primary secondary tertiary sources of literature review

Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources

What they are and how they compare (with examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | January 2023

If you’re new to the wild world of research, you’re bound to encounter the terrible twins, “ primary source ” and “ secondary source ” sooner or later. With any luck, “ tertiary sources ” will get thrown into the mix too! In this post, we’ll unpack both what this terminology means and how to apply it to your research project.

Overview: Source Types

• Primary sources
• Examples of primary sources
• Pros and cons of primary data
• Secondary sources
• Examples of secondary sources
• Pros and cons of secondary data
• Tertiary sources
• Summary & recap

What are primary sources?

Simply put, primary sources (also referred to as primary data) are the original raw materials, evidence or data collected in a study. Primary sources can include interview transcripts , quantitative survey data, as well as other media that provide firsthand accounts of events or phenomena. Primary sources are often considered to be the purest sources because they provide direct, unfiltered data which has not been processed or interpreted in any way.

In addition to the above, examples of primary sources can include

• Results from a social media poll
• Letters written by a historical figure
• Photographs taken during a specific time period
• Government documents such as birth certificates and census records
• Artefacts like clothing and tools from past cultures

Naturally, working with primary data has both benefits and drawbacks. Some of the main advantages include

• Purity : primary sources provide firsthand accounts of events, ideas, and experiences, which means you get access to the rawest, purest form of data.
• Perspective : primary sources allow you to gain a deeper understanding of the perspectives of the people who created them, providing insights into how different groups of people viewed an event or phenomenon.
• Richness : primary data often provide a wealth of detail and nuance that can be missed in secondary data (we’ll cover that shortly). This can provide you with a more complete and nuanced understanding of their topic.

On the flip side, some of the main disadvantages include

• Bias : given their “rawness”, primary sources can often contain biases that can skew or limit your understanding of the issue at hand.
• Inaccessibility : sometimes, collecting fresh primary data can be difficult or even impossible. For example, photographs held in private collections or letters written in a language that you’re not fluent in.
• Fragility : physical artefacts such as manuscripts may be fragile and require special handling, which can make them difficult for you to access or study.
• Limited scope : primary sources often only provide a glimpse of a particular event, person, or period of time, so you may need to rely on multiple primary sources to gain a more complete understanding of a topic.

As you can see, the strengths and weaknesses of primary sources are oftentimes two sides of the same coin . For example, primary data allow you to gain insight into peoples’ unique perspectives, but at the same time, it bakes in a significant level of each participant’s personal bias. So, it’s important to carefully consider what your research aim is and whether it lends itself to this type of data source.

Now that you’ve got a clearer picture of what primary sources/data are, let’s take a look at secondary sources.

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources are materials that provide an analysis or interpretation of primary sources (primary data). For example, secondary sources of information can include books, journal articles and documentaries . Unlike primary sources (which are raw and uninterpreted), secondary sources provide a distilled, interpreted view of the data.

Other examples of secondary sources include

• A book that provides an analysis of an event
• A biography of a pop icon
• An article that provides an interpretation of a public opinion poll
• A blog post that reviews and compares the performance of competing products

As with primary sources, secondary sources have their own set of pros and cons. Some of the main advantages include:

• Convenience: secondary sources are often easier to access and use than primary sources, as they are widely available in libraries, journal databases, etc.
• Interpretation and synthesis : secondary sources provide a synthesis of the topic of interest, which can help you to quickly understand the most important takeaways from a data set.
• Time-saving : secondary sources can save you time, as you don’t need to analyse primary sources yourself – you can just read summaries or interpretations provided by experts in the field.

At the same time, it’s important to be aware of the disadvantages of secondary sources. Some of the main ones to consider are

• Distance from original sources : secondary sources are based on primary data, but the information has been filtered through the lens of the author, which will naturally carry some level of bias and perhaps even a hidden agenda.
• Limited context: secondary sources may not provide the same level of contextual information or detail as primary sources, which can limit your understanding of the situation and contribute toward a warped understanding.
• Inaccuracies : since secondary sources are the product of human efforts, they may contain inaccuracies or errors, especially if the author has misinterpreted primary data.
• Outdated information : secondary sources may be based on primary sources that are no longer valid or accurate, or they may not take into account more recent research or discoveries.

It’s important to mention that primary and secondary data are not mutually exclusive . In other words, it doesn’t always need to be one or the other. Secondary sources can be used to supplement primary data by providing additional information or context for a particular topic.

For example, if you were researching Martin Luther King Jr., your primary source could be transcripts of the speeches he gave during the civil rights movement. To supplement this information, you could then use secondary sources such as biographies written about him or newspaper articles from the time period in which he was active.

So, once again, it’s important to think about what you’re trying to achieve with your research – that is to say, what are your research aims? As with all methodological choices, your decision to make use of primary or secondary data (or both), needs to be informed by your overall research aims .

Before we wrap up though, it’s important to look at one more source type – tertiary sources.

Need a helping hand?

What are tertiary sources?

Last but not least, we’ve got tertiary sources . Simply put, tertiary sources are materials that provide a general overview of a topic . They often summarise or synthesise information from a combination of primary and secondary sources, such as books, articles, and other documents.

Some examples of tertiary sources include

• Encyclopedias
• Study guides
• Dictionaries

Tertiary sources can be useful when you’re just starting to learn about a completely new topic , as they provide an overview of the subject matter without getting too in-depth into specific details. For example, if you’re researching the history of World War II, but don’t know much about it yet, reading an encyclopedia article (or Wikipedia article) on the war would be helpful in providing you with some basic facts and background information.

Tertiary sources are also useful in terms of providing a starting point for citations to primary and secondary source material which can help guide your search for more detailed, credible information on a particular topic. Additionally, these types of resources may also contain lists of related topics or keywords which you can use to find more information regarding your topic of interest.

Importantly, while tertiary sources are a valuable starting point for your research, they’re not ideal sources to cite in your dissertation, thesis or research project. Instead, you should aim to cite high-quality, credible secondary sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles and research papers . So, remember to only use tertiary sources as a starting point. Don’t make the classic mistake of citing Wikipedia as your main source!

Let’s recap

In this post, we’ve explored the trinity of sources: primary, secondary and tertiary.

• Primary sources include the original raw evidence or data that you collect yourself in a study. For example, interview transcripts or statistical data.
• Secondary sources include distilled analyses and interpretations of primary data that someone else collected in their study. For example, journal articles and critical analysis pieces.
• Tertiary sources include materials that provide a general overview of a topic. For example, encyclopedias, study guides and handbooks.
• Each source type has its own set of strengths and weaknesses , and can play a different role within a research project.
• Primary sources and secondary sources are not necessarily mutually exclusive – they can work together to provide a comprehensive view.
• It’s important to ensure that your choice of source (or sources) is guided by and aligned with your research aims .

If you’d like to learn more about primary and secondary research, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog here . Alternatively, if you’re looking for hands-on help with your project, take a look at our 1-on-1 private coaching service .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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The Literature Review

Primary and secondary sources, the literature review: primary and secondary sources.

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• Primary vs secondary sources: The differences explained 

Can something be both a primary and secondary source?

Research for your literature review can be categorised as either primary or secondary in nature. The simplest definition of primary sources is either original information (such as survey data) or a first person account of an event (such as an interview transcript). Whereas secondary sources are any publshed or unpublished works that describe, summarise, analyse, evaluate, interpret or review primary source materials. Secondary sources can incorporate primary sources to support their arguments.

Ideally, good research should use a combination of both primary and secondary sources. For example, if a researcher were to investigate the introduction of a law and the impacts it had on a community, he/she might look at the transcripts of the parliamentary debates as well as the parliamentary commentary and news reporting surrounding the laws at the time. 

Examples of primary and secondary sources

Primary vs secondary sources: The differences explained

Finding primary sources

• VU Special Collections  - The Special Collections at Victoria University Library are a valuable research resource. The Collections have strong threads of radical literature, particularly Australian Communist literature, much of which is rare or unique. Women and urban planning also feature across the Collections. There are collections that give you a picture of the people who donated them like Ray Verrills, John McLaren, Sir Zelman Cowen, and Ruth & Maurie Crow. Other collections focus on Australia's neighbours – PNG and Timor-Leste.
• POLICY - Sharing the latest in policy knowledge and evidence, this database supports enhanced learning, collaboration and contribution.
• Indigenous Australia  -  The Indigenous Australia database represents the collections of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Library.
• Australian Heritage Bibliography - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Subset (AHB-ATSIS)  - AHB is a bibliographic database that indexes and abstracts articles from published and unpublished material on Australia's natural and cultural environment. The AHB-ATSIS subset contains records that specifically relate to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.include journal articles, unpublished reports, books, videos and conference proceedings from many different sources around Australia. Emphasis is placed on reports written or commissioned by government and non-government heritage agencies throughout the country.
• ATSIhealth  - The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Bibliography (ATSIhealth), compiled by Neil Thomson and Natalie Weissofner at the School of Indigenous Australian Studies, Kurongkurl Katitjin, Edith Cowan University, is a bibliographic database that indexes published and unpublished material on Australian Indigenous health. Source documents include theses, unpublished articles, government reports, conference papers, abstracts, book chapters, books, discussion and working papers, and statistical documents. 
• National Archive of Australia  - The National Archives of Australia holds the memory of our nation and keeps vital Australian Government records safe. 
• National Library of Australia: Manuscripts  - Manuscripts collection that is wide ranging and provides rich evidence of the lives and activities of Australians who have shaped our society.
• National Library of Australia: Printed ephemera  - The National Library has been selectively collecting Australian printed ephemera since the early 1960s as a record of Australian life and social customs, popular culture, national events, and issues of national concern.
• National Library of Australia: Oral history and folklore - The Library’s Oral History and Folklore Collection dates back to the 1950’s and includes a rich and diverse collection of interviews and recordings with Australians from all walks of life.
• Historic Hansard - Commonwealth of Australia parliamentary debates presented in an easy-to-read format for historians and other lovers of political speech.
• The Old Bailey Online - A fully searchable edition of the largest body of texts detailing the lives of non-elite people ever published, containing 197,745 criminal trials held at London's central criminal court.

Whether or not a source can be considered both primary and  secondary, depends on the context. In some instances, material may act as a secondary source for one research area, and as a primary source for another. For example, Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince , published in 1513, is an important secondary source for any study of the various Renaissance princes in the Medici family; but the same book is also a primary source for the political thought that was characteristic of the sixteenth century because it reflects the attitudes of a person living in the 1500s.

Source: Craver, 1999, as cited in University of South Australia Library. (2021, Oct 6).  Can something be a primary and secondary source?.  University of South Australia Library. https://guides.library.unisa.edu.au/historycultural/sourcetypes

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

Search catalog, what are the differences.

Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source or origin. This informs the reader as to whether the author is reporting information that is first hand or is conveying the experiences and opinions of others which is considered second hand. Determining if a source is primary, secondary or tertiary can be tricky. Below you will find a description of the three categories of information and examples to help you make a determination.

Primary Sources

These sources are records of events or evidence as they are first described or actually happened without any interpretation or commentary. It is information that is shown for the first time or original materials on which other research is based.  Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information.

Secondary Sources

These sources offer an analysis or restatement of primary sources. They often try to describe or explain primary sources. They tend to be works which summarize, interpret, reorganize, or otherwise provide an added value to a primary source.

Tertiary Sources

These are sources that index, abstract, organize, compile, or digest other sources. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information. Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author.

TODAY'S HOURS:

Identifying Information Sources

What's the difference, primary sources and research, secondary sources and research, tertiary sources, comparison chart.

• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications This link opens in a new window

Related Guides

• Primary Sources for Historical Research: A Library Guide by Reference Librarians Last Updated Jul 2, 2024 110 views this year
• Research Process by Liz Svoboda Last Updated May 29, 2024 10854 views this year

Need to Ask a Question?

Telling the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources can often be confusing because the difference is more about the content of the source than the published format. The format may be a first indicator of whether or not a source is primary, but evaluating the content will be the ultimate judgement call.

Primary and secondary sources often differ based on the academic discipline.

This page will give you some guidance on deciding whether a source can be considered primary or not. Many of the formats listed on this guide will exist in both physical and digital modes.

To start, the following video from the Australian National University Library gives an excellent explanation of the different contexts in which sources can be considered primary, secondary, or tertiary.

Primary sources   are the original documents of an event or discovery.  Primary sources are also records of events as they are first described. They are often considered the most credible sources of evidence and are complimented by secondary which will analyze and give context to primary sources.

Some examples of primary sources are:

• diaries and letters
• academic articles reporting NEW data and findings - these are often peer reviewed and called empirical research
• works of literature (poems, novels, etc.)
• works of fine art (paintings, sculpture, pottery, etc.)
• works of performance art (music, fictional films, plays, musicals, operas, etc.
• official records from a government, judicial court, or company
• oral histories
• autobiographies
• eyewitness new reports*

*Newspaper articles that report on a recent event can be primary sources, but articles that rehash previous events are not primary sources, unless they add new information to the story.

Where do I find primary sources?

It depends on your discipline, but here are are some places to start.

• Academic journals are the main place that most researchers will initially publish the results of their research and/or experiments, though some disciplines will favor book length publications.
• Creative works like novels, films, music, and other works of art can often be found through the library catalog or special databases from that discipline.
• Historical sources like newspapers, diaries, letters, oral histories, and more can be found through archival collections, like the Genesee Historical Collections Center and the many online archival databases we subscribe to.
• The library's homepage search box or subject specific database are great places to start searching!
• Library Homepage
• Thompson Library Research Guides All of the library's research and course guides. Find databases and resources on specific disciplines.

Secondary sources   offer an analysis or a restatement of an event or discovery described in primary sources. They interpret, explain, critique, or otherwise analyze primary sources. Some secondary sources are used to persuade the reader and may be considered less objective. 

Examples of secondary sources include:

• criticism of a work of art, music, or fiction
• publications that discuss or analyze a topic
• articles and editorials that interpret or review research works or other primary sources*
• some nonfiction books written for general public for entertainment purposes rather than scholarship
• some textbooks

*Many academic articles include short literature reviews to establish a starting place or a jumping off point for their own, original research; these are still considered primary sources. However, articles that only review or analyze previously published articles  and contain no new research are secondary sources; these articles are called systematic literature reviews and can be good sources of information about the state of research on a certain topic.

Where do I find secondary sources?

• Academic journals will often publish review articles or publications that critically analyze .
• News sources that offer editorials

Tertiary sources offer a summary or restatement of facts and research from both primary and secondary sources. The main difference between secondary and tertiary sources is that tertiary sources offer no new information and no analysis of the information from primary and secondary sources.

Tertiary sources are often great places to collect background information and to help locate primary and secondary research.

Examples of tertiary sources include:

• dictionaries
• encyclopedias
• bibliographies

Where do I find tertiary sources?

The following databases contain reference sources like encyclopedia, dictionaries, and handbooks.

Authoritative coverage of thousands of topics in all areas of study.

Encyclopaedia Britannica's latest article database (including hundreds of articles not found in the print edition), Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary and Thesaurus, and the Britannica Book of the Year (1994-present), with thousands of web links selected by editors. Updated daily.

Recent editions of many major reference books.

Over 400 dictionary, language reference, and subject reference works published by Oxford University Press

Fully indexed, cross-searchable database of over 400 dictionary, language reference, and subject reference works published by Oxford University Press. Includes subject reference works in the humanities, social sciences, and science--both "Quick Reference" titles (concise dictionaries, etc.) and larger "Reference Library" titles (multi-volume encyclopedias, etc.).

A searchable collection of over 150 scholarly encyclopedias, handbooks, and reference books in the social sciences.

Covers anthropology, communication, education, geography, health, history, law, management, politics, psychology, and sociology.

Concise introductions to a diverse range of subject areas in the sciences, social sciences, and arts and humanities.

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• URL: https://libguides.umflint.edu/idinfosources

WRI101 Into the Deep Past

• Comparison of Google, Scholar, Articles+, and Web of Science
• Working with Wikipedia
• Finding articles using a database
• Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources
• News sources
• Managing sources
• Academic Integrity at Princeton

Primary v Secondary Sources

The Standard Definition

In historical writing, a primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event. Some types of primary sources include: * ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records * CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art * RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings Examples of primary sources include: * Diary of Anne Frank - Experiences of a Jewish family during WWII * The Constitution of Canada - Canadian History * A journal article reporting NEW research or findings * Weavings and pottery - Native American history * Plato's Republic - Women in Ancient Greece What is a secondary source? A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in them. Some types of seconday sources include: * PUBLICATIONS: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopedias Examples of secondary sources include: * A journal/magazine article which interprets or reviews previous findings * A history textbook * A book about the effects of WWI Search by keyword for Primary Sources in the Main Catalog You can search the Main Catalog to find direct references to primary source material. Perform a keyword search for your topic and add one of the words below: (these are several examples of words that would identify a source as primary) * charters * correspondence * diaries * early works * interviews * manuscripts * oratory * pamphlets * personal narratives * sources * speeches * letters * documents

Another Possible Usage

PRIMARY SOURCE (more frequently PRIMARY TEXT) is sometimes used in a different sense in some types of classes. In a literature class, for example, the primary source might be a novel about which you are writing, and secondary sources those sources also writing about that novel (i.e., literary criticism). However, if you were writing about the literary criticism itself and making an argument about literary theory and the practice of literary criticism, some would use the term PRIMARY SOURCE to refer to the criticism about which you are writing, and secondary sources other sources also making theoretical arguments about the practice of literary criticism. In this second sense of primary source, whatever you are primarily writing ABOUT becomes the primary source, and secondary sources are those sources also writing about that source. Often this will be called the PRIMARY TEXT, but some people do use primary source with this meaning.

Tertiary Sources

Just so you can keep up with all the scholarly jargon about sources, a tertiary source is a source that builds upon secondary sources to provide information. The most common example is an encyclopedia. Consider a particular revolution as an historical event. All the documents from the time become primary sources. All the historians writing later produce secondary sources. Then someone reads those secondary sources and summarizes them in an encyclopedia article, which becomes a tertiary source. If someone then collected a bibliography of encyclopedia articles on the topic, that might be a quarternary source, but at that point the whole thing just becomes silly.

Evaluating Sources

• Critically Analyzing Information Sources Some questions to consider when evaluating sources.
• Distinguishing Scholarly Journals from other Periodicals You need a scholarly journal article. How do you know if you have one?

Evaluating Websites

FROM: Kapoun, Jim. "Teaching undergrads WEB evaluation: A guide for library instruction." C&RL News (July/August 1998): 522-523.

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Literature Review Basics

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• Literature Review Introduction
• Writing Literature Reviews
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The Literature

The Literature refers to the collection of scholarly writings on a topic. This includes peer-reviewed articles, books, dissertations and conference papers.

• When reviewing the literature, be sure to include major works as well as studies that respond to major works. You will want to focus on primary sources, though secondary sources can be valuable as well.

Primary Sources

The term primary source is used broadly to embody all sources that are original. P rimary sources provide first-hand information that is closest to the object of study. Primary sources vary by discipline.

• In the natural and social sciences, original reports of research found in academic journals detailing the methodology used in the research, in-depth descriptions, and discussions of the findings are considered primary sources of information.
• Other common examples of primary sources include speeches, letters, diaries, autobiographies, interviews, official reports, court records, artifacts, photographs, and drawings.  

Galvan, J. L. (2013). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences . Glendale, CA: Pyrczak.

Secondary Sources

A secondary source is a source that provides non-original or secondhand data or information. 

• Secondary sources are written about primary sources.
• Research summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers are considered secondary sources. They typically provide global descriptions of results with few details on the methodology. Other examples of secondary sources include biographies and critical studies of an author's work.

Secondary Source. (2005). In W. Paul Vogt (Ed.), Dictionary of Statistics & Methodology. (3 rd ed., p. 291). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Weidenborner, S., & Caruso, D. (1997). Writing research papers: A guide to the process . New York: St. Martin's Press.

More Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

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Henry Whittemore Library

Understanding scientific literature, primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources.

• Identifying a Research Article
• Scholarly vs. Popular Literature

What are primary sources?

In the sciences primary sources are original research or data. Primary sources can include any of the following publications 

• Journal Articles -- Journal articles can be primary sources if they contain original research, but keep in mind that not all journal articles are primary sources.
• Reports -- Reports are publications on research that are published independently of a journal. They are often published by governments or companies.
• Theses and Dissertations -- Theses and Dissertations are the original research of an academic working on a degree. 
• Conference Proceedings -- Conference Proceedings are a collection of papers that have been presented at a conference. 
• Published Data -- Data can be considered a primary source, as it is the product of original research.

Why use primary sources?

  Primary sources are a researchers firsthand account of their research. They provide an in depth view into how the research was conducted, and may contain supplemental materials like questionnaires used. A summary of a study or experiment in a book or review paper may not discuss all the findings, and you can gain more insight into a particular topic or issue by looking at the primary sources. 

How to find primary sources:

Resources for finding primary sources include: 

• Databases and Indexes -- The exact database or index you choose to search will depend on the discipline you are searching in. 
• Review Papers -- Review papers are often synthesized from other researchers to give an in-depth understanding of the current state of knowledge on a topic. If you have found a review paper when you are looking for a research paper don't fear! If the review paper is on the write topic it will cite plenty of research papers on your topic of interest. 

What are secondary sources?

In the sciences secondary sources analyze, interpret, summarize, or evaluate the findings of primary sources. Secondary sources can include any of the following publications: 

• Journal review articles -- A review article summarizes past research on a given topic. Review articles can range from highly intensive systematic or integrative reviews or less rigorous literature reviews.
• Textbooks -- The information in textbooks in the sciences is the product of past research.  
• Monographs -- A monograph is a book-length scholarly publication dedicated to a single topic. 

Secondary sources can save you time by providing information on the current state of knowledge on a given topic, and also as a way to find primary resources. If you are interested to know what are important, seminal papers in on a topic look at what papers are cited in a textbook on that topic. Review papers can give you in-depth information on a particular research area. Secondary resources are also often less technical than primary resources. 

How to find secondary sources:

Resources for finding secondary sources 

• Databases and Indexes -- Databases and indexes are particularly useful for finding review articles.  
• The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- The library catalog or Ram Search will help you locate books on the topic you are interested in. 

What are tertiary sources?

In the sciences tertiary resources are synthesized from primary and secondary resources. They usually provide summaries on the current state of knowledge. Tertiary sources can include the following publications: 

• Encyclopedias
• Dictionaries 
• Factbooks 
• Almanacs 

Why use tertiary sources?

Tertiary sources can be viewed as a jumping off point for your own research. They provide succinct  summaries on topics, and can be a good way to familiarize yourself with the terminology on a topic before you begin searching the databases.

How to find tertiary sources:

Resources for finding tertiary sources include: 

• The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- Keep in mind a majority of our encyclopedias are in the reference room. 
• LibGuides and the Library Website -- We have a number of digital encyclopedias. Check the LibGuide for your field to see what digital encyclopedias we might offer!
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Primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources, a note about websites, still struggling.

Conversing with someone else about your research and writing process can be incredibly helpful.  Contact staff at McKillop Library or the Writing Center using the links below.

• Ask-a-Librarian
• Meet with a Writing Consultant

Categorizing types of material is another way that you can organize information.  A source of information can be primary, secondary, or tertiary  depending on when it was created, its purpose and scope, and (sometimes) what discipline is using it.  

It is essential to understand the differences between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources of information so that you know when to use each type in your research.  Remember, determining what type of material a source is can be challenging as it can vary by academic discipline and use.  The sections below will help you recognize the differences between each type of material and provide you with examples of each.

Primary sources provide information in its original or purest form, meaning that the information has not been condensed, filtered, changed, or interpreted.

Many primary sources are created, experienced, or collected simultaneously to the time period or "event" that is being researched.  For example, if you were researching music of the 1980s, a song by a famous 1980s performer like Madonna would be a primary source.  However, some primary sources, like memoirs and interviews, may be published or provided after the time being researched because they are still reflecting firsthand experiences. Madonna could publish a memoir in 2020 that still counted as a primary source for the above scenario if it provided a firsthand account of her experiences in the 1980s. 

Examples of primary source materials vary by discipline.  In the physical and social sciences, primary sources include original research studies and data sets (like census data or survey results) in their raw, unanalyzed form.  In the arts, original artwork, music, movies, and literature are primary sources.  For history, historic speeches, letters, maps, newspapers, physical objects, and government documents are also considered primary sources.

Secondary sources provide information about  a primary source or a set of primary sources.  These sources restate, rearrange, or interpret the original information provided in a primary source.  Secondary sources are often created by experts in the field and address the given subject from a historical or critical perspective. providing discussion or analysis of specific aspects.  

Secondary sources include biographies, research articles (for physical and social sciences, this refers to articles that don't include the authors' original research ) , monographs (other than autobiographies and memoirs), commentaries, and criticisms. 

Secondary sources may have some overlap with other types of materials.  For example, newspaper articles are primary sources in the field of history but secondary in most other disciplines.  Encyclopedias and textbooks are sometimes considered secondary sources although they are usually identified as tertiary.  Remember, you can always check with a librarian or your professor if you need help identifying the type of source you're using!

Tertiary sources compile, index, or organize information from primary and secondary sources.  These sources rarely contain original material and instead typically offer a broad perspective of a topic without any critique or analysis.  Tertiary sources sometimes include a bibliography, works cited, or reference list that can act as a directory to important primary and secondary sources.

Because tertiary sources often aim to provide a broad overview, they generally rely on groups of authors for content.  Editors then review and organize the material prior to publication.

Some common examples of tertiary sources are encyclopedias, dictionaries, textbooks, bibliographies, and directories.  Wikipedia is an example of an online tertiary source.

Tertiary sources occasionally have some overlap with other materials.  As seen in "Secondary Sources," encyclopedias are sometimes considered secondary sources.  Again, remember that you can always check with a librarian or your professor if you need help identifying the type of source you're using.

Just like other formats of information, websites can be primary, secondary, or tertiary sources depending on what information they're providing.  A website that provides interviews with survivors of 9/11 would be a primary source.  A website that used interviews with survivors of 9/11 to piece together a story of that day would be a secondary source.  A website that linked to other interviews, photographs, news reports, and stories from 9/11 would be a tertiary source.  

You might also come across websites that include primary, secondary, and tertiary information.  For example, the types of sources listed in the above paragraph could all be part of just one website.  In instances like this, remember to look at the individual pieces of information as well as the website as a whole when using it for your research.

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources in the Health Sciences.

Primary Sources

Primary sources (or primary research) presents the immediate results of original research activities and/or new scientific discoveries..  It often includes hypotheses, experiments, analysis of data collected in the field or laboratory and a conclusion.   Primary sources are original materials/information on which other research is based.

These include:

• Journals or Periodicals : main type of publication in which scientific research is reported. 
• Theses : detailed accounts of research conducted for the awarding of higher academic degrees.  In many cases, it will also be later reported in a condensed form as a journal article.
• Conferences : Papers presented at conferences may or may not be subject to editorial scrutiny. Conference papers may not published at all, published only in abstract form, published in advance of the conference as a preprint, published in book form, or as a special issue of a journal.
• Reports : individual publications reporting research. They may report internal research within an organization, or research done by an individual or organization under contract to a client. They may be freely available, available only to members of an organization, only available by purchase, or published in a journal article. 
• Patents : provides research information on new products or processes. Once published, patent information is freely available, but rarely republished in journal articles.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are those that discuss the original research of others. Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, analyses, interprets, re-packages, and evaluates primary information and studies so as to draw conclusions on or present current state of knowledge in a discipline or subject. Secondary sources will include a reference list to direct you to the primary research reported in the article.

They include:

• Review Journals  : These generally start with Annual Review of …, Advances in …, Current Opinion in …
•   Article Reviews  : Articles that summarize the current literature on a specific topic.
•   Textbooks  : These can be either specialized to a narrow topic or a more boarder overview.
•   Data Compilations  :  Statistical databases (SEERS), Vital & Health Statistics, etc.
• Article Indexes/Databases : These can be abstracting or citation (e.g. Biological Abstracts/MEDLINE).

They also include:

• Reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analysis
• Newsletters and professional news sources
• Practice guidelines & standards
• Clinical care notes
• Patient education Information
• Government & legal Information

Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources consist of primary and secondary source information which has been collected and distilled. They present summaries of or an introduction to the current state of research on a topic, summarize or condense information from primary and secondary sources, or provide a list of primary and secondary sources. These include:

• Encyclopedias

Tutorial: Identifying Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources in the Sciences (CSB/SJU Libraries): (2021 September 3): 3:46 min.

Primary and Secondary Literature in the Sciences: An Introduction (Egan Library): (2021 February 4): 4:04 min.

How to Write a Literature Review: Primary and Secondary Sources

• Writing a Literature Review in APA Format
• Chicago/Turabian Citation Style
• Primary and Secondary Sources
• Basic Research Strategies
• Evaluating Sources
• Using the Library's Ebooks
• Using the Library's Catalog
• Copyright Information
• Contact Information & Feedback

Primary versus Secondary Sources

Primary vs. secondary videos.

Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources The content of research papers may come from different types of sources, such as:

• Your own opinion and analysis
• Primary sources
• Secondary sources
• Tertiary sources

It may not be necessary to include each of these types of sources in every paper you write, but your instructor may require you to include them. It is important to understand the characteristics of primary, secondary and tertiary sources–they each serve a different purpose throughout the research process, and can strengthen your assignment, too.

It can be difficult to figure out if a source is considered primary, secondary, or tertiary. We will explain the differences and provide examples of each in this tutorial. If you are still not sure if a source you would like to use is primary, secondary, or tertiary, ask a librarian or teacher.

What is a Primary Source? Primary sources are first-hand, authoritative accounts of an event, topic, or historical time period. They are typically produced at the time of the event by a person who experienced it, but can also be made later on in the form of personal memoirs or oral histories.

Anything that contains original information on a topic is considered a primary source. Usually, primary sources are the object discussed in your paper. For instance, if you are writing an analysis on Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, the book would be a primary source. But, just because a source is old does not mean it is a primary source.

Some examples of original, first-hand, authoritative accounts include:

• Letters, diaries or journals (Personal thoughts)
• Original photographs
• First-hand newspaper reports
• Speeches, autobiographies
• Creative works like plays, paintings and songs
• Research data and surveys

What is a Secondary Source? Secondary sources interpret or critique primary sources. They often include an analysis of the event that was discussed or featured in the primary source.  They are second-hand accounts that interpret or draw conclusions from one or more primary sources.

Some examples of works that interpret or critique primary sources include:

• Textbooks (May also be considered tertiary)
• Essays or reviews
• Articles that analyze or discuss ideas and events
• Criticisms or commentaries

What is a Tertiary Source? Tertiary sources generally provide an overview or summary of a topic, and may contain both primary and secondary sources. The information is displayed as entirely factual, and does not include analysis or critique.  Tertiary sources can also be collections of primary and secondary sources, such as databases, bibliographies and directories.

Some examples of sources that provide a summary or collection of a topic include:

• Textbooks (May also be considered secondary)
• Bibliographies or abstracts
• Wikipedia articles
• Encyclopedias

Using Primary, secondary and Tertiary Sources in Research Let’s say you are writing a research paper on the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) of 1972, but you are unfamiliar with it. A good place to gather a general idea or understanding of the ERA would be a tertiary source, such as Wikipedia or the Encyclopedia Britannica. There, you can read a summary of events on its history, key people involved, and legislation.

To find more in-depth analysis on the Equal Rights Amendment, you consult a secondary source: the nonfiction book Why We Lost the ERA by Jane Mansbridge and a newspaper article from the 1970’s that discuss and review the legislation. These provide a more focused analysis of the Equal Rights Amendment that you can include as sources in your paper (make sure you cite them!).  A primary source that could bolster your research would be a government document detailing the ERA legislation that initially passed in Congress, giving a first-hand account of the legislation that went through the House and Senate in 1972.

This video provides a great overview of primary and secondary sources: [ youtube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= PgfQC4d3pKc &w=420&h=315]

Source:  http://content.easybib.com/students/research-guide/primary-secondary-tertiary-sources/

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Conducting a Literature Review: Types of Literature

• Introduction
• 1. Choose Your Topic

Types of Literature

• 3. Search the Literature
• 4. Read & Analyze the Literature
• 5. Write the Review
• Keeping Track of Information
• Style Guides

Different types of publications have different characteristics.

Primary Literature Primary sources means original studies, based on direct observation, use of statistical records, interviews, or experimental methods, of actual practices or the actual impact of practices or policies. They are authored by researchers, contains original research data, and are usually published in a peer-reviewed journal. Primary literature may also include conference papers, pre-prints, or preliminary reports. Also called empirical research .

Secondary Literature Secondary literature consists of interpretations and evaluations that are derived from or refer to the primary source literature. Examples include review articles (such as meta-analysis and systematic reviews) and reference works. Professionals within each discipline take the primary literature and synthesize, generalize, and integrate new research.

Tertiary Literature Tertiary literature consists of a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources such as textbooks, encyclopedia articles, and guidebooks or handbooks. The purpose of tertiary literature is to provide an overview of key research findings and an introduction to principles and practices within the discipline.

Adapted from the Information Services Department of the Library of the Health Sciences-Chicago , University of Illinois at Chicago.

Types of Scientific Publications

These examples and descriptions of publication types will give you an idea of how to use various works and why you would want to write a particular kind of paper.

• Scholarly article aka empirical article
• Review article
• Conference paper

Scholarly (aka empirical) article -- example

Empirical studies use data derived from observation or experiment. Original research papers (also called primary research articles) that describe empirical studies and their results are published in academic journals.  Articles that report empirical research contain different sections which relate to the steps of the scientific method.

      Abstract - The abstract provides a very brief summary of the research.

     Introduction - The introduction sets the research in a context, which provides a review of related research and develops the hypotheses for the research.

     Method - The method section describes how the research was conducted.

     Results - The results section describes the outcomes of the study.

     Discussion - The discussion section contains the interpretations and implications of the study.

     References - A references section lists the articles, books, and other material cited in the report.

Review article -- example

A review article summarizes a particular field of study and places the recent research in context. It provides an overview and is an excellent introduction to a subject area. The references used in a review article are helpful as they lead to more in-depth research.

Many databases have limits or filters to search for review articles. You can also search by keywords like review article, survey, overview, summary, etc.

Conference proceedings, abstracts and reports -- example

Conference proceedings, abstracts and reports are not usually peer-reviewed.  A conference article is similar to a scholarly article insofar as it is academic. Conference articles are published much more quickly than scholarly articles. You can find conference papers in many of the same places as scholarly articles.

How Do You Identify Empirical Articles?

To identify an article based on empirical research, look for the following characteristics:

     The article is published in a peer-reviewed journal .

     The article includes charts, graphs, or statistical analysis .

     The article is substantial in size , likely to be more than 5 pages long.

     The article contains the following parts (the exact terms may vary): abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references .

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2-Types of Sources

4. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources

Another way to categorize information is by whether the information is in its original format or has been reinterpreted.

This information category is called publication mode and has to do with whether the information is

• Firsthand information—primary sources (information in its original form, not interpreted, translated, or published in another form).
• Secondhand information—secondary sources (a restatement, analysis, or interpretation of original information).
• Third-hand information—tertiary sources (a summary or repackaging of original information, often based on secondary information that has been published).

Here are examples to illustrate the first-handedness, second-handedness, and third-handedness of information:

When you make distinctions between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, you are relating the information itself to the context in which it was created. Understanding that relationship is an important skill that you’ll need in college, as well as in the workplace. Noting the relationship between creation and context helps us understand the “big picture” in which information operates and helps us figure out which information we can depend on. That’s a big part of thinking critically, a major benefit of actually becoming an educated person.

Primary Sources – Because it is in its original form, the information in primary sources has reached us from its creators without going through any filter. We get it firsthand. Here are some examples that are often used as primary sources, at least in disciplines other than the sciences:

• Any literary work, including novels, plays, and poems.
• Breaking news.
• Advertisements.
• Music and dance performances.
• Eyewitness accounts, including photographs and recorded interviews.
• Blog entries that are autobiographical.
• Scholarly blogs that provide data or are highly theoretical, even though they contain no autobiography.
• Artifacts such as tools, clothing, or other objects.
• Original documents such as tax returns, marriage licenses, and transcripts of trials.
• Websites, although many are secondary.
• Correspondence, including email.
• Records of organizations and government agencies.
• Journal articles that report research for the first time (at least the parts about the new research, plus their data).

(The term primary source doesn’t come up much in the sciences. Scientists often call a journal article that was the most helpful to their work their primary source.)

Secondary Source – These sources are translated, repackaged, restated, analyzed, or interpreted information from a primary source. Thus, the information comes to us secondhand, or through at least one filter. Here are some examples that are often used as secondary sources:

• All nonfiction books and magazine articles except autobiography.
• An article or website that critiques a novel, play, painting, or piece of music.
• An article or website that synthesizes expert opinion and several eyewitness accounts for a new understanding of an event.
• The literature review portion of a journal article.

Tertiary Source – These sources further repackage the original information used in secondary sources as they index, condense, or summarize the original.

Typically, by the time tertiary sources are developed, there have been many secondary sources prepared on their subjects, and you can think of tertiary sources as information that comes to us “thirdhand.” Tertiary sources are usually publications that you are not intended to read from cover to cover but to dip in and out of for the information you need. You can think of them as a good place for background information to start your research but a bad place to end up. Here are some examples that are often used as tertiary sources:

• Dictionaries
• Guide books, including the one you are now reading
• Survey articles
• Bibliographies
• Encyclopedias, including Wikipedia
• Most textbooks

Tertiary sources are usually not acceptable as cited sources in college research projects because they are so far from firsthand information. That’s why most professors don’t want you to use Wikipedia as a citable source: the information in Wikipedia is far from original information. Other people have considered it, decided what they think about it, rearranged it, and summarized it–all of which is actually what your professors want students , not another author, to do with the information in your research projects.

Activity: Primary, Secondary, or Tertiary?

The Details Are Tricky — A few things about labeling primary or secondary sources might surprise you:

• Sources become primary rather than always exist as primary sources.

It’s easy to think that it is the format of primary sources that makes them primary. But that’s not all that matters. So when you see lists like the one above of sources that are often used as primary sources, it’s wise to remember that the ones listed are not automatically already primary sources. Firsthand sources get that designation only when researchers actually find their information relevant and use it.

For instance: Records that could be relevant to those studying government are created every day by federal, state, county, and city governments as they operate. But until those raw data are actually used by a researcher, they cannot be considered primary sources.

Another example: A diary about flying missions kept by an American helicopter pilot in the Vietnam War is not a primary source until, say, a researcher uses it in her study of how the war was carried out. But it will never be a primary source for a researcher studying the U.S. public’s reaction to the war because it does not contain information relevant to that study. But if a researcher were to study, say, pilots’ long-term opinions about serving in the war and used that diary as a source, then it would become a primary source.

• Primary sources , even eyewitness accounts, are not necessarily accurate . Their relevance and credibility have to be evaluated, just like that of all sources.
• Something that is usually considered a secondary source can be considered a primary source, depending on the research project.

For instance, movie reviews are usually considered secondary sources. But if your research project is about the effect movie reviews have on ticket sales, the movie reviews you study would become primary sources.

• Deciding whether to consider a journal article a primary or a secondary source can be complicated for at least two reasons.

First, journal articles that report new research for the first time are usually based on data collected by the author or others. So some disciplines consider the data to be the primary source and consider the journal article that describes and analyzes them a secondary source.

However, particularly in the sciences, the original researcher might find it difficult or impossible (he or she might not be allowed) to share the data. So sometimes you have nothing more firsthand than the journal article, which argues for calling it the relevant primary source because it’s the closest thing that exists to the data.

Second, even journal articles that announce new research for the first time usually contain more than data. They also typically contain secondary source elements, such as a literature review, bibliography, and sections on data analysis and interpretation. So they can actually be a mix of primary and secondary elements. Even so, in some disciplines such as the sciences, a journal article that announces new research findings for the first time is considered to be, as a whole, a primary source for the researchers using it, particularly if it is where they got most of the information on which to base their own journal article.

ACTIVITY: Under What Circumstances?

Instructions: Look at each of the sources listed below and think of circumstances under which each could become a primary source. (There are probably many potential circumstances for each.) So just imagine you are a researcher with projects that would make each item firsthand information that is relevant to your work. What could a project be about that would make each source relevant firsthand information? Our answers are at the bottom of the page, but remember that there are many more–including the ones you think of that we didn’t!

• Fallingwater, a Pennsylvania home, designed and constructed by Frank Lloyd Wright in the 1930s.
• Poet W.H. Auden’s elegy for Y.S. Yeats.
• An arrowhead made by (Florida) Seminole Native Americans but found at Flint Ridge outside Columbus, Ohio.
• E-mail between the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, and her staff about North Korea.
• A marriage license.

Despite their trickiness, what primary sources usually offer is too good not to consider using because:

• They are original. This unfiltered, firsthand information is not available anywhere else.
• Their creator was a type of person unlike others in your research project, and you want to include that perspective.
• Their creator was present at an event and shares an eyewitness account.
• They are objects that existed at the particular time your project is studying.

Particularly in humanities courses, your professor may require you to use a certain number of primary sources for your project. In other courses, particularly in the sciences, you may be required to use only primary sources, which usually means journal articles in the sciences. If they are called primary sources in the sciences, it’s usually because the researchers got their information primarily from those sources.

What is considered primary and secondary sources can vary from discipline to discipline. If you are required to use primary sources for your research project, before getting too deep into your project check with your professor to make sure he or she agrees with your choices. After all, it’s your professor who will be grading your project. A librarian, too, can verify your choices. Just remember to take a copy of your assignment with you when you ask, because the librarian will want to see the original assignment. After all, that’s a primary source!

POSSIBLE ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY: Under What Circumstances?

• You are doing a study of the entrances Wright designed for homes, which were smaller than other architects of the time typically designed entrances.
• Your research project is about the Auden-Yeats relationship.
• Your research project is about trade among 19th-century Native Americans east of the Mississippi River.
• Your research project is on how Ambassador Haley conveyed a decision about North Korea to her staff.
• You are writing about the life of a person who claimed to have married several times, and you need more than her statements about when those marriages took place and to whom.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources of Information in the Sciences: Types of Information Sources

• Types of Information Sources
• Videos about Information Sources
• Science Databases and Popular Science Sources

What are Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources of Information?

What are the different types of sources of information used in research .

Generally, there are three basic types of information sources in research including primary, secondary, and tertiary.  They are as follows:

Primary Sources:  Primary sources of information are first hand accounts of research or an event including original scholarly research results, raw data, testimony, speeches, historic objects or other evidence that provides unique and original information about a person or an event. These sources were created at the time which the observation or event occurred but can also be created later by an eyewitness.  Primary sources allow researchers direct access to original ideas, events, and data. Some examples of primary sources include published original scholarly research articles, original creative works, and eyewitness accounts of contemporaneous events.

Secondary Sources:    Secondary sources analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and interpret primary sources (or other secondary sources). Secondary sources are created after an event has occurred and are written by someone who did not experience or observe the event first hand.  Some examples of secondary sources include articles that interpret original scholarly research results and critiques of original creative works.  Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather comment on and discuss previous evidence.

Tertiary Sources:   Tertiary sources of information provide broad overviews or condensed narratives of topics. They analyze and summarize the information in primary and secondary sources in order to provide background on a idea, event, or topic. Tertiary resources often provide data in a convenient form and provide context of the topic for a frame of reference.  Some examples of tertiary sources include textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and almanacs.

Examples of Information Source Types

A Word about Wikipedia

• Wikipedia: A Good Starting Point But NOT A Citable Source

What is Pop-sci?

What is pop-sci?

Elements of a Scholarly Research Article

Common elements of a scholarly article:

• Authors and their credentials
• Introduction including background information on subject, literature review, statement of research problem, and hypothesis
• Limitations of research
• Recommendations for further research

Quick Summary

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1.4 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

Types of scholarly sources.

Now that we know the difference between scholarly and non scholarly sources, it is important to know the different types of scholarly sources.

Scholarly sources can be primary, secondary or tertiary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources present original findings or research. Authors describe their research and their conclusions

– Journal articles describing original research

– Theses and dissertations

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources analyze, summarize or synthesize original research. They comment on information presented in primary sources

– Review articles (often have review in the title)

– Books (including textbooks)

Note: Biotech companies often have review articles on their websites. Though they are designed to sell products, they can contain useful information and figures. This type of review article is also considered to be grey literature (see end of page for more information).

Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources index, abstract, organize, compile, or digest other sources

– Dictionaries and encyclopedias

– Handbooks and guidebooks

What Source Should You Use?

It is important to know when to use each type of scholarly source:

Primary Sources – Use primary sources to provide credible evidence for your arguments and to back up specific claims. As primary sources provide authoritative, first-hand research information, they are important to use in your work.

Secondary Sources – Use secondary sources to gain an overview of your topic. As secondary resources summarize or synthesize a number of primary resources, they are useful to understand the various aspects of your research topic.

Tertiary Sources – Tertiary sources are used to provide technical information or general background information. Refer to tertiary sources when need definitions or basic information about a topic.

What About Grey Literature?

Grey literature is research that is either unpublished or not commercially published. Grey literature can be published by governments, NGO’s, industry and academic institutions.

Even though grey literature can present original research, it is not peer-reviewed . Though it is not peer-reviewed, grey literature can still have useful, reliable information.

Examples of grey literature include:

• Government publications
• Conference proceedings
• Theses and dissertations
• Research reports
• Newsletters and bulletins

Note : academic materials like theses, dissertations and conference proceedings are both primary literature and grey literature as they present original research, but do not go through the peer-review process.

Library Skills for 2nd Year Biological Sciences Copyright © 2020 by Lauren Stieglitz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

Primary, secondary, and tertiary literature, primary literature, secondary literature, tertiary literature.

• Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources in the Humanities

• Text only document for primary, secondary, tertiary sources

Graphic adapted from UC San Diego:  http://ucsd.libguides.com/MCWP/sources

Primary Literature in the Sciences

In the sciences, the primary literature presents the immediate results of research activities.  It often includes analysis of data collected in the field or laboratory.  Primary literature presents original research and/or new scientific discoveries.  

Examples of Primary Literature in the Sciences:

• Original research published as articles in peer-reviewed journals.
• Dissertations
• Technical reports
• Conference proceedings

Identifying Primary Literature in the Sciences

When looking at a journal article to determine whether or not is it primary literature, look for the following common components of a primary research article:

• Introduction
• Methods or Materials and Methods 
• Conclusions

Secondary Literature in the Sciences

The secondary literature in the sciences summarizes and synthesizes the primary literature.  It is usually broader and less current than primary literature.  Since most information sources in the secondary literature contain extensive bibliographies, they can be useful for finding more information on a topic.  

Examples of Secondary Literature in the Sciences: 

• Literature review articles

Tertiary Literature in the Sciences

Tertiary literature presents summaries or condensed versions of materials usually with references to primary or secondary sources.  They can be a good place to look up facts or get a general overview of a subject.  

Examples of Tertiary Literature in the Sciences:

• Dictionaries
• Encyclopedias
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PubMed - Searching Medical Literature: Types of Medical Literature

• Getting Started
• Basic PubMed Searches
• Advanced Search Techniques
• Using Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
• Clinical Queries
• My NCBI - Personalized PubMed
• Research Tips

Types of Medical Literature

• Anatomy of a Citation

Different types of publications have different characteristics.

Primary Literature Primary sources are original materials.  It is authored by researchers, contains original research data, and is usually published in a peer-reviewed journal. Primary literature may also include conference papers, pre-prints, or preliminary reports.

Secondary Literature Secondary literature consists of interpretations and evaluations that are derived from or refer to the primary source literature. Examples include review articles (specifically meta-analysis and systematic reviews) and reference works. Professionals within each discipline take the primary literature and synthesize, generalize, and integrate new research.

Tertiary Literature Tertiary literature consists of a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources such as textbooks, encyclopedia articles, and guidebooks or handbooks. The purpose of tertiary literature is to provide an overview of key research findings and an introduction to principles and practices within the discipline.

Adapted from the Information Services Department of the Library of the Health Sciences-Chicago , University of Illinois at Chicago.

Different kinds of information sources are useful depending on your topic and the type of information you need.

Books are good for general background and in-depth coverage of a topic. They are often not as current as journal articles because they take a long time to research, write, and publish.

Books may be useful when:

• You need a broad overview. There are times when you want someone to explain everything to you - beginning to end. Books are very appropriate for this.
• Your research topic is historical . Books lend themselves to topics in which the facts don't change much over time.
• You want several opinions from one place . Some books collect essays that give you several points of view in one source.

Books may not be useful when:

• The topic is very recent . Books take years to get researched, written, published, purchased, and put on library shelves. If the issue you are researching is constantly changing, a book may be outdated by the time it gets to the library.
• You have a fairly narrow topic . Sometimes books are too broad-based to address specific or narrow points.

Articles tend to be narrow in scope and are good for focused treatment of a topic. Scholarly journals contain high-quality articles usually written by experts and use data and statistics to back arguments. Popular magazines and newspapers (such as Newsweek, People , or the New York Times ) are good for current treatment of a topic and are good resources for editorials and opinions. Note that popular magazines are not peer-reviewed.

Articles may be useful when:

• Your topic is very recent . Articles are intended to keep people up-to-date on the latest developments in various issues.
• Your research topic is very narrow in scope . Some topics are so specific, whole books will not be written on them.

Articles may not be useful when:

• You need background or overview information . Articles tend to focus on a specific aspect of a topic.
• Your topic covers a long time span . When an issue has a long history, you may only find one aspect discussed in an article.

Web sites can be very good for finding quality information including primary sources, statistical information, educational sites on many levels, policy, opinion of all kinds, and much more. However, you have to take the responsibility to rigorously evaluate each site for quality; anyone can post a Web page, regardless of their expertise or intentions.

Adapted from the University of Connecticut Libraries

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• Last Updated: Aug 7, 2024 2:14 PM
• URL: https://research.library.gsu.edu/pubmed