisms like algae, filamentous fungi, bacteria and yeast. Genetic engineering is used to select and produce the high protein content or desirable composition of food by improving the microbial strains. SCP is, actually, the total microbial biomass which is free from any type of toxins and contaminants.

It is high in protein content so it can be used to replace the conventional vegetable and animal protein sources. Bio technological approaches have been in use for the mass-cultivation of SCP by improving the source microorganisms.

Some such microbial sources are:

Chlorella, Spirulina, Scenedesmus

Agaricus campestris; Morchella crassipes

Candida utilis, Saccharomyces fragilis, Rhodotorula

Pseudomonas, Cellumonas.

3. Biotechnology and Environment:

A clean environment is as important for us as better health and nutritious food. Environmental biotechnology promises to solve many problems related with pollution, waste disposal, etc.

i. Methods using organisms to breakdown the pollutants for e.g. the traditional septic tanks where domestic sewage is decomposed by bacteria.

ii. Genetically engineered microbes (GEM) are used for efficient treatment of industrial waste water.

iii. A greatly enhanced oil-eating bacterial strain i.e., Pseudomonas helps in the removal of oil-spills.

iv. Bioremediation of pollutants is an effective, simple and more practical method of removal of earth’s pollution. Bioremediation means the utilization of biological organisms for reducing pollution or for the removal of environmental pollutants. The bioremediation of organic toxic pollutants is mainly based on the microorganisms and thus it is called as ‘microbial bioremediation. On the other hand, the bioremediation of inorganic contaminants is carried by certain plant species and therefore it is termed as ‘phytoremediation’ (i.e., bioremediation by use of plants).

v. Growing plants with high metal absorbing ability can be a cheap and effective method to remove toxic chemicals from a particular land area.

vi. Most importantly, the production of biofuels is also a gift of environmental biotechnology for us.

4. Biotechnology in Medicines and Health Care:

In medical field, the contribution of biotechnology is most frequent. It not only helps in the cure of diseases but also aids in detection and prevention of disease. It also helps in curing genetic disorders by means of gene therapy.

i. DNA probes and Monoclonal antibodies are used as tools for diagnosis of diseases.

ii. Many valuable drugs and antibiotics are also produced on large scale by using biotechnological processes.

iii. Human Insulin was the first therapeutic product to be made commercially by genetically engineered bacterium.

iv. Cloning of human leukocyte interferon gene, HepatitisB Virus gene, Human Growth Hormone (HGH) genes, etc. have also helped in the production of vaccines.

v. Gene therapy is the method of curing genetic diseases (or acquired diseases) by the replacement of an abnormal gene by a therapeutic gene. Diseases like Tay-sachs disease, Cystic fibrosis, etc. can be cured by gene therapy. Currently biotechnologists are also making trials for using gene therapy to cure tumours, cancers, etc.

The type of gene therapy which is done at the level of germ cells like sperms, or eggs is called as germ line gene therapy. In this type of gene therapy, the functional genes are introduced into the genome of germ cells.

The changes so occurred are passed on to the forthcoming generations also, i.e., the changes are heritable in case of germ line gene therapy. Other type of gene therapy is the somatic cell gene therapy. It involves the correction of genetic defects by introduction of therapeutic gene into the somatic cells of body. The changes so occurred are not heritable.

vi. Genetic engineering aids in the high speed and high quantity production of antibiotics by certain microorganisms.

A few important antibiotics and their sources are given below:

(a) Penicillin – Penicillium notatum, P. chrysogenum

(b) Streptomycin – Streptomyces griseus

(c) Aureomycin – S. aureofaciens

(d) Chloromycetin – S. venezuelae, S. lavendulae.

(e) Erythromycin – S. erytheraeus

(f) Griseofulvin – P. griseofulvum

(g) Oxytetracyclin – S. rimosus

5. Biotechnology in Energy and Fuels:

Today oil is the major fuelling material but it is bound to run out in forthcoming years. Also, it causes a great amount of pollution. A substitute of it is being found in biofuels which are produced from the sources that are relatively clean and renewable.

i. Potential fuel crops can be genetically engineered so that they can grow at a faster rate and that also with a higher ratio of easily fermentable tissues.

ii. The microbes involved in fermentation can also be engineered for more efficient conversion of substrate into biofuel.

Biotechnology is contributing a lot to increase the acceptability of biomass, biogas. etc. as the commercially stable energy options for forthcoming time. The biomass of other biological wastes can be utilized for the generation of different forms of energy.

Biotechnology provides a number of advanced techniques for this purpose. For instance, the techniques of gene manipulations, improved varieties of plants for high yield, modified microbes, etc. makes it possible to explore renewable sources of energy.

There are certain plants which produce hydrocarbons and are called as petro-plants. e.g. Hevea rubber plant, Calotropis procera, Euphorbia lathyris, etc. Certain algae are also of immense use in production of biofuels. Biological agents like plants and microbes are modified biotechnologically and are then used to generate efficient fuels like biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel, bio hydrogen, etc.

6. Biotechnology in Production of Enzymes and Biochemical:

Many commercially important enzymes and other biochemical compounds can be obtained on large scale by modifying the source microbial strains using gene transfer methods.

Such modified microbes are termed as GEMs (Genetically Engineered Microbes). Similarly, many other compounds like vitamins, steroids, secondary metabolites, organic acids, etc. may be extracted and derived from the activity of other GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms).

i. Bio fertilizers, Bio herbicides, Bio-insecticides etc. are certain biologically produced chemical compounds which involve the utilization of microbial activities.

ii. Some Examples of enzymes with their source microorganisms are:

Pectinase – Aspergillus niger, Bacillus subtilis

Glucanase – A. niger, B. subtilis

Lipase – A. niger, Mucor spp.

Cellulase – A. niger, Rhizopus, Trichoderma

α- amylase – B. licheniformis, B. amyloliquefaciens

Invertase – Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. fragilis

Rennet – Mucor spp.

Urate oxidase – Aspergillus flavus

Protease – Bacillus licheniformis

Glucose oxidase – Penicillium notatum

7. Other Industrial Applications:

Microorganisms are of great importance for production of various substances having great scope in different industries. Microbial strains can be improved biotechnologically to get the desired product in sufficient quantity. For this purpose, the microbes can be improved using genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology).

Different products of interest which are frequently produced in this manner are vitamins, enzymes, organic acids, amino acids, etc. Using genetic engineering techniques, it has become possible to obtain the mutants of microorganisms which can produce a much higher amount of product of interest than the natural ones.

Genetic engineering not only results into enhanced metabolite production but may also help in product modification, or producing a completely new product of interest.

Different uses of genetically engineered microbes (GEM) in various industries can be enlisted as follows:

(a) Vitamins like Vit. A, B, C, etc.

(b) Alcohols like Ethanol, Butanol, Amyl Alcohol.

(c) Amino Acids e.g. L-Glutamate, Glycine, L-Lysine, L-Valine, eta

(d) Antibiotics e.g. Penicillin, Tetracyclic Streptomycin, etc.

(e) Enzymes from fungi, bacteria, etc. e.g. L-amylase, lipase, penicillinase, protease, invertase etc.

(f) Bio fertilizers, Bio insecticides and Bio herbicides from biotechnologically improved bacterial, fungal, protozoan strains. These are of great benefit in agriculture.

(g) Extraction of minerals like copper, uranium from ores through leaching by using improved bacterial strains.

8. Biotechnology in forensic cases:

The applications of biotechnology in forensic science involve mainly the DNA fingerprinting technique. It helps in the identification of the rapists, murderers, or any other criminals on the basis of the study of DNA isolated from blood stains, hair roots, semen, sweat, saliva or urine. This technique also helps in solving the parentage disputes i.e., to find out the biological father of a child.

9. Biotechnology for Conservat ion of Nature:

For ex-situ conservation of plant species, the biotechnological approaches are used. The germplasm banks, seed banks, gene banks, etc. utilize the cryopreservation technique. Various tissue culture techniques are also employed for conservation of threatened species. Micro propagation helps in the rapid multiplication of endangered plant species.

Essay # 5. Scope of Biotechnology :

Biotechnological approaches are applied to accomplish goals for the benefit of mankind. Scientists have achieved many such goals and a few fields are also there in which they are trying for success.

Following are a few programmes being undertaken by the biotechnologists:

(a) Development of effective antiviral vaccines.

(b) Bio-control of plant diseases

(c) Genetically improving the pharmaceutical microorganisms.

(d) Large scale production of bio pesticides and bio fertilizers.

(e) Production of Human Interferon’s.

(f) Upgrading the photosynthetic efficiency of plants.

(g) Production of secondary metabolites from plants on large scale.

(h) Improved production of vitamins.

(i) Developing efficient biofuels.

(j) Developing methods for curing cancer.

(k) Better gene therapy practices for human.

(l) Production of transgenic animals and plants with better qualities.

(m) Protection of threatened species.

Biotechnology has become a very happening branch of science today. Developed countries and even some developing countries also, are pushing the researches in this field biotechnology has a great commercial potential It has revolutionized the industries specially the pharmaceuticals. This revolution is clearly reflected by the emergence of a number of biotechnological companies all over the world.

To name a few of these biotech companies are Monsanto Co. (U.S.A.), Genentech Inc. (U.S.A.), Eli lilly Smithkline, Hybritech U.S.A., etc. In India also, there are a number of companies which have been successfully producing the modern biotechnological products specially the drugs Some such Indian companies are Pennetia Biotech Ltd., Wipro, Reliance, etc..

Essay # 6. Biotechnology in India:

Like other developing countries, biotechnology has become a major thrust in India also for promotion and planning of various biotechnological programmes in India, there is present a separate department called Department of Biotechnology (DBT).

DBT was set up in 1986 under the Ministry of Science & Technology.

DBT funds some important centres for exploiting biotechnological approaches and also for promotion of post­graduate education and research in the field of biotechnology. Apart from DBT there are some other agencies also which work under the Indian Government for promotion of biotechnological approaches in various fields like industry agriculture and environment.

A few important of them are:

i. DST—Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi

ii. CSIR—Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi

iii. ICMR—Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi

iv. IARI—Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

There are many other centres in India which function, in one way or the other for promoting biotechnology in India. Some of these centres are: NDRI—National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana

i. CDRI—Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, U.P.

ii. IVRI—Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar. U.P. CFTRI—Central Food and Technological Research Institute, Mysore

iii. CIMAP Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, U.P.

iv. IITs of Kanpur, Madras, Bombay, New Delhi.

v. NBPGR—National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi

In addition to all the above mentioned centres, there are also a number of companies in private sector of India which have been showing keen interest in the production of modern biotechnological products.

Essay # 7. Gene Therapy :

Gene therapy in most simple words is the use of a gene to cure a disease. There are a number of genetic diseases or acquired disorders that may have occurred due to specific mutations in genes. Such disorders may be corrected by replacing the defective gene by a normal healthy gene.

This strategy of correcting the diseases is termed as gene therapy. So, the gene therapy may be defined as the introduction of normal functional gene in the defective cells of a patient to correct a genetic or acquired disorder. The process of introduction of gene into the appropriate cell of patient is called as the gene delivery.

During 1940s it was discovered that a gene from one bacterial strain could be transferred into another strain and also that gene could be expressed in another strain successfully. This discovery made the researchers to think about the possibility that human genetic disorder can be corrected in an analogous manner.

Introduction of a normal (therapeutic) gene into a cell having defective gene, results into the correction of disorder because the transferred gene provides the normal required gene product and this whole strategy is termed as the gene therapy.

A number of human diseases have been targeted for gene therapy. Some of these are:

A. Genetic diseases like Cystic Fibrosis, Haemophilia-A, B, Phenylketonuria, Severe combined Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID), etc.

B. Acquired diseases like Rheumatoid arthritis, AIDS, Cancer, etc.

While performing gene therapy, one of the two strategies can be followed for gene delivery.

These two strategies are given below:

(i) I n-vivo:

In this strategy, the normal therapeutic gene is introduced directly into the target cell of patient.

(ii) E x-vivo:

In this type of approach, the cells are isolated, cultured in-vitro and then the normal gene is introduced into these cells. Such transformed cells are then transplanted into the patient. Gene therapy can be done at two levels for disease-correction, either at the embryo level called as embryo therapy in which inheritance is also altered, or it can be done at the patient level which is called as the patient therapy.

Types of Gene Therapy :

There are mainly two types of gene therapies; these are somatic gene therapy and germ line gene therapy.

(a) Somatic Gene Therapy:

In this type, the therapeutic gene is introduced in the somatic cells of the patient. The effect so produced is not heritable. This approach is being used for trials made to treat cancer and blood disorders mainly.

(b) Germ line Gene Therapy:

In this type of gene therapy, the functional normal genes are introduced into the germ cells like sperm and eggs to correct the disorder. The changes produced by such approach are heritable and thus are passed to the next generations.

Gene therapy is beneficial not only to treat genetic disorders but also for treatment of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. To ensure a successful gene therapy, it is essential to decide an appropriate gene delivery system corresponding to the type of the target tissues.

Essay # 8. Genetic Counseling:

It is another application of biotechnology for human welfare. This technique is a boon to those couples who have some kind of doubt regarding the health of their future progeny. Genetic counselling is actually for those couples who have a threat in their minds that there may be a risk of producing a child with any genetic disease.

In developed countries, it has become a very popular and routine part of the medical practices. However now-a-days, it has also been suggested even in developing countries to go for genetic counselling, if there is any kind of doubt.

The person who serves the genetic counselling to the couples is called as a genetic counsellor. A genetic counsellor has a role for identification of genetic disease on the basis of description provided by the couple. After studying the family history thoroughly, a genetic counsellor suggests the couple for the probability of giving birth to a normal or a diseased child.

On the basis of his studies and observations, a genetic counsellor tells the possibilities of giving birth to the child or aborting the child. The technique of genetic counselling is based on the antenatal diagnosis. In this method of diagnosis, a small quantity of amniotic fluid is taken from the foetus of a pregnant woman.

This amniotic fluid contains foetal cells which are cultured on medium and then are tested to check for the presence of any genetic disorder. If on genetic counselling, the possibility of disease is detected to be higher, then, the abortion can be recommended.

Usually those couples seek genetic counselling who have a family history of diseases or those who already have any diseased child and wish to know the chances of having a normal child in next pregnancy. Genetic counselling is recommended mostly for the cases of diseases like cystic fibrosis, thalassaemia, etc. A genetic counsellor may also prescribe gene therapy to the patients if he finds any scope for it after diagnosis.

Essay # 9. Bio Fertilizers :

Bio fertilizers are described as the microorganisms which are utilized as fertilizers for plants as they enhance the availability of nutrients like Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) to the plants. Another term used for bio fertilizers is Microbial Inoculants. A number of biological agents are being employed at large scale for the commercial preparation of bio fertilizers which include algae, bacteria and fungi.

So, we may define bio fertilizers as the microbial inoculants of bacteria, algae and fungi which increase the availability of nutrients like N, P to the plants and thus result into benefit of plants. The importance of bio fertilizers has been realized now and therefore a lot of efforts are being made by the government as well as private sector to encourage the use of bio fertilizers.

The microbial inoculants/bio fertilizers serve following advantageous aspects:

(i) These are economical.

(ii) Unlike chemical fertilizers, they are environment friendly.

(iii) Bio fertilizers do not damage the soil texture.

(iv) They not only provide nutrition to the plants but also help in enhancing the plant growth and yield.

On the basis of the type of nutrient provided by the bio fertilizers, they can be categorized as follows:

(a) Nitrogen Bio fertilizers:

These are the microbial inoculants which enhance the availability of nitrogen by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Examples of this category include Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Cyanobacterium, etc.

(b) Phosphatic Biofertilizers:

These are the bio fertilizers which are responsible to increase the availability of nutrient phosphorus to the plant by solubilizing the soil phosphorus. Bacteria like Thiobacillus, Bacillus, etc. are important examples of such category.

Some important microorganisms which are used commercially as bio-fertilizers are enlisted below:

For large scale production of bio-fertilizers, it is choose the efficient strains for N 2- fixation and/or P-solubilization. To ensure the longevity of bio-fertilizers, their storage and distribution systems must be proper. In India, there is a continuous progress of bio-fertilizers exploitation.

A number of private industries are also involved in manufacturing of bio fertilizers. Government has also prepared a range of standards regarding the maintenance and quality of bio-fertilizers. A National Bio-fertilizer Development Centre is located at Ghaziabad in U.P. which functions for the quality check and development of bio-fertilizers in India.

Essay # 10. Gene Bank:

A gene bank is a facility where the genetic material is stored in the form of seeds or plant parts at low temperatures. It serves as an efficient method to store the germplasm of wild as well as cultivated plants and therefore it helps in conserving the vanishing genetic-diversity.

A gene bank is actually like a compartmentalized cold storage where the genetic material is stored under controlled conditions of the temperature and humidity for their germplasm conservation. Conventionally ‘seeds’ are preferred as the material for germplasm conservation.

The principle of a gene bank is that the dehydrated seeds can retain their viability for a longer period of time if stored in cold conditions.

For a long-term storage usually a temperature ranging between 0-18°C is applied. However, cryopreservation has made it more easy to store seeds in viable condition for even longer durations of time. In cryopreservation, the genetic material is stored in liquid nitrogen having a very low temperature of -196 C.

Along with conserving the original genetic diversity, gene banks also make the genetic material available as raw material to the breeders and biotechnologists.

A few of the important gene banks are located at Vavilov Institute (Russia), National seed storage laboratory (Fort Collins, USA), International Rice Research Institute (Philippines), National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (New Delhi) and Royal Botanic Garden (Kew).

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An Introduction to Biotechnology

Varsha gupta.

5 Institute of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, UP India

Manjistha Sengupta

6 George Washington University, Washington DC, USA

Jaya Prakash

7 Orthopaedics Unit, Community Health Centre, Kanpur, UP India

Baishnab Charan Tripathy

8 School of Life sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Biotechnology is multidisciplinary field which has major impact on our lives. The technology is known since years which involves working with cells or cell-derived molecules for various applications. It has wide range of uses and is termed “technology of hope” which impact human health, well being of other life forms and our environment. It has revolutionized diagnostics and therapeutics; however, the major challenges to the human beings have been threats posed by deadly virus infections as avian flu, Chikungunya, Ebola, Influenza A, SARS, West Nile, and the latest Zika virus. Personalized medicine is increasingly recognized in healthcare system. In this chapter, the readers would understand the applications of biotechnology in human health care system. It has also impacted the environment which is loaded by toxic compounds due to human industrialization and urbanization. Bioremediation process utilizes use of natural or recombinant organisms for the cleanup of environmental toxic pollutants. The development of insect and pest resistant crops and herbicide tolerant crops has greatly reduced the environmental load of toxic insecticides and pesticides. The increase in crop productivity for solving world food and feed problem is addressed in agricultural biotechnology. The technological advancements have focused on development of alternate, renewable, and sustainable energy sources for production of biofuels. Marine biotechnology explores the products which can be obtained from aquatic organisms. As with every research area, the field of biotechnology is associated with many ethical issues and unseen fears. These are important in defining laws governing the feasibility and approval for the conduct of particular research.

Introduction

The term “ biotechnology” was coined by a Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky, in 1919, to refer to the science and methods that permit products to be produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. Biotechnology is a diverse field which involves either working with living cells or using molecules derived from them for applications oriented toward human welfare using varied types of tools and technologies. It is an amalgamation of biological science with engineering whereby living organisms or cells or parts are used for production of products and services. The main subfields of biotechnology are medical (red) biotechnology, agricultural (green) biotechnology, industrial (white) biotechnology, marine (blue) biotechnology, food biotechnology, and environmental biotechnology (Fig. 1.1 .). In this chapter the readers will understand the potential applications of biotechnology in several fields like production of medicines; diagnostics; therapeutics like monoclonal antibodies, stem cells, and gene therapy; agricultural biotechnology; pollution control ( bioremediation); industrial and marine biotechnology; and biomaterials, as well as the ethical and safety issues associated with some of the products.

Major applications of biotechnology in different areas and some of their important products

The biotechnology came into being centuries ago when plants and animals began to be selectively bred and microorganisms were used to make beer, wine, cheese, and bread. However, the field gradually evolved, and presently it is the use or manipulation of living organisms to produce beneficiary substances which may have medical, agricultural, and/or industrial utilization. Conventional biotechnology is referred to as the technique that makes use of living organism for specific purposes as bread/cheese making, whereas modern biotechnology deals with the technique that makes use of cellular molecules like DNA, monoclonal antibodies, biologics, etc. Before we go into technical advances of DNA and thus recombinant DNA technology, let us have the basic understanding about DNA and its function.

The foundation of biotechnology was laid down after the discovery of structure of DNA in the early 1950s. The hereditary material is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which contains all the information that dictates each and every step of an individual’s life. The DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine). The base and sugar collectively form nucleoside, while base, sugar, and phosphate form nucleotide (Fig. 1.2 ). These are arranged in particular orientation on DNA called order or sequence and contain information to express them in the form of protein. DNA has double helical structure, with two strands being complimentary and antiparallel to each other, in which A on one strand base pairs with T and G base pairs with C with two and three bonds, respectively. DNA is the long but compact molecule which is nicely packaged in our nucleus. The DNA is capable of making more copies like itself with the information present in it, as order or sequence of bases. This is called DNA replication. When the cell divides into two, the DNA also replicates and divides equally into two. The process of DNA replication is shown in Fig. 1.3 , highlighting important steps.

The double helical structure of DNA where both strands are running in opposite direction. Elongation of the chain occurs due to formation of phosphodiester bond between phosphate at 5′ and hydroxyl group of sugar at 3′ of the adjacent sugar of the nucleotide in 5–3′ direction. The sugar is attached to the base. Bases are of four kinds: adenine ( A ), guanine ( G ) (purines), thymine ( T ), and cytosine ( C ) (pyrimidines). Adenine base pairs with two hydrogen bonds with thymine on the opposite antiparallel strand and guanine base pairs with three hydrogen bonds with cytosine present on the opposite antiparallel strand

The process of DNA replication. The DNA is densely packed and packaged in the chromosomes. The process requires the action of several factors and enzymes. DNA helicase unwinds the double helix. Topoisomerase relaxes DNA from its super coiled nature. Single-strand binding proteins bind to single-stranded open DNA and prevent its reannealing and maintains strand separation. DNA polymerase is an enzyme which builds a new complimentary DNA strand and has proofreading activity. DNA clamp is a protein which prevents dissociation of DNA polymerase. Primase provides a short RNA sequence for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis. DNA ligase reanneals and joins the Okazaki fragments of the lagging strand. DNA duplication follows semiconservative replication, where each strand serves as template which leads to the production of two complimentary strands. In the newly formed DNA, one strand is old and the other one is new (semiconservative replication). DNA polymerase can extend existing short DNA or RNA strand which is paired to template strand and is called primer. Primer is required as DNA polymerase cannot start the synthesis directly. DNA polymerase is capable of proofreading, that is, correction of wrongly incorporated nucleotide. One strand is replicated continuously with single primer, and it is called as leading strand. Other strand is discontinuous and requires the addition of several primers. The extension is done in the form of short fragments called as Okazaki fragments. The gaps are sealed by DNA ligase. Replication always occurs in 5′–3′ direction

DNA contains whole information for the working of the cell. The part of the DNA which has information to dictate the biosynthesis of a polypeptide is called a “gene.” The arrangement or order of nucleotides determines the kind of proteins which we produce. Each gene is responsible for coding a functional polypeptide. The genes have the information to make a complimentary copy of mRNA. The information of DNA which makes RNA in turn helps cells to incorporate amino acids according to arrangement of letters for making many kinds of proteins. These letters are transcribed into mRNA in the form of triplet codon, where each codon specifies one particular amino acid. The polypeptide is thus made by adding respective amino acids according to the instructions present on RNA. Therefore, the arrangement of four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine) dictates the information to add any of the 20 amino acids to make all the proteins in all the living organisms. Few genes need to be expressed continuously, as their products are required by the cell, and these are known as “constitutive genes.” They are responsible for basic housekeeping functions of the cells. However, depending upon the physiological demand and cell’s requirement at a particular time, some genes are active and some are inactive, that is, they do not code for any protein. The information contained in the DNA is used to make mRNA in the process of “ transcription” (factors shown in Table 1.1 ). The information of mRNA is used in the process of “ translation” for production of protein. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation in the cytoplasm of the cell. In translation several initiation factors help in the assembly of mRNA with 40S ribosome and prevent binding of both ribosomal subunits; they also associate with cap and poly(A) tail. Several elongation factors play an important role in chain elongation. Though each cell of the body has the same genetic makeup, but each is specialized to perform unique functions, the activation and expression of genes is different in each cell. Thus, one type of cells can express some of its genes at one time and may not express the same genes some other time. This is called “temporal regulation” of the gene. In the body different cells express different genes and thus different proteins. For example, liver cell and lymphocyte, would express different genes. This is known as spatial regulation of the gene. Therefore, in the cells of the body, the activation of genes is under spatial regulation (cells present at different locations and different organs produce different proteins) and temporal regulation (same cells produce different proteins at different times). The proteins are formed by the information contained in the DNA and perform a variety of cellular functions. The proteins may be structural (responsible for cell shape and size), or they may be functional like enzymes, signaling intermediates, regulatory proteins, and defense system proteins. However, any kind of genetic defect results in defective protein or alters protein folding which can compromise the functioning of the body and is responsible for the diseases. Figure 1.4 shows the outline of the process of transcription and translation with important steps.

Factors involved in transcription process

It shows the process of transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and requires the usage of three polymerase enzymes. RNApol I for rRNA, pol II for mRNA, and pol III for both rRNA and tRNA. RNApol II initiates the process by associating itself with seven transcription factors, TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIH, and TFIIJ. After the synthesis, preRNA transcript undergoes processing to form mRNA by removal of introns by splicing and polyadenylation and capping. Protein synthesis is initiated by formation of ribosome and initiator tRNA complex to initiation codon (AUG) of mRNA and involves 11 factors. Chain elongation occurs after sequential addition of amino acids by formation of peptide bonds. Then polypeptide can fold or conjugate itself to other biomolecules and may undergo posttranslational modifications as glycosylation or phosphorylation to perform its biological functions

The biotechnological tools are employed toward modification of the gene for gain of function or loss of function of the protein. The technique of removing, adding, or modifying genes in the genome or chromosomes of an organism to bring about the changes in the protein information is called genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology (Fig. 1.5 ). DNA recombination made possible the sequencing of the human genome and laid the foundation for the nascent fields of bioinformatics, nanomedicine, and individualized therapy. Multicellular organisms like cows, goats, sheep, rats, corn, potato, and tobacco plants have been genetically engineered to produce substances medically useful to humans. Genetic engineering has revolutionized medicine, enabling mass production of safe, pure, more effective versions of biochemicals that the human body produces naturally [ 20 – 22 ].

The process of recombinant DNA technology. The gene of interest from human nucleus is isolated and cloned in a plasmid vector. The gene is ligated with the help of DNA ligase. The vector is transformed into a bacterial host. After appropriate selections, the gene is amplified when bacteria multiply or the gene can be sequenced or the gene can be expressed to produce protein

The technological advancements have resulted in (1) many biopharmaceuticals and vaccines, (2) new and specific ways to diagnose, (3) increasing the productivity and introduction of quality traits in agricultural crops, (4) the ways to tackle the pollutants efficiently for sustainable environmental practices, (5) helped the forensic experts by DNA fingerprinting and profiling, (6) fermentation technology for production of industrially important products. The list is very long with tremendous advancements and products which have boosted the economy of biotechnology sector worldwide [ 16 ]. The biotechnology industry and the products are regulated by various government organizations such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Medical Biotechnology

This fieldof biotechnology has many applications and is involved in production of recombinant pharmaceuticals, tissue engineering products, regenerative medicines such as stem cell and gene therapy, and many more biotechnology products for better human life (Fig. 1.6 ). Biotechnological tools produce purified bio-therapeutic agents on industrial scales. These include both novel agents and agents formerly available only in small quantities. Crude vaccines were used in antiquity in China, India, and Persia. For example, vaccination with scabs that contained the smallpox virus was a practice in the East for centuries. In 1798 English country doctor Edward Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with pus from sores due to infection by a related cowpox virus could prevent smallpox far less dangerously. It marked the beginning of vaccination. Humans have been benefited incalculably from the implementation of vaccination programs.

Various applications of medical biotechnology

Tremendous progress has been made since the early recombinant DNA technology (RDT) experiments from which the lively—and highly profitable—biotechnology industry emerged. RDT has fomented multiple revolutions in medicine. Safe and improved drugs, accelerated drug discovery, better diagnostic and quick methods for detecting an infection either active or latent, development of new and safe vaccines, and completely novel classes of therapeutics and other medical applications are added feathers in its cap. The technology has revolutionized understanding of diseases as diverse as cystic fibrosis and cancer. Pharmaceutical biotechnology being one of the important sectors involves using animals or hybrids of tumor cells or leukocytes or cells ( prokaryotic, mammalian) to produce safer, more efficacious, and cost-effective versions of conventionally produced biopharmaceuticals. The launch of the new biopharmaceutical or drug requires screening and development. Mice were widely used as research animals for screening. However, in the wake of animal protection, animal cell culture offers accurate and inexpensive source of cells for drug screening and efficacy testing. Pharmaceutical biotechnology’s greatest potential lies in gene therapy and stem cell-based therapy. The underlying cause of defect of many inherited diseases is now located and characterized. Gene therapy is the insertion of the functional gene in place of defective gene into cells to prevent, control, or cure disease. It also involves addition of genes for pro-drug or cytokines to eliminate or suppress the growth of the tumors in cancer treatment.

But the progress so far is viewed by many scientists as only a beginning. They believe that, in the not-so-distant future, the refinement of “targeted therapies” should dramatically improve drug safety and efficacy. The development of predictive technologies may lead to a new era in disease prevention, particularly in some of the world’s rapidly developing economies. Yet the risks cannot be ignored as new developments and discoveries pose new questions, particularly in areas as gene therapy, the ethics of stem cell research, and the misuse of genomic information.

Many bio-therapeutic agents in clinical use are biotech pharmaceuticals. Insulin was among the earliest recombinant drugs. Canadian physiologists Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered and isolated insulin in 1921. In that time many patients diagnosed with diabetes died within a few years. In the mid-1960s, several groups reported synthesizing the hormone.

The first “bioengineered” drug, a recombinant form of human insulin, was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982. Until then, insulin was obtained from a limited supply of beef or pork pancreas tissue. By inserting the human gene for insulininto bacteria, scientists were able to achieve lifesaving insulinproduction in large quantities. In the near future, patients with diabetes may be able to inhale insulin, eliminating the need for injections. Inhaled insulinproducts like Exubera® were approved by the USFDA; however, it was pulled out and other products like Technosphere® insulin (Afrezza®) are under investigation. They may provide relief from prandial insulin. Afrezza consists of a pre-meal insulinpowder loaded into a cartridge for oral inhalation.

Technosphere technology: The technology allows administration of therapeutics through pulmonary route which otherwise were required to be given as injections. These formulations have broad spectrum of physicochemical characteristics and are prepared with a diverse assortment of drugs with protein or small molecule which may be hydrobhobic or hydrophilic or anionic or cationic in nature. The technology can have its applicability not only through pulmonary route but also for other routes of administration including local lung delivery.

The first recombinant vaccine, approved in 1986, was produced by cloning a gene fragment from the hepatitis B virus into yeast (Merck’s Recombivax HB). The fragment was translated by the yeast’s genetic machinery into an antigenic protein. This was present on the surface of the virus that stimulates the immune response. This avoided the need to extract the antigen from the serum of people infected with hepatitis B.

The Food and Drug administration (FDA) approved more biotech drugs in 1997 than in the previous several years combined. The FDA has approved many recombinant drugs for human health conditions. These include AIDS, anemia, cancers (Kaposi’s sarcoma, leukemia, and colorectal, kidney, and ovarian cancers), certain circulatory problems, certain hereditary disorders (cystic fibrosis, familial hypercholesterolemia, Gaucher’s disease, hemophilia A, severe combined immunodeficiency disease, and Turner’s syndrome), diabetic foot ulcers, diphtheria, genital warts, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human growth hormone deficiency, and multiple sclerosis. Today there are more than 100 recombinant drugs and vaccines. Because of their efficiency, safety, and relatively low cost, molecular diagnostic tests and recombinant vaccines may have particular relevance for combating long-standing diseases of developing countries, including leishmaniasis (a tropical infection causing fever and lesions) and malaria.

Stem cell research is very promising and holds tremendous potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders, spinal cord injuries, and other conditions related to organ or tissue loss.

DNA analysis is another powerful technique which compares DNA pattern [ 14 ] after performing RFLP and probing it by minisatellite repeat sequence between two or more individuals. Its modification, DNA profiling (process of matching the DNA profiles for STS markers in two or more individuals; see chapter 18), which utilizes multilocus PCR analysis of DNA of suspect and victims, is very powerful and is useful in criminal investigation, paternity disputes, and so many other legal issues. The analysis is very useful in criminal investigations and involves evaluation of DNA from samples of the hair, body fluids, or skin at a crime scene and comparison of these with those obtained from the suspects.

Improved Diagnostic and Therapeutic Capabilities

The sequencing of the human genome in 2003, has given scientists an incredibly rich “parts list” with which to better understand why and how disease happens. It has given added power to gene expression profiling, a method of monitoring expression of thousands of genes simultaneously on a glass slide called a microarray. This technique can predict the aggressiveness of cancer.

The development of monoclonal antibodies in 1975 led to a medical revolution. The body normally produces a wide range of antibodies—the immune system proteins—that defend our body and eliminate microorganisms and other foreign invaders. By fusing antibody-producing cells with myeloma cells, scientists were able to generate antibodies that would, like “magic bullets,” bind with specific targets including unique markers, called antigenic determinants ( epitopes), on the surfaces of inflammatory cells. When tagged with radioisotopes or other contrast agents, monoclonal antibodies can help in detecting the location of cancer cells, thereby improving the precision of surgery and radiation therapy and showing—within 48 h—whether a tumor is responding to chemotherapy.

The polymerase chain reaction, a method for amplifying tiny bits of DNA first described in the mid-1980s, has been crucial to the development of blood tests that can quickly determine exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Genetic testing currently is available for many rare monogenic disorders, such as hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, etc.

Another rapidly developing field is proteomics, which deals with analysis and identification of proteins. The analysis is done by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of the sample and then performing mass spectrometric analysis for each individual protein. The technique may be helpful in detecting the disease-associated protein in the biological sample. They may indicate early signs of disease, even before symptoms appear. One such marker is C-reactive protein, an indicator of inflammatory changes in blood vessel walls that presage atherosclerosis.

Nanomedicine is a rapidly moving field. Scientists are developing a wide variety of nanoparticles and nanodevices, scarcely a millionth of an inch in diameter, to improve detection of cancer, boost immune responses, repair damaged tissue, and thwart atherosclerosis. The FDA has approved a paclitaxel albumin-stabilized nanoparticle formulation (Abraxane® for injectable suspension, made by Abraxis BioScience) for the treatment of metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Nanoparticles are being explored in heart patients in the USA as a way to keep their heart arteries open following angioplasty.

Therapeutic proteins are those, which can replace the patients naturally occurring proteins, when levels of the natural proteins are low or absent due to the disease. High-throughput screening, conducted with sophisticated robotic and computer technologies, enables scientists to test tens of thousands of small molecules in a single day for their ability to bind to or modulate the activity of a “target,” such as a receptor for a neurotransmitter in the brain. The goal is to improve the speed and accuracy of therapeutic protein or potential drug discovery while lowering the cost and improving the safety of pharmaceuticals that make it to market.

Many of the molecules utilized for detection also have therapeutic potential too, for example, monoclonal antibodies. The monoclonal antibodies are approved for the treatment of many diseases as cancer, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. They are currently being tested in patients as potential treatments for asthma, Crohn’s disease, and muscular dystrophy. As the antibodies may be efficiently targeted against a particular cell surface marker, thus they are used to deliver a lethal dose of toxic drug to cancer cells, avoiding collateral damage to nearby normal tissues.

Agricultural Biotechnology

The manhas made tremendous progress in crop improvement in terms of yield; still the ultimate production of crop is less than their full genetic potential. There are many reasons like environmental stresses (weather condition as rain, cold, frost), diseases, pests, and many other factors which reduce the ultimate desired yield affecting crop productivity. The efforts are going on to design crops which may be grown irrespective of their season or can be grown in frost or drought conditions for maximum utilization of land, which would ultimately affect crop productivity [ 24 ]. Agricultural biotechnology aims to introduce sustainable agriculturalpractices with best yield potential and minimal adverse effects on environment (Fig. 1.7 ). For example, combating pests was a major challenge. Thus, the gene from bacterium , the Bt gene, that functions as insect-resistant gene when inserted into crop plants like cotton, corn, and soybean helps prevent the invasion of pathogen, and the tool is called . This management is helpful in reducing usage of potentially dangerous pesticides on the crop. Not only the minimal or low usage of pesticides is beneficial for the crop but also the load of the polluting pesticides on environment is greatly reduced [ 24 ].

Various applications of agricultural biotechnology

Resistance to Infectious Agents Through Genetic Engineering

• The gene comes from the soil bacterium .
• The gene produces crystal proteins called Cry proteins. More than 100 different variants of the Bt toxins have been identified which have different specificity to target insect lepidoptera. For eg., CryIa for butterflies and CRYIII for beetles.
• These Cry proteins are toxic to larvae of insects like tobacco budworm, armyworm, and beetles.
• The Cry proteins exist as an inactive protoxins.
• These are converted into active toxin in alkaline pH of the gut upon solubilization when ingested by the insect.
• After the toxin is activated, it binds to the surface of epithelial cells of midgut and creates pores causing swelling and lysis of cells leading to the death of the insect (larva).
• The genes (cry genes) encoding this protein are isolated from the bacterium and incorporated into several crop plants like cotton, tomato, corn, rice, and soybean.

The proteins encoded by the following cry genes control the pest given against them:

• Cry I Ac and cry II Ab control cotton bollworms.
• Cry I Ab controls corn borer.
• Cry III Ab controls Colorado potato beetle.
• Cry III Bb controls corn rootworm.
• A nematode infects tobacco plants and reduces their yield.
• The specific genes (in the form of cDNA) from the parasite are introduced into the plant using -mediated transformation.
• The genes are introduced in such a way that both sense/coding RNA and antisense RNA (complimentary to the sense/coding RNA) are produced.
• Since these two RNAs are complementary, they form a double-stranded RNA (ds RNA).
• This neutralizes the specific RNA of the nematode, by a process called RNA – interference.
• As a result, the parasite cannot multiply in the transgenic host, and the transgenic plantis protected from the pest.

These resistant crops result in reduced application of pesticides. The yield is high without the pathogen infestations and insecticides. This also helps to reduce load of these toxic chemicals in the environment.

The transformation techniques and their applications are being utilized to develop rice, cassava, and tomato, free of viral diseases by “International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural Biotechnology” (ILTAB). ILTAB in 1995 reported the first transfer of a resistance gene from a wild-type species of rice to a susceptible cultivated rice variety. The transferred gene expressed and imparted resistance to crop-destroying bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae . The resistant gene was transferred into susceptible rice varieties that are cultivated on more than 24 million hectares around the world [ 6 ].

The recombinant DNA technology reduces the time between the identification of a particular gene to its application for betterment of crops by skipping the labor-intensive and time-consuming conventional breeding [ 3 ]. For example, the alteration of known gene in plant for the improvement of yield or tolerance to adverse environmental conditions or resistance to insect in one generation and its inheritance to further generations. Plant cell and tissue culture techniques are one of the applications where virus-free plants can be grown and multiplied irrespective of their season on large scale (micropropogation), raising haploids, or embryo rescue. It also opens an opportunity to cross two manipulated varieties or two incompatible varieties (protoplast culture) for obtaining best variety for cultivation.

With the help of technology, new, improved, and safe agricultural products may emerge which would be helpful for maintaining contamination-free environment. Biotechnology has the potential to produce:

• High crop yields [ 4 ]
• Crops are engineered to have desirable nutrients and better taste (e.g., tomatoes and other edible crops with increased levels of vitamin C, vitamin E, and/or beta-carotene protect against the risk of some prevalent chronic diseases and rice with increased iron levels protects against anemia)
• Insect- and disease-resistant plants
• Genetic modification avoids nonselective changes
• Longer shelf life of fruits and vegetables

The potential of biotechnology may contribute to increasing agricultural, food, and feed production, protecting the environment, mitigating pollution, sustaining agricultural practices, and improving human and animal health. Some agricultural crops as corn and marine organisms can be potential alternative for biofuel production. The by-products of the process may be processed to produce other chemical feedstocks for various products. It is estimated that the world’s chemical and fuel demand could be supplied by such renewable resources in the first half of the next century [ 5 ].

Food Biotechnology

Food biotechnology is an emerging field, which can increase the production of food, improving its nutritional content and improving the taste of the food. The food is safe and beneficial as it needs fewer pesticides and insecticides. The technology aims to produce foods which have more flavors, contain more vitamins and minerals, and absorb less fat when cooked. Food biotechnology may remove allergens and toxic components from foods, for their better utility [ 6 , 7 ].

Environmental Biotechnology

Environmental biotechnology grossly deals with maintenanceof environment, which is pollution-free, the water is contamination-free, and the atmosphere is free of toxic gases. Thus, it deals with waste treatment, monitoring of environmental changes, and pollution prevention. Bioremediation in which utilization of higher living organisms (plants: phytoremediation) or certain microbial species for decontamination or conversion of harmful products is done is the main application of environmental biotechnology. The enzyme bioreactors are also being developed which would pretreat some industrial and food waste components and allow their removal through the sewage system rather than through solid waste disposal mechanisms. The production of biofuel from waste can solve the fuel crisis (biogas). Microbes may be engineered to produce enzymes required for conversion of plant and vegetable materials into building blocks for biodegradable plastics. In some cases, the by-products of the pollution-fighting microorganisms are themselves useful. For example, methane can be derived from a form of bacteria that degrades sulfur liquor, a waste product of paper manufacturing. This methane thus obtained is used as a fuel or in other industrial processes. Insect- and pest-resistant crops have reduced the use and environmental load of insecticides and pesticides. Insect-protected crops allow for less potential exposure of farmers and groundwater to chemical residues while providing farmers with season-long control.

Industrial Biotechnology

The utilizationof biotechnological tools (bioprocessing) for the manufacturing of biotechnology-derived products (fuels, plastics, enzymes, chemicals, and many more compounds) on industrial scale is industrial biotechnology. The aim is to develop newer industrial manufacturing processes and products, which are economical and better than preexisting ones with minimal environmental impact. In industrial biotechnology, (1) microorganisms are being explored for producing material goods like fermentation products as cheese; (2) biorefineries where oils, sugars, and biomass may be converted into biofuels, bioplastics, and biopolymers; (3) and value-added chemicals from biomass. The utilization of modern techniques can improve the efficiency and reduces the environmental impacts of industrial processes like textile, paper, pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example, development and usage of biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to synthesize chemicals and development of antibiotics and better tasting liquors and their usage in food industry have provided safe and effective processing for sustainable productions. Biotechnological tools in the textile industry are utilized for the finishing of fabrics and garments. Biotechnology also produces spider silk and biotech-derived cotton that is warmer and stronger and has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency, and wrinkle and shrink resistance.

Biofuels may be derived from photosynthetic organisms, which capture solar energy, transform it in other products like carbohydrates and oils, and store them. Different plants can be used for fuel production:

• Bioethanol can be obtained from sugar (as sugarcane or sugar beet) or starch (like corn or maize). These are fermented to produce ethanol, a liquid fuel commonly used for transportation.
• Biodiesel can be obtained from natural oils from plants like oil palm, soybean, or algae. They can be burned directly in a diesel engine or a furnace, or blended with petroleum, to produce fuels such as biodiesel.
• Wood and its by-products can be converted into liquid biofuels, such as methanol or ethanol, or into wood gas. Wood can also be burned as solid fuel, like the irewood.

In these kinds of biological reaction, there are many renewable chemicals of economic importance coproduced as side streams of bioenergy and biofuels as levulinic acid, itaconic acid, and sorbitol. These have tremendous economic potential and their fruitful usage would depend upon the collaboration for research and development between the government and the private sector.

Enzyme Production

The enzymeshave big commercial and industrial significance. They have wide applications in food industry, leather industry, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, detergents, and research. In detergents the alkaline protease, subtilisin (from Bacillus subtilis ), was used by Novo Industries, Denmark. The production of enzymes is an important industrial application with world market of approximately 5 billion dollars. The enzymes can be obtained from animals, plants, or microorganisms. The production from microorganisms is preferred as they are easy to maintain in culture with simple media requirements and easy scale-up. The important enzymes for the industrial applications are in food industry, human application, and research. A few animal enzymes are also important as a group of proteolytic enzymes, for example, plasminogen activators, which act on inactive plasminogen and activate it to plasmin, which destroys fibrin network of blood clot. Some of the plasminogen activators are urokinase and tissue plasminogen activators (t-PA). Urokinase (from urine) is difficult to obtain in ample quantity; thus, t-PA is obtained from cells grown in culture medium. Streptokinase (bacterial enzyme) is also a plasminogen activator but is nonspecific and immunogenic.

Enzyme engineering is also being tried where modifications of specific amino acid residue are done for improving the enzyme properties. One of the enzymes chymosin (rennin) coagulates milk for cheese manufacturing.

The enzymes can be produced by culturing cells, growing them with appropriate substrates in culture conditions. After optimum time the enzymes may be obtained by cell disruption (enzymatic/freeze–thaw/osmotic shock) followed by preparative steps (centrifugation, filtration), purification, and analysis. The product is then packaged and ultimately launched in the market.

After their production, they can be immobilized on large range of materials (agar, cellulose, porous glass, or porous alumina) for subsequent reuse. Some of the important industrial enzymes are α-amylase (used for starch hydrolysis), amyloglucosidase (dextrin hydrolysis), β-galactosidase (lactose hydrolysis), aminoacylase (hydrolysis of acylated L-amino acids), glucose oxidase (oxidation of glucose), and luciferase (bioluminescence). Some of the medically important enzymes are urokinase and t-PA for blood clot removal and L-asparaginase for removal of L-asparagine essential for tumor growth and thus used for cancer chemotherapy in leukemia.

Exploring Algae for Production of Biofuels

The energyrequirement of present population is increasing and gradually fossil fuels are rapidly depleting. Thus, renewable energy sources like solar energy and wind-, hydro-, and biomass-based energy are being explored worldwide. One of the feedstocks may be microalgae, which are fast-growing, photosynthetic organisms requiring carbon dioxide, some nutrients, and water for its growth. They produce large amount of lipids and carbohydrates, which can be processed into different biofuels and commercially important coproducts. The production of biofuels using algal biomass is advantageous as they (1) can grow throughout the year and thus their productivity is higher than other oil seed crops, (2) have high tolerance to high carbon dioxide content, (3) utilize less water, (4) do not require herbicides or pesticides with high growth potential (waste water can be utilized for algal cultivation), (5) can sustain harsh atmospheric conditions, and (6) do not interfere with productivity of conventional crops as they do not require agricultural land. The production of various biofuels from algae is schematically represented in Fig. 1.8 .

Different biofuel productions by using microalgae. The algae use sunlight, CO2, water, and some nutrients

Algae can serve as potential source for biofuel production; however, biomass production is low. The production has certain limitations, as cultivation cost is high with requirement of high energy [ 1 ].

Marine or Aquatic Biotechnology

Marine or aquatic biotechnology also referred to as “blue biotechnology” deals with exploring and utilizing the marine resources of the world. Aquatic or marine life has been intriguing and a source of livelihood for many since years. As major part of earth is acquired by water, thus nearly 75–80 % types of life forms exist in oceans and aquatic systems. It studies the wide diversity found in the structure and physiology of marine organisms. They are unique in their own ways and lack their equivalent on land. These organisms have been explored and utilized for numerous applications as searching new treatment for cancer or exploring other marine resources, because of which the field is gradually gaining momentum and economic opportunities [ 19 ]. The global economic benefits are estimated to be very high. The field aims to:

• Fulfill the increasing food supply needs
• Identify and isolate important compounds which may benefit health of humans
• Manipulate the existing traits in sea animals for their improvement
• Protect marine ecosystem and gain knowledge about the geochemical processes occurring in oceans

Some of the major applications are discussed:

• Aquaculture: Aquaculture refers to the growth of aquatic organisms in culture condition for commercial purposes. These animals may be shellfish, finfish, and many others. Mariculture refers to the cultivation of marine animals. Their main applications are in food, food ingredients, pharmaceuticals, and fuels, the products are in high demand, and various industries are in aquaculture business, for example, crawfish farming (Louisiana), catfish industry (Alabama and Mississippi Delta), and trout farming (Idaho and West Virginia).
• Transgenic species of salmon with growth hormone gene has accelerated growth of salmons.
• Molt-inhibiting (MIH) from blue crabs leads to soft-shelled crab.
• : Anovel protein antifreeze protein (AFP) was identified. AFPs were isolated from Northern cod (bottom-dwelling fish) living at the Eastern Canada coast and teleosts living in extremely cold weather of Antarctica. AFPs have been isolated from Osmerus mordax (smelt), Clupea harengus (herring), Pleuronectes americanus (winter flounder), and many others. Due to antifreeze properties (lowering the minimal freezing temperature by 2–3 °C), the gene has potential for raising plants which are cold tolerant (e.g., tomatoes).
• Medicinal applications : For osteoporosis, salmon calcitonin (calcitonin is thyroid hormone promoting calcium uptake and bone calcification) with 20 times higher bioactivity is available as injection and nasal spray.
• Hydroxyapatite ( HA ): Obtained from coral reefs and is an important component of bone and cartilage matrix. Its implants are prepared by Interpore Internationals which may be used for filling gaps in fractured bones.

Many anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancerous compounds have been identified from sea organisms which can have tremendous potential for human health.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is the most toxic poison (10,000 times more lethal than cyanide) produced by Japanese pufferfish or blowfish ( Fugu rubripes ). TTX is being used to study and understand its effect on sodium channels which can help guide the development of drugs with anesthetic and analgesic properties.

Other Products

• Taq polymerase from Thermus aquaticus which is used in PCR reactions and obtained from hot spring Archaea.
• Collagenase (protease) obtained from Vibrio is used in tissue engineering and culturing.

Transgenic Animals and Plants

In the early1980s, inserting DNA from humans into mice and other animals became possible. The animals and plants which have foreign gene in each of their cells are referred to as transgenic organisms and the inserted gene as transgene. Expression of human genes in these transgenic animals can be useful in studies, as models for the development of diabetes, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease. They also can generate large quantities of potentially therapeutic human proteins. Transgenic plants also offer many economic, safe, and practical solutions for production of variety of biopharmaceuticals. The plants have been engineered to produce many blood products (human serum albumin, cytokines), human growth hormone, recombinant antibodies, and subunitvaccines.

The usage of transgenic plants for the production of recombinant pharmaceuticals might open new avenues in biotechnology. As plants can be grown inexpensively with minimal complicated requirements, thus they may have tremendous therapeutic potential. The plants have been engineered to produce more nutrients or better shelf life. The transgenic plants have been created which have genes for insect resistance (Bt cotton, soybean, corn). Now billion acres of land is used for cultivation of genetically engineered crops of cotton, corn, and soybean as they have higher yield and are pest resistant. However, due to social, ethical, and biosafety issues, they have received acceptance as well as rejections at many places and health and environment-related concerns in many parts of the world [ 8 ].

Response to Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotics areone of the broadly used therapeutic molecules produced by certain classes of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) which can be used in diverse clinical situations to eliminate bacteria, improve symptoms, and prevent number of infections. Antibiotics have various other applications apart from clinical aspects. They can be used for the treatment of tumors and treatment of meat, in cattles and livestocks, in basic biotechnological work. However, their effectiveness is a matter of concern as bacteria which are continuously exposed to certain antibiotics might become resistant to it due to accumulation of mutations. These days antibiotic-resistant bacteria have increased and some of them have developed multiple drug resistance. Thus, it has become very difficult to initiate therapy in diseases like tuberculosis and leprosy. Biotechnology is solving the urgent and growing problem of antibiotic resistance. With the help of bioinformatics—powerful computer programs capable of analyzing billions of bits of genomicsequence data—scientists are cracking the genetic codes of bacteria and discovering “weak spots” vulnerable to attack by compounds identified via high-throughput screening. This kind of work led in 2000 to the approval of Zyvox (linezolid), an antibiotic to reach the market in 35 years.

Lytic bacteriophage viruses that infect and kill bacteria may be another way to counter resistance. First used to treat infection in the 1920s, “phage therapy” was largely eclipsed by the development of antibiotics. However, researchers in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia reported that a biodegradable polymer impregnated with bacteriophages and the antibiotic Cipro successfully healed wounds infected with a drug-resistant bacterium.

After exposure of strontium-90, three Georgian lumberjacks from village Lia had systemic effects, and two of them developed severe local radiation injuries which subsequently became infected with Staphylococcus aureus . Upon hospitalization, the patients were treated with various medications, including antibiotics and topical ointments; however, wound healing was only moderately successful, and their S. aureus infection could not be eliminated. Approximately 1 month after hospitalization, treatment with PhagoBioDerm (a wound-healing preparation consisting of a biodegradable polymer impregnated with ciprofloxacin and bacteriophages) was initiated. Purulent drainage stopped within 2–7 days. Clinical improvement was associated with rapid (7 days) elimination of the etiologic agent, and a strain of S. aureus responsible for infection was resistant to many antibiotics (including ciprofloxacin) but was susceptible to the bacteriophages contained in the PhagoBioDerm preparation [ 11 ].

The Challenges for the Technology

Gene therapy.

Some biotechapproaches to better health have proven to be more challenging than others. An example is gene transfer, where the defective gene is replaced with a normally functioning one. The normal gene is delivered to target tissues in most cases by virus that is genetically altered to render it harmless. The first ex vivo gene transfer experiment, conducted in 1990 at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), on Ashanti DeSilva who was suffering from severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) helped boost her immune response and successfully corrected an enzyme deficiency. However, treatment was required every few months. However, 9 years later, a major setback occurred in gene therapy trial after the death of 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger suffering from ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency due to intense inflammatory responses followed by gene therapy treatment. There were some positive experiences and some setbacks from gene therapy trials leading to stricter safety requirements in clinical trials.

Designer Babies

The fancyterm designer baby was invented by media. Many people in society prefer embryos with better traits, intellect, and intelligence. They want to select embryo post germline engineering. This technique is still in infancy but is capable of creating lot of differences in the society thus requires appropriate guidelines.

Genetically Modified Food

Genetically modifiedcrops harboring genes for insect resistance were grown on billion of acres of land. These crops became very popular due to high yield and pest resistance. However, some of the pests gradually developed resistance for a few of these transgenic crops posing resistant pest threat. The other technologies as “traitor” and “terminator” technologies pose serious risk on crop biodiversity and would impart negative characters in the crop (they were not released due to public outcry).

Pharmacogenomics

Scientists do not believe they will find a single gene for every disease. As a result, they are studyingrelationships between genes and probing populations for variations in the genetic code, called single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, that may increase one’s risk for a particular disease or determine one’s response to a given medication. This powerful ability to assign risk and response to genetic variations is fueling the movement toward “individualized medicine.” The goal is prevention, earlier diagnosis, and more effective therapy by prescribing interventions that match patients’ particular genetic characteristics.

Tissue Engineering

Tissue engineering is one of the emerging fields with tremendous potential to supply replacement tissue and organ option for many diseases. Lot is achieved, lot more need to be achieved.

Ethical Issues

The pursuit of cutting-edge research “brings us closer to our ultimate goal of eliminating disability and disease through the best care which modern medicine can provide.” Understanding of the genetics of heart disease and cancer will aid the development of screening tools and interventions that can help prevent the spread of these devastating disorders into the world’s most rapidly developing economies.

Biotechnology is a neutral tool; nevertheless, its capabilities raise troubling ethical questions. Should prospective parents be allowed to “engineer” the physical characteristics of their embryos? Should science tinker with the human germ line, or would that alter in profound and irrevocable ways what it means to be human?

More immediately, shouldn’t researchers apply biotechnology—if they can—to eliminate health disparities among racial and ethnic groups? While genetic variation is one of many factors contributing to differences in health outcome (others include environment, socioeconomic status, health-care access, stress, and behavior), the growing ability to mine DNA databases from diverse populations should enable scientists to parse the roles these and other factors play.

Biotechnology along with supportive health-care infrastructure can solve complicated health problems. Accessibility to the new screening tests, vaccines, and medications and cultural, economic, and political barriers to change must be overcome. Research must include more people from disadvantaged groups, which will require overcoming long-held concerns, some of them have had about medical science.

Biotechnology has been a significant force which has improved the quality of lives and has incalculably benefitted human beings. However, technology does have prospects of doing harm also due to unanticipated consequences. Each technology is subjected to ethical assessment and requires a different ethical approach. Obviously the changes are necessary as technology can have major impact on the world; thus, a righteous approach should be followed. There is uncertainty in predicting consequences, as this powerful technology has potential to manipulate humans themselves. Ethical concerns are even more important as the future of humanity can change which require careful attention and consideration. Therefore, wisdom is required to articulate our responsibilities toward environment, animals, nature, and ourselves for the coming future generations. We need to differentiate what is important technologically rather that what technology can do. For an imperative question, that is, whether this can be achieved, the research must answer “Why should it be achieved”? Who would it benefit?

Issues Related to Safety

• As the new GM crops are entering the market, the issue regarding their consumption, whether they are safe, without any risk, is one of the important concerns [ 2 ]. Though the results related to safety and usage are well reported (as compared to conventional crops), unknown fear from these products makes them non acceptable at many places [ 20 ].
• As insect- and pest-resistant varieties are being prepared and used as Bt genes in corn and cotton crops, there exists a risk of development of resistance insect population. Another important factor is that these resistant crops may harm other species like birds and butterfly.
• The development of more weeds may occur as cross-pollination might result in production of weeds with herbicide resistance which would be difficult to control.
• The gene transfers might cross the natural species boundary and affect biological diversity.
• The judgment of their usage would depend upon the clear understanding of risks associated with safety of these products in determining the impact of these on environment, other crops, and other animal species.

Future of the Technology

With the understanding of science, we should understand that genetic transfers have been occurring in animals and plant systems; thus, the risk of the biotechnology-derived products is similar as conventional crops [ 12 ].

The biotechnology products would be acceptable to many if they are beneficial and safe. People are willing to buy crops free of pesticides and insecticides. Nowadays people are also accepting crops grown without the usage of chemical fertilizers or pesticides, which are high in nutritive values.

The labeling of the product is also an ethical issue as some believe that labeling any product as biotechnology product might be taken by consumer as warning signs; however, others believe that labeling should be done as consumer has every right to know what he is consuming [ 9 ]. The products may be acceptable if consumers can accept the food derived from biotechnology weighing all pros and cons and, if the price is right, has more nutritive values, is good in taste, and is safe to consume [ 10 ].

Biotechnology is at the crossroads in terms of fears and thus public acceptance [ 15 ]. Surprisingly the therapeutic products are all accepted and find major place in biopharmaceutical industry, but food crops are still facing problems in worldwide acceptance. The future of the world food supply depends upon how well scientists, government, and the food industry are able to communicate with consumers about the benefits and safety of the technology [ 13 , 16 ]. Several major initiatives are under way to strengthen the regulatory process and to communicate more effectively with consumers by conducting educational programs [ 18 , 23 ].

Chapter End Summary

• The advantages of biotechnology are so broad that it is finding its place in virtually every industry. It has applications in areas as diverse as pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, textiles, aquaculture, forestry, chemicals, household products, environmental cleanup, food processing, and forensics to name a few.
• Biotechnology is enabling these industries to make new or better products, often with greater speed, efficiency, and flexibility.
• With the applications of recombinant DNA technology, more safer and therapeutic drugs are produced. These recombinant products do not elicit unwanted immunological response which is observed when the product is obtained from other live or dead sources. Many of these therapeutics are approved for human usage, and many of them are in the phase of development.
• Immunological and DNA-based techniques like PCR (polymerase chain reaction) are used for early diagnosis of disorders. PCR and NAAT with microarray can be utilized for the diagnosis of many diseases, and it can detect mutations in gene.
• The technology holds promise through stem cell research and gene therapy and holds applications in forensic medicine.
• The technique may be helpful in developing useful and beneficial plants. It overcomes the limitations of traditional plant breeding. The techniques of plant tissue culture, transgenics, and marker-assisted selections are largely used for selecting better yielding varieties and imparting quality traits in plants.
• Food industries. Production of single-cell protein, spirulina, enzymes, and solid-state fermentations
• Increase and improvement of agricultural production
• Production of therapeutic pharmaceuticals
• Production of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies
• Cultivation of virus for vaccine production

Multiple Choice Questions

• All of the above
• Vitamin D and calcium
• Growth hormone
• Tissue plasminogen activator
• Factor VIII
• Genetically modifying organism
• Production of therapeutics
• Production of better diagnosis
• Increase in yield of crops
• Improved crop varieties
• Lesser fertilizers and agrochemicals
• All of these
• It is resistant to it.
• The toxin is enclosed in vesicle.
• The toxin is present in inactive form.
• None of these.
• Gene therapy
• Replacement protein therapy
• Stem cell therapy
• The productivity would improve.
• The usage of chemical agent would be reduced.
• The environment and crop would be insecticide free.
• All of the above.
• Detoxifying waste material
• Burying waste material
• Burning waste material
• None of these

(1) In all the cells of our body, all the genes are active.

(2) In different cells of our body, different genes are active.

(3) Gene expression is spatially and temporally regulated.

• All 1, 2, and 3 are correct.
• 1 and 2 are correct.
• 1 and 3 are correct.
• 2 and 3 are correct.
• Inoculation with monoclonal antibody was able to prevent small pox.
• Inoculation with pus from sores due to cowpox could prevent small pox.
• Attenuated vaccine was able to prevent small pox.
• None of the above.
• 1. (c); 2. (a); 3. (c); 4. (d); 5. (d); 6. (d); 7. (c); 8. (a); 9. (d); 10. (a); 11. (d); 12. (b)

Review Questions

• Q1. What are cry proteins? What is their importance?
• Q2. Give some applications of biotechnology in agriculture.
• Q3. What is your opinion about labeling of biotechnology-based food product as rDNA technology derived product?
• Q4. What are applications of biotechnology in maintaining environment?
• Q5. What is medical biotechnology?
• Q6. What are the challenges faced by biotechnology industry?
• Q7. What do you think about GM crops?

Some Related Resources

• http://ificinfo.health.org/backgrnd/BKGR14.htm
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide1.html
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide2000/guide00_toc.html
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide3.html
• http://www.bio.org/aboutbio/guide4.html
• http://www.dec.ny.gov/energy/44157.html
• http://www.ers.usda.gov/whatsnew/issues/biotech/define.htm
• http://www.nal.usda.gov/bic/bio21
• http://www.nature.com/nbt/press_release/nbt1199.html
• www.angelfire.com/scary/intern/links.html
• www.bio-link.org/library.htm
• www.biospace.com
• www.dnai.org
• www.fiercebiotech.com
• www.iastate.edu
• www.icgeb.trieste.it
• www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

• Computer science

biotechnology (biotech)

• Nick Barney, Technology Writer
• Sarah Lewis

What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology is the use of biology to develop new products, methods and organisms intended to improve human health and society. Biotechnology, often referred to as biotech, has existed since the beginning of civilization with the domestication of plants, animals and the discovery of fermentation.

Early applications of biotech led to the development of products such as bread and vaccines. However, the discipline has evolved significantly over the last century in ways that manipulate the genetic structures and biomolecular processes of living organisms. The modern practice of biotechnology draws from various disciplines of science and technology, including the following:

• molecular biology
• genetic engineering
• nanotechnology
• informatics

This approach has resulted in innovations and breakthroughs in the following areas:

• medicines and therapeutics that prevent and treat disease;
• medical diagnostics such as pregnancy tests;
• biofuels that are sustainable , reducing waste and pollution; and
• genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that lead to more efficient and cost-effective agriculture.

Modern applications of biotechnology work most often through genetic engineering, which is also known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering works by modifying or interacting with the genetic cell structures. Every cell in an animal or plant contains genes that produce proteins. It's those proteins that determine the characteristics of the organism.

By modifying or interacting with genes, scientists can strengthen the characteristics of an organism or create an entirely new organism. These modified and new organisms may be beneficial to humans, such as crops with higher yields or increased resistance to drought. Genetic engineering also enables the genetic modification and cloning of animals, two controversial developments.

History of biotechnology

Biotechnology began at least 6,000 years ago with the agricultural revolution . This early era was characterized by exploiting living organisms in their natural forms or modifying their genetic makeup through selective breeding.

Around the same time, humans learned to harness the biological process of fermentation to produce bread, alcohol and cheese. People also began changing the genetic makeup of domesticated plants and animals through selective breeding.

Selective breeding works by breeding parents with desirable characteristics to express or eliminate certain genetic characteristics in their offspring. Over time, species that are selectively bred evolve to be different from their wild ancestors. For instance, during the agricultural revolution, wheat was selectively bred to stay on its stem when harvested instead of falling to the ground like wild wheat. Dogs were selectively bred to be more docile than their wolf ancestors.

However, biotech methods such as selective breeding can take a long time to show changes in species. Biotechnology remained limited to these slow, agricultural methods until the 19th century when biologist Gregor Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity and genetics.

Also, during that era, scientists Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister discovered the microbial processes of fermentation. This laid the foundation for biotechnology industries where scientists interact more directly with the molecular and genetic processes of organisms.

Based on the work of these scientists, genetic engineering was developed in 1973 . This method is the foundation of modern biotechnology practices and recent advances. It enabled the first direct manipulation of plant and animal genomes, which is the complete set of genes present in a cell.

Over the last 100 hundred years or so, biotechnology emerged with the following discoveries and advancements:

1919. Hungarian scientist Karl Ereky coins the term biotechnology .

1928. Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin, the first true antibiotic.

1943. Oswald Avery proves DNA carries genetic information.

1953. James Watson and Francis Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA.

1960s. Insulin is synthesized to fight diabetes, and vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella are developed.

1969. The first synthesis of an enzyme in vitro, or outside the body, is conducted.

1973. Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen develop genetic engineering with the first insertion of DNA from one bacteria into another.

1980s. The first biotech drugs to treat cancer are developed.

1890. The United States Supreme Court rules that a "live human-made microorganism is patentable subject matter," meaning GMOs can be intellectual property .

1982. A biotech-developed form of insulin becomes the first genetically engineered product approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ).

1983. The first genetically modified plant is introduced.

1993. GMOs are introduced into agriculture with the FDA approval of growth hormones that produce more milk in cows.

1997. The first mammal is cloned.

1998. The first draft of the Human Genome Project is created, giving scientists access to over 30,000 human genes and facilitating research on treatment of diseases such as cancer and Alzheimer's.

2010. The first synthetic cell is created.

2013. The first bionic eye is created.

2020. MRNA vaccine and monoclonal antibody technology is used to treat the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Types of biotechnology

The science of biotechnology is broken down into subdisciplines that are color-coded based on common uses and applications.

• Red biotechnology involves medical processes, such as using organisms to produce new drugs and stem cells to regenerate damaged human tissues and grow and regrow entire organs.
• White or gray refers to industrial processes, such as the development of new chemicals or new biofuels for vehicles.
• Green covers agricultural processes, such as producing pest-resistant crops, disease-resistant animals and environmentally friendly agricultural practices.
• Gold , also known as bioinformatics, is a cross between biological processes and informatics. It refers to the methods healthcare workers use to gather, store and analyze biological data to treat patients.
• Blue encompasses processes in marine and aquatic environments, such as converting aquatic biomass into fuels and pharmaceuticals .
• Yellow refers to processes that aid food production, the most popular application being the fermentation of alcohol and cheese.
• Violet ensures the practice of biotechnology is in compliance with laws and ethical standards governing each field.
• Dark is the use of biotechnology for weapons or warfare.

Uses and applications of biotechnology

The use and commercialization of modern biotechnology often fall into four main fields: environment, medicine, industry and agriculture.

Environment

The aim of environmental biotechnology is to develop sustainable environmental practices that reduce pollution and waste. The following are examples of environmental biotech:

• Phytoremediation uses genetically engineered microorganisms to purify soils of heavy metals and other pollutants.
• Bioremediation introduces microorganisms into waste sites in order to organically break down nonrecyclable waste.
• Plastic-eating bacteria breaks down waste such as plastic in soils and water.
• GMO foods stay fresher longer and reduce food waste.
• Genetic restoration attempts to restore endangered species such as the American chestnut tree.
• Cover-crops such as corn are used as biofuels, replacing traditional fuel sources that produce greenhouse gas emissions when extracted and used.

Medical biotechnology, also known as biopharma, aims to fight and prevent disease and improve healthcare. Biotechnology and biomedical research are the basis of the modern pharmaceutical industry. Uses include the following:

• stem cell research that helps replace or repair dead or defective cells;
• antibiotics development;
• gene therapies for diseases such as leukemia;
• research into dangerous pathogens and the antibodies that fight them;
• 3D printing or growing of organs and bones in labs; and
• mRNA vaccines, monoclonal antibody treatments and research for COVID-19 .

Industrial biotechnology involves using microorganisms to produce industrial goods. Examples include the following:

• fermentation and the use of enzymes and microbes to streamline chemical manufacturing and reduce operational costs and chemical emissions;
• biofuels that use renewable crops such as corn to produce combustible fuel instead of natural, nonrenewable fossil fuel resources, such as petroleum and oil; and
• biodegradable garments and textiles made from the proteins of living organisms, such as the silk proteins of spiders.

Agriculture

Agricultural biotechnology genetically engineers plants and animals to produce more efficient agriculture, increase nutritional value and reduce food insecurity. Some examples of agricultural biotechnology are the following:

• biologically produced pesticides and herbicides that are less harmful to humans than chemical ones;
• drought-resistant crops;
• minimal space-resilient crops;
• meat grown in labs or using 3D printers;
• gluten-free grains friendly to sufferers of celiac;
• selective breeding that produces healthier, bigger livestock and crops; and
• nutrient supplementation that infuses food with added nutrients to improve diets and medical treatments.

What are the advantages of biotechnology?

Biotechnology production offers a variety of advantages and solutions to critical problems. The main ones are the following:

• reducing pollution and waste to reverse catastrophic climate change and environmental damage;
• creating healthier, stronger and more-sustainable food products that boost nutrition and combat food insecurity ;
• treating diseases in children before they are born by altering their genomes;
• designing medicine to boost the health and longevity of people, animals and plants; and
• cutting costs of farm supplies such as pesticides, while increasing crop yields and profits.

What are the disadvantages of biotechnology?

Biotechnology also comes with disadvantages and misuse. The main disadvantages include the following:

• Biological warfare. The potential exists for the development of pathogens and epidemics that could be used in a conflict zone to infect populations.
• Decrease in biodiversity. Monocropping or the farming of only a small number of genetically engineered crops could shrink the natural gene pool of species and make them less resilient and adaptable to sudden changes in environment.
• Loss of soil fertility. Bio-enhanced plants require more nutrients from soil and yield more crops. This can drain soil of fertile nutrients, devastate farmland and require the use of environmentally harmful fertilizers to make up for the nutrient shortfall.
• High costs. Biotechnology products often cost more than traditional products and have the potential to raise pricing structures in various industries.
• Ethical considerations. Gene manipulation raises a range of ethical issues, such as the genetic engineering of humans.
• Safety questions. Various groups have raised safety concerns about the health risks of GMOs and biotech-related medical developments, such as mRNA vaccines.

Concerns about biotechnology's disadvantages have led to efforts to enact legislation restricting or banning certain processes or programs, such as human cloning, GMOs and embryonic stem-cell research.

Biotechnology is critical to environmentally sound advancements in agriculture. Learn more about how technology like artificial intelligence (AI) is improving the food industry .

Continue Reading About biotechnology (biotech)

• Improving plant production with IT in the agriculture industry
• Open source machine learning accelerates winemaking
• Visual data analytics make genomics in healthcare possible
• The technology that enabled COVID-19 genome sequencing success
• IoT brings resource gains, sustainability to agriculture

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Open Access

The future is bright, the future is biotechnology

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Public Library of Science, San Francisco, California, United States of America and Cambridge, United Kingdom

• Richard Hodge, 
• on behalf of the PLOS Biology staff editors

Published: April 28, 2023

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002135
• Reader Comments

As PLOS Biology celebrates its 20 th anniversary, our April issue focuses on biotechnology with articles covering different aspects of the field, from genome editing to synthetic biology. With them, we emphasize our interest in expanding our presence in biotechnology research.

Citation: Hodge R, on behalf of the PLOS Biology staff editors (2023) The future is bright, the future is biotechnology. PLoS Biol 21(4): e3002135. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002135

Copyright: © 2023 Hodge, on behalf of the PLOS Biology staff editors. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The PLOS Biology Staff Editors are Ines Alvarez-Garcia, Joanna Clarke, RichardHodge, Paula Jauregui, Nonia Pariente, Roland Roberts, and Lucas Smith.

This article is part of the PLOS Biology 20th Anniversary Collection.

Biotechnology is a revolutionary branch of science at the forefront of research and innovation that has advanced rapidly in recent years. It is a broad discipline, in which organisms or biological processes are exploited to develop new technologies that have the potential to transform the way we live and work, as well as to boost sustainability and industrial productivity. The new tools and products being generated have a wide range of applications across various sectors, including medicine, agriculture, energy, manufacturing and food.

PLOS Biology has traditionally published research reporting significant advances across a wide range of biological disciplines. However, our scope must continue to evolve as biology increasingly becomes more and more applied, generating technologies with potentially game-changing therapeutic and environmental impact. To that end, we recently published a collection of magazine articles focused on ideas for green biotechnologies that could have an important role in a sustainable future [ 1 ], including how to harness microbial photosynthesis to directly generate electricity [ 2 ] and using microbes to develop carbon “sinks” in the mining industry [ 3 ]. Moreover, throughout this anniversary year we are publishing Perspective articles that take stock of the past 20 years of biological research in a specific field and look forward to what is to come in the next 20 years [ 4 ]; in this issue, these Perspectives focus on different aspects of the broad biotechnology field—synthetic biology [ 5 ] and the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for the delivery of therapeutics [ 6 ].

One fast moving area within biotechnology is gene editing therapy, which involves the alteration of DNA to treat or prevent disease using techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 and base editors that enable precise genetic modifications to be made. This approach shows great promise for treating a variety of genetic diseases. Excitingly, promising phase I results of the first in vivo genome editing clinical trial to treat several liver-related diseases were reported at the recent Keystone Symposium on Precision Genome Engineering. This issue of PLOS Biology includes an Essay from Porto and Komor that focuses on the clinical applications of base editor technology [ 7 ], which could enable chronic diseases to be treated with a ‘one-and-done’ therapy, and a Perspective from Hamilton and colleagues that outlines the advances in the development of LNPs for the delivery of nucleic acid-based therapeutics [ 6 ]. LNPs are commonly used as vehicles for the delivery of such therapeutics because they have a low immunogenicity and can be manufactured at scale. However, expanding the toolbox of delivery platforms for these novel therapeutics will be critical to realise their full clinical potential.

Synthetic biology is also a rapidly growing area, whereby artificial or existing biological systems are designed to produce products or enhance cellular function. By using CRISPR to edit genes involved in metabolic pathways, researchers can create organisms that produce valuable compounds such as biofuels, drugs, and industrial chemicals. In their Perspective, Kitano and colleagues take stock of the technological advances that have propelled the “design-build-test-learn” cycle methodology forward in synthetic biology, as well as focusing on how machine-learning approaches can remove the bottlenecks in these pipelines [ 5 ].

While the potential of these technologies is vast, there are also concerns about their safety and ethical implications. Gene editing, in particular, raises ethical concerns, as it could be used to create so-called “designer babies” with specific traits or to enhance physical or mental capabilities. There are also concerns about the unintended consequences of gene editing, such as off-target effects that could cause unintended harm. These technologies can be improved by better understanding the interplay between editing tools and DNA repair pathways, and it will be essential for scientists and policymakers to be cautious and work together to establish guidelines and regulations for their use, as outlined at the recent International Summit on Human Genome Editing .

Basic research has also benefitted from biotechnological developments. For instance, methodological developments in super-resolution microscopy offer researchers the ability to image cells at exquisite detail and answer previously inaccessible research questions. Sequencing technologies such as Nanopore sequencers are revolutionising the ability to sequence long DNA/RNA reads in real time and in the field. Great strides have also been made in the development of analysis software for structural biology purposes, such as sub-tomogram averaging for cryo-EM [ 8 ]. The rate of scientific discovery is now at an unprecedented level in this age of big data as a result of these huge technological leaps.

The past few years has also seen the launch of AI tools such as ChatGPT. While these tools are increasingly being used to help write students homework or to improve the text of scientific papers, generative AI tools hold the potential to transform research and development in the biotechnology industry. The recently developed language model ProGen can generate and then predict function in protein sequences [ 9 ], and these models can also be used to find therapeutically relevant compounds for drug discovery. Protein structure prediction programs, such as AlphaFold [ 10 ] and RosettaFold, have revolutionized structural biology and can be used for a myriad of purposes. We have recently published several papers that have utilized AlphaFold models to develop methods that determine the structural context of post-translational modifications [ 11 ] and predict autophagy-related motifs in proteins [ 12 ].

The future of biotechnology is clearly very promising and we look forward to being part of the dissemination of these important new developments. Open access science sits at the core of our mission and the publication of these novel technologies in PLOS Biology can help their widespread adoption and ensure global access. As we look forward during this year of celebration, we are excited that biotechnology research will continue to grow and become a central part of the journal. The future is bright and the future is very much biotechnology.

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Biology — Biotechnology

Essays on Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a rapidly growing field that has the potential to revolutionize various industries, from healthcare to agriculture. Writing an essay on biotechnology is important because it allows students to delve deeper into the subject, understand its impact on society, and explore the ethical and moral implications of its advancements.

When writing an essay on biotechnology, it is crucial to start by conducting thorough research. This can involve reading academic journals, books, and credible online sources to gather information and data on the topic. It is important to ensure that the sources are reliable and up-to-date to provide accurate and current information.

Another important aspect of writing an essay on biotechnology is to clearly define the scope and purpose of the essay. This can involve identifying the specific aspect of biotechnology that will be discussed, such as its applications in medicine, agriculture, or environmental conservation. Having a clear focus will help in organizing the information and presenting a coherent argument.

Additionally, it is important to consider the ethical and social implications of biotechnology in the essay. This can involve discussing the potential risks and benefits of biotechnological advancements, as well as addressing any concerns related to genetic engineering, cloning, and other controversial topics. Presenting a balanced view and considering multiple perspectives is essential in addressing these complex issues.

Furthermore, when writing an essay on biotechnology, it is important to use clear and concise language to convey complex ideas. Avoiding jargon and technical language that may be difficult for the reader to understand is important in making the essay accessible and engaging. Additionally, using evidence and examples to support arguments will strengthen the essay and provide credibility to the points being made.

In conclusion, writing an essay on biotechnology is important as it allows for a deeper understanding of the field and its implications. Conducting thorough research, defining the scope and purpose, considering ethical implications, and using clear and concise language are all important aspects to consider when writing an essay on biotechnology.

Best Biotechnology Essay Topics

• The Impact of CRISPR Technology on Genetic Engineering
• The Ethical Implications of Human Cloning
• The Role of Biotechnology in Environmental Conservation
• Advancements in Biopharmaceuticals and Their Impact on Medicine
• The Future of Food: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
• Bioinformatics and its Role in Genomic Research
• Biotechnology and Sustainable Agriculture
• Bioremediation: Using Microorganisms to Clean Up Pollution
• The Use of Biotechnology in Forensic Science
• The Potential of Gene Therapy in Treating Genetic Disorders
• The Role of Biotechnology in Developing Vaccines
• Biotechnology and Renewable Energy Sources
• The Impact of Biotechnology on Animal Welfare
• The Use of Nanotechnology in Biomedical Applications
• Biotechnology and Stem Cell Research
• The Future of Personalized Medicine
• The Role of Biotechnology in Space Exploration
• Biotechnology and the Development of Artificial Organs
• The Use of CRISPR Technology in Agriculture
• Biotechnology and Biosecurity: Challenges and Solutions

Biotechnology Essay Topics Prompts

• Imagine a world where biotechnology has eradicated a major global disease. How would this impact society and the healthcare industry?
• If you could use biotechnology to enhance one aspect of the human body, what would it be and why?
• Write a speculative essay on the future of biotechnology and its potential impact on humanity.
• How has biotechnology revolutionized the way we approach environmental conservation and sustainability?
• Explore the ethical dilemmas surrounding the use of biotechnology in human enhancement and designer babies.

Interesting Subject Matters on Biotechnology

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The Theme of Modification of Animals and The Impact of Biotechnology on Our Lives in "Frankenstein's Cat"

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Frankenstein's Problem - Technologies Out of Control and Human Responsibility

Recent advancements in nanotechnology-based systems and specific nanoparticles used for different purposes in ophthalmology, the arguments for genetically modified food, review of the history of invention of x-rays technology, the effects of a computed tomography (ct) scanner on the human body, review of the germination process and its stages, production and characterization of electrospun cellulose acetate/zinc oxide (ca/zno) nanocomposite, fungal and mycotoxin contamination in stored masticatories, the legal and bioethical aspects of personalised medicine based on genetic composition, the moral lessons of 'the median isn't the message', anagene inc: case study, biochemistry: the molecular ballet of life's processes, relevant topics.

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Biotechnology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Biotechnology is a broad discipline in which biological processes, organisms, cells or cellular components are exploited to develop new technologies. New tools and products developed by biotechnologists are useful in research, agriculture, industry and the clinic.

A developmental route to hematopoietic stem cells

A differentiation method informed by developmental biology converts human pluripotent stem cells to engraftable hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells without the use of transgenes.

• Adam C. Wilkinson
• Marella F. T. R. de Bruijn

Non-viral targeted insertion of large payloads into T cells

The nuclease Cas9 and DNA-repair pathway homology-mediated end joining can be leveraged to efficiently and non-virally integrate large DNA payloads into genomic target sites in primary T cells.

• Zsuzsanna Izsvák

Analyzing submicron spatial transcriptomics data at their original resolution

FICTURE software addresses a critical challenge in spatial omics analysis: making high-resolution inference with only a few molecules per square micron. This tool fully realizes the potential of contemporary spatial platforms by learning latent spatial factors from the whole transcriptome while preserving the resolution of each technology at scale.

Related Subjects

• Animal biotechnology
• Applied immunology
• Assay systems
• Biomaterials
• Biomimetics
• Cell delivery
• Environmental biotechnology
• Expression systems
• Functional genomics
• Gene delivery
• Gene therapy
• Industrial microbiology
• Metabolic engineering
• Metabolomics
• Molecular engineering
• Nanobiotechnology
• Nucleic-acid therapeutics
• Oligo delivery
• Peptide delivery
• Plant biotechnology
• Protein delivery
• Regenerative medicine
• Stem-cell biotechnology
• Tissue engineering

Latest Research and Reviews

Understanding of probiotic origin antimicrobial peptides: a sustainable approach ensuring food safety

• Vishakha Bisht
• Naveen Kumar Navani

A cuproptosis nanocapsule for cancer radiotherapy

Acquired radiation resistance in residual tumours impedes the therapeutic outcome of re-irradiation. This study reports a novel radiosensitization strategy that targets cuproptosis to overcome resistance and enhance antitumour effects.

• Dongmei Wang

Label-free ghost cytometry for manufacturing of cell therapy products

• Kazuki Teranishi
• Keisuke Wagatsuma

Direct cytosolic delivery of siRNA via cell membrane fusion using cholesterol-enriched exosomes

Researchers demonstrate that cholesterol-enriched exosomes can deliver siRNA directly into cancer cells, bypassing normal cellular barriers and significantly enhancing gene silencing. This offers a more effective method for gene therapy applications.

• Miaorong Yu

Recent advances and challenges in single cell protein (SCP) technologies for food and feed production

• Fatemeh Ahmadi
• Maximilian Lackner

A point mutation in VIG1 boosts development and chilling tolerance in rice

Very few genes are involved in simultaneous regulation of seedling vigor, cold tolerance and grain yield in rice. Here, the authors report OsbZIP01 and OsbZIP18 function cooperatively in determining seedling establishment, chilling tolerance, and grain yield in rice.

• Dunpin Xiong
• Shanguo Yao

News and Comment

siRNA therapy lowers triglycerides in patients with rare condition

Plozasiran reduced triglyceride levels by 80% and lowered the risk of pancreatitis in patients with persistent chylomicronemia, with or without a genetic diagnosis.

• Karen O’Leary

Comment on: Trends and outcomes of hospitalized patients with priapism in Germany: results from the GRAND study

• Marcelo Mass Lindenbaum
• David A. Velasquez
• Omer A. Raheem

A model for a dual function of N 6 -methyladenosine in R-loop regulation

R-loops contain DNA:RNA hybrids and an unpaired single-stranded DNA. N 6 -methyladenosine (m 6 A) has been reported to modulate R-loop levels, but with varying outcomes (R-loop resolution versus stabilization). We propose that in different contexts, m 6 A may either directly prevent R-loop accumulation or stabilize R-loops via the formation of RNA abasic sites.

• Abdulkadir Abakir
• Alexey Ruzov

Identifying off-target effects of genome editing with Tracking-seq

In this Tools of the Trade article, Ming Zhu describes Tracking-seq, a versatile method for detecting off-target effects of genome-editing tools across a range of experimental conditions.

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Home / Essay Samples / Science / Technology / Biotechnology

Biotechnology Essay Examples

Overview of currently emerging biotechnologies.

Emerging nanoparticles therapeutics: Advanced diagnostic methods will provide the information that will allow new intervention strategies to provide new therapeutics. Nanotechnology is providing new types of therapeutics for cancer. Most of the patients are died from drug resistance and metastasis disease. So the ultimate goal...

Biotechnology Applications Shown in the Film Gattaca

Biotechnology is the use of technology and organisms to produce useful products. While watching GATTACA, there were different types of ways biotechnology were used in the films. Three biotechnology applications shown in the film were Genetic Engineering, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis, and DNA Fingerprint scanners. While...

Biotechnology Lab Report on E.coli

Biotechnology has been used to produce more food like wine and cheese, but recent years of biotechnology has been so advanced that provides products like vaccines detergents and drugs. Bacterial transformation is a form a biotechnology. For this lab we used a common bacteria in...

Artificial Cell: Lab-grown Meat

Artificial cells have drawn the attention out of the natural cells nowadays. Many types and forms of artificial cells have been discussed. In 1957, the use of artificial cells has first been discovered; the number of availability of methods in uses has increased. Therefore, we...

Pros and Cons of Food Additives in Food Biotechnology

By the end of the 21st century, biotechnology is likely to touch the lives of most peoples through its application in areas such as food production and medicine. Food biotechnology as applied to food production in most developing countries makes use of microbial inoculants to...

A Literature Survey on Image and Object Recognition Using Convolutional Neural Networks in Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous cars have the potential to solve traffic problems such as accidents and congestion using cognition with the help of CNN’s. However in the current scenario complete autonomy is still to be achieved. Although today’s CNN’s have brought us closer to autonomy than ever before....

Will Biotechnology and Nutrigenomics Make an Important Difference to Health of the Public?

The principles of public health nutrition have gone widely unchanged for the past fifty years. The aim of public health nutrition has been to “develop population based strategies to promote good health through healthy diets”. Public health nutrition has the potential for improvement by incorporating...

Neuroprosthetics Technology to Replace Torn Meniscus by Neural Implants

Neuroprosthetics is a combination of neuroscience and biomedical engineering. Neural prostheses is used to replace a missing biological functionality by using neural implants. Throughout the years it has been discovered that the technology is becoming way more advanced. This makes it easier for people with...

Lab Report on the Effects of Bacterial Transformation on E. Coli Bacterium

Bacterial transformation is a form of biotechnology. It involves manipulating organisms for products and other purposes such as medication. Over the years, biotechnology has undergone what can only be called, a scientific revolution. It has led to vaccines being made in large amounts, healthier foods,...

How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Drug Discovery

The massive advances humans have made in the medical field are prominent. We have developed and created medicine, treatments, and vaccinations that keep human life-expectancy high. But, these advances come at a high price. A massive amount of money is required to conduct researches, trials,...

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