ssue(s) — where you outline the specific issues that are relevant to your essay.
hesis — where you state your position in relation to the issues.
cope — where you outline what exactly is going to be covered in relation to your argument.
Each paragraph should focus on one idea only.
The idea can then be developed in a number of ways, such as through explanation, evaluation, exemplification or incorporation of research data.
Your paragraphs should be balanced — keep to the rule of no less than 3 sentences per paragraph.
Your paragraphs should link together — use connective words, both within and between paragraphs, to keep a sense of cohesion and linkage.
Begin with a link to the preceding paragraph.
Restate your thesis and summarise your principal points.
End with a broad statement relating to the significance of your argument.
Writing a good essay can be compared to baking a cake—if you do not mix the right ingredients in the right quantities or order, and do not follow the required processes, then the end result will not be what you hoped for! There is no set model for an essay, but the English for Uni website presents one popular way to do it. The following example is based around a 1000 word discussion essay. To read about essays in greater detail, download this PDF or Word document .
It is important for you to analyse your topic and title very carefully in order to understand the specific aim of the question. To do this, you need to break down the question. Most essay questions will contain these three elements:
Content/Topic words give the subject of the essay. Limiting/Focus words provide a narrower scope for the essay. Directive or Instructional words tell you how to approach the essay. Look at these sample essay titles from A) Economics and B) Nutrition:
In example B, answering the question fully involves looking closely at the directive word Discuss and analysing its exact meaning.
Discuss: Present various points and consider the different sides. A discussion is usually longer than an explanation, as you need to present evidence and state which argument is more persuasive.
So, in your essay entitled:
“Chocolate is a healthy food”. Discuss.”
you would need to:
You also need to consider the length of your essay. In a 2000 word essay you can cover more points than in a 1000 word one! This example is based on a 1000 word essay.
In relation to Content words your focus is clear: chocolate!
In relation to Limiting words, you need to consider what healthy food actually means. A good way to expand your vocabulary is to look at the Academic Word List (developed by Averil Coxhead at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand). The uefap website also has very useful lists of words found in particular subjects, such as mathematics, business and health science.
Directive or Instructional words
There are a number of directive words, or instructional words as they are sometimes called, which tell you what to do in your essay. Some common directive words include:
Look at something in depth, examining the details. | |
Give reasons for why you agree or disagree with something and show that you understand different points of view. | |
Compare different points and see if the argument or information is true or persuasive. | |
Show the similarities between two sets of information or arguments. ‘Compare’ often appears with ‘contrast’ in essay questions. | |
Show the differences between two sets of information or arguments. ‘Contrast’ often appears with ‘compare’ in essay questions. | |
Evaluate an argument or a text to see if it is good. ‘Criticise’ does not mean you have to be negative. | |
Evaluate an argument or a text to see if it is good. ‘Critique’ does not mean you have to be negative. | |
Explain the meaning of a word or a term, especially in the context of your essay. You can use a dictionary definition if it’s helpful, but remember that the word might be used in a particular way in the subject you are studying. | |
Give details about something. | |
Look at the different sides of an argument and say which is more convincing. Help your reader to understand more about something by giving relevant details. | |
Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the material and give your final opinion of it. | |
Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the material and give your final opinion of it. | |
Help your reader to understand more about something by giving relevant details. | |
Give examples to make something clearer. | |
Help your reader to understand more about something and provide your own perspective if necessary. | |
Give reasons to explain what you think about a subject. | |
Give a broad explanation of something without too many details. | |
Show if something is true and demonstrate how you reached that conclusion. | |
Look at something in detail and give your perspective on it. | |
Put your ideas or arguments clearly. | |
Pull everything together and present it clearly without using too much detail. |
Brainstorming means producing ideas related to a theme. You can write the ideas down in any order.
Here is a possible brainstorm for the chocolate essay, done in the form of a mind map:
Text description of the above image.
Note that the central focus (the essay question) has several boxes linked to it which represent the writer’s first ideas. Other boxes area then added. A brainstorm like this is organic; it does not necessarily stop growing. You can add, remove or reorganise it as you wish. If you like to put more system into your brainstorm, use a step-based model such as the following:
Step 1 Time yourself for the first draft of your mind map Set a fixed time for this drafting from your base topic/question and stick to it.
Step 2 Look critically at your draft Which ideas could you develop or remove? Is there a balance of ideas?
Step 3 Think about ordering Which issues might you tackle first in your essay and why?
Step 4 Anticipate readers’ needs Are there any words and/or phrases that might need explaining? If so, when is the best time in the essay to do this?
Step 5 Move Reflect upon your brainstorming. Once you are happy with your brainstorm you can use it to plan your essay.
Once you have done some brainstorming, it’s time to get researching!
Remember that an academic essay requires academic sources.
Finding what you want takes time and effort. The best place to start (assuming you haven’t already been given a prescribed reading list!) is by using an academic database. If you are not sure how to use a database, then book an appointment with your subject librarian at your institution.
Another option is to use an internet academic search engine such as Google Scholar. N.B. Make sure you are logged in to the library at your educational institution, so that you can use the full database capacities linked to Google Scholar.
You need to enter keywords to begin with. For the chocolate essay, one of the first associations we thought of was chocolate and mood. If we enter these words into Google Scholar it will look like this:
This will take you to a webpage which lists a number of relevant articles, like this:
The first two articles have been cited 90 times and 103 times respectively, suggesting that they might be good sources for your essay. The links to the right indicate that you can access the articles through your university website.
If you think an article looks promising, click on the link and look at the abstract:
Read the abstract and ask yourself if the content of the article is likely to be relevant to your essay.
a) If yes, click on the PDF. This will take you to the full article which you can then skim read quickly to decide if it is relevant. b) If no, then you have a choice. Either click on the links to other related articles or go back to Google Scholar and then choose another article to skim read.
If you do not find what you are looking for, then you need to change your keywords search.
When you have found what you think might be useful, make a note in your plan at the appropriate place.
Do the same thing for all the points that need academic references to support them.
Remember that during your research you might discover new issues and perspectives that you hadn’t considered before, so your original plan might be quite different from the final one!
Once you have brainstormed your ideas and done some initial research, start putting them into a logical order as part of the essay planning process. Brainstorming helps you to see what you know about the topic. Researching will give you more depth. Brainstorming, researching and planning are cyclical, which means that each process helps the other processes and you might want to do each process more than once.
Here is the brainstorm for the chocolate essay again, which you can use to develop the planning process:
Read the text version of the brainstorming mind map .
Planning or a plan?
In the first instance, it is important to distinguish between planning and a plan . Planning is an ongoing process, from when you receive the essay title to when you submit your final draft. A plan is a physical outline of the way you intend to conceptualise, structure and present your ideas.
Plans can be structured/restructured at any time during the planning process.
At this point it is time to write your first plan. However, do not stop doing research yet. Why not?
A plan helps you to put your ideas into a form which gives you a for your . | Once you have written your ideas up into a plan, you are beginning to in . | You might surprise yourself by discovering . This can help . |
Remember that a plan is just that—a plan. It can be modified after you do more research; you might discover some different perspectives or issues you hadn’t previously anticipated.
Example: Developing an essay plan after research (linear style)
Title: “Chocolate is a healthy food.” Discuss.
Introduction Context for paper – popularity of chocolate. Issue – whether chocolate is a healthy food is questionable. Thesis – chocolate may be enjoyable but not healthy. Scope – (only 4 aspects are covered here to keep the example short)
Positive: | Can positively impact on mood |
---|---|
Positive: | Possible health benefits for cardiovascular system |
Negative: | Chocolate can be seen as a drug rather than a food |
Negative: | Potential correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity |
Main body Paragraph 1 with possible sources Ways in which chocolate can impact positively on mood. ‘Feel good effect’ - Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006), Scholey and Owen (2013), Macht and Dettmer (2006) and Macht and Mueller (2007).
Is the chocolate and improved mood scenario measurable/transient? Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006) – chocolate mood effects do not last. Macht and Dettmer (2006) – anticipation effect and more studies needed.
Paragraph 2 Possible benefits of chocolate on cardiovascular health – how much/what type(s) of chocolate have benefit? (Sources needed to help answer these questions.) Problems with measuring correlation between chocolate consumption and cardiovascular health. (Sources needed to help answer this.)
Paragraph 3 Chocolate best viewed as a food or a drug? Indulgence or addiction – are the boundaries unclear? (See what external sources have to say on this) Medication elements of chocolate? (Readings needed around this issue.)
Paragraph 4 The correlation between chocolate and obesity. (Definition of obesity needed.) What does the literature say in relation to other causal factors?
Conclusion Summary of four arguments presented. Chocolate is not a healthy food, but it is enjoyable nevertheless.
Example: Developed essay plan (linear style)
Main body Paragraph 1 Ways in which chocolate can impact positively on mood. ‘Feel good effect’-Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006), Scholey and Owen (2013), Macht and Dettmer (2006) and Macht and Mueller (2007)
Is the chocolate and improved mood scenario measurable/transient? Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006) chocolate mood effects do not last. Macht and Dettmer (2006) – anticipation effect and more studies needed.
Paragraph 2 Possible benefits of chocolate on cardiovascular health – how much/what type(s) of chocolate have benefit? Can provide heart-friendly flavanols (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002) – helps with blood clotting and is anti-inflammatory (Schramm et al., 2001) Maximising benefits of chocolate lies in minimising fat levels (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002). Current processes destroy flavanols (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002). Note the change of focus from the original idea (correlation between chocolate consumption and cardiovascular health) due to the lack of research data available.
Paragraph 3 Chocolate best viewed as a food or a drug? Indulgence or addiction – are the boundaries unclear? Chocolate contains some biologically active ingredients, but in small amounts (Bruinsma & Taren, 1999). ‘Chocolate addicts’ – negative correlation: chocolate consumption and mood (Macdiramid & Hetherington, 1995) but chocolate cravings sensory rather than addictive (Bruinsma & Taren,1999). Medication elements of chocolate? Used in relation to magnesium deficiency in women (Pennington, 2000 in Steinberg et al., 2003). Findings concur with Abraham and Lubran (1981) who found a correlation between magnesium deficiency and nervous tension in women. Note the narrow focus of medical benefits (i.e. only considering magnesium) due to the short length of the essay.
Paragraph 4 The correlation between chocolate and obesity. No specific correlation found in literature (Beckett, 2008; Lambert, 2009). Note the findings show that there is no clear relationship between chocolate and obesity – an issue flagged in the introduction. Typified by Mellor’s (2013) findings – adults showed no weight increase after chocolate controlled diet. Lambert (2009) exemplified that chocolate consumption alone unlikely to precipitate obesity. ‘Chocoholic’ more likely to consume other sweet foods and less likely to exercise as much as others. Chocolate consumption thus marginal in causes of obesity.
Conclusion Summary of four arguments presented Chocolate is not a healthy food, but it is enjoyable nevertheless.
It might seem strange to think about writing your conclusion before you write the body of your essay, but unless you know where you are going you can easily lose direction. Also, the conclusion is the last thing the reader actually reads, so it needs to be memorable.
There are a number of questions you should ask yourself, such as:
How will everything finish? What are you aiming for? What final impression do you want your readers to have?
Your conclusion ties your essay together. It should normally:
So, our chocolate essay conclusion should mirror this pattern.
The conclusion should not just repeat the ideas from the introduction. The introduction includes the background to the essay, the important issues and a thesis statement. The introduction leads your reader into the essay. The conclusion reminds your reader of the main points made in your essay and leaves your reader with a final impression and ideas to think about later.
Chocolate essay conclusion
The following conclusion has three parts.
(A) The first sentence links the conclusion to the discussion in the previous paragraph. (B) The following sentences restate the main points and reaffirm the thesis. (C) The last sentence is a broad statement relating to the significance of the argument.
(A) Obesity and chocolate consumption seemingly have no proven correlations. (B) Yet, in this essay, many chocolate focused arguments have been presented, including the transient effect of chocolate on mood and evidence that it is as likely to create feelings of guilt as of well-being. Another possible positive dimension to chocolate is a correlation with cardiovascular health. Yet the potential benefits of flavanols in chocolate are currently offset by the high fat/carbohydrate content of most forms of chocolate. Whether chocolate is a food or a drug is also unclear. The literature outlines the chemical properties of chocolate which could help explain some addictive type behaviour, particularly in regards to nervous tension in women, but also there is a strong research focus on chocolate as a sensory-based indulgence. (C) It can therefore be said that chocolate is not a healthy food, but can be enjoyed as part of a healthy and balanced diet and lifestyle.
At the heart of your essay lie your body paragraphs. Typically, a body paragraph will follow the format below.
The topic sentence can function as a sentence of transition from the previous paragraph. The Topic Sentence should unambiguously express the topic of the paragraph and be linked with the overall thesis of the essay. | |
Elaboration of the main point should add more detailed information in relation to the topic sentence. Examples and Evidence should support your main point using paraphrases, summaries or direct quotations, all of which need to be appropriately referenced. | |
The Concluding Sentence should echo the main point of the paragraph and function as a bridge to the next paragraph. |
N.B. Paragraphs should be balanced – keep to the ‘no less than 3 sentences per paragraph’ rule.
Remember to link all the points in your paragraph to the idea in the topic sentence. One way to check if you have done this is to write keywords in the margin for each sentence. If your keywords are related to the topic sentence, your paragraph is good. If there are ideas that are not related, you should remove them.
In the following example, the unrelated ideas are highlighted in red:
Paragraph | Sentence keywords |
---|---|
It has been claimed that chocolate is a healthy food, but in fact it contains a lot of sugar, which can be unhealthy. For example, sugar can cause tooth decay, which can lead to dental problems in later life. Too much sugar can also lead to obesity, which is a serious health risk. In addition, sugar contains a high amount of fructose, which is bad for the liver. The amount of sugar contained in chocolate means, therefore, that chocolate, particularly milk and white chocolate, may not be healthy. | Topic sentence – sugar and health sugar and tooth decay (health)
obesity (health)
|
These unrelated ideas can be removed to make a more coherent paragraph:
It has been claimed that chocolate is a healthy food, but in fact it contains a lot of sugar, which can be unhealthy. For example, sugar can cause tooth decay, which can lead to dental problems in later life. Too much sugar can also lead to obesity, which is a serious health risk. In addition, sugar contains a high amount of fructose, which is bad for the liver. The amount of sugar contained in chocolate means, therefore, that chocolate, particularly milk and white chocolate, may not be healthy.
You can then add examples and references to make your paragraph stronger.
Here is an example:
View the text description of the above body paragraph example .
Once you have drafted your main body paragraphs and your conclusion, it is time to draft your introduction.
Writing your introduction last means you are more likely to have a tighter fit between the introduction, main body and conclusion because you already know what your essay will be about.
Let us have another look at the functions of an introduction:
B ackground statement — where you set the context for your essay I ssue(s) — where you outline the specific issues that are relevant to your essay. T hesis — where you state your position in relation to the issues. S cope — where you outline what exactly is going to be covered in relation to your argument.
The thesis and scope are sometimes combined to form one or more sentences known as a thesis statement . The thesis statement often comes at the end of the introduction, although it can be written earlier.
Sometimes an essay will begin with a direct quote to draw readers into the essay.
Sometimes, particularly in very short essays, the essay will begin with an issue rather than a background statement.
Essays also sometimes begin with an issue, outline the scope and then move on to end the introduction with the thesis statement.
It is important to remember that there is not a fixed ordering for the introduction, though the BITS/BIST patterning is a very common one, which is why it is modelled for you as an example.
Example introduction
“Chocolate is a healthy food”. Discuss.
Explanation | Sentence(s) in order |
---|---|
Background statement which draws the reader into the issue | Since Spanish explorers brought back chocolate from the new world, chocolate consumption has become a worldwide phenomenon. |
Additional information to the background statement | At first, chocolate, a derivative of the cacao bean, was consumed as a drink, only later achieving mass popularity in tablet or bar form. |
The issue that is suggested by the title | However, chocolate's inherent popularity does not equate to it possessing healthy properties, as suggested by the title. |
Scope of the essay | The realities of chocolate are more down to earth; a number of these realities will be addressed in this essay. Chocolate has chemical properties that can influence mood and there is possible evidence for some positive impacts of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Yet, such positive attributes are counterbalanced somewhat by the argument that, in some instances, chocolate can be viewed as a drug rather than a food. Moreover, there is the possibility of some correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity. |
Thesis statement | Thus, it will be argued that despite chocolate's positive effect in some cases on mood and the cardiovascular system it has also been linked to addiction and obesity. |
When you are writing an essay you will need to include references to external academic sources.
Why do you need to reference?
What does referencing include?
A. In-text citations, which can take three forms:
B. A reference list at the end of your essay, which includes details such as:
Referencing is integral to academic essay writing and shouldn’t be viewed as an ‘add-on’. When you are referencing, always use a referencing guide to help you ensure 100% accuracy.
Normally, when writing an essay at university you will be expected to use only academic sources. The following learning guide on source credibility will help you to determine whether an external source is academic or not.
The chocolate essay uses the American Psychological Association (APA) style of referencing, which is easy to distinguish from the Harvard Author-Date System, as the format is different:
Harvard | APA |
---|---|
When you are writing an essay and including external sources, more often than not you want the reader to focus on what is said rather than who is saying it. In that case the information comes before the author. For example:
Such citations are called information-centred citations.
When the focus is more on who is saying it then the citation is written like this:
Such citations are called author-centred citations.
Try and achieve a balance between both types of in text-references in your essay writing.
Reference list
In the APA style of referencing, the reference list has certain conventions that you must also follow. Here are some examples from the chocolate essay:
Text description of the APA style of referencing example above.
Don’t make referencing something you do just as an editing or proofreading activity. Include your in-text citations and reference list as part of your first draft.
An excellent website to help with your APA referencing is the APA Interactive tool at Massey University.
Leave yourself enough time to look at your essay more than once. For a 1000 word essay you need at least three days to redraft your essay.
Always save each draft as a separate file; then you can see how your essay develops and improves.
Here are the sorts of questions you should ask yourself:
View a text version of the redrafting your essay diagram above.
You can also look at other checklists such as this one on editing your own work .
Let’s see how the writer of the chocolate essay redrafted their original introduction:
View the text version of the redrafted essay .
Now compare the above with the final draft:
Since Spanish explorers brought back chocolate from the new world, chocolate consumption has become a worldwide phenomenon. At first, chocolate, a derivative of the cacao bean, was consumed as a drink, only later achieving mass popularity in tablet or bar form. However, chocolate’s inherent popularity does not equate to it possessing healthy properties, as suggested by the title. The realities of chocolate are more down to earth; a number of these realities will be addressed in this essay. Chocolate has chemical properties that can influence mood and there is possible evidence for some positive impacts of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Yet, such positive attributes are counterbalanced somewhat by the argument that, in some instances, chocolate can be viewed as a drug rather than a food. Moreover, there is the possibility of some correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity. Thus, it will be argued that despite chocolate’s positive effect in some cases on mood and the cardiovascular system it has also been linked to addiction and obesity.
Take your time and be careful when redrafting—it will be worth it!
How do you write in an academic way?
Your lecturers will want to hear your ‘voice’ as they read your essay.
Imagine your essay as a kind of story. You are the principal storyteller, the internal voice of the writer, leading the reader through to your conclusion.
During the story, there are different voices that appear from time to time. These are the external voices (citations) that add substance to your story, providing detail and support for what you are saying and sometimes even giving an alternative perspective. The external voices can be divided into two categories in your essay: the direct external voice of an author (through a direct quote) and the indirect external voice of an author (through a paraphrase).
The reader needs to know at all times whose voice they are hearing. Is it your internal voice or the external voice of other authors?
You might wonder how you can include your own voice and still sound academic when you are writing about a subject area in which you have little (or no) knowledge. Including your voice does not mean that you should say ‘I think’ or ‘in my opinion’.
Here are some examples of the critical/analytical language that you can use as your own internal voice when you present other people’s ideas:
Phrase | How your voice is included |
---|---|
It has been argued (Smith & Jones, 2010) that… | Pointing out what has been said by an external source |
As Smith and Jones (2010) note… | Showing your agreement with the external source |
However, Smith and Jones (2010) fail to address… | Showing that you recognise the limitations of the source |
Seemingly, Smith and Jones (2010) have… | Showing you have tentative support for the external source |
On the other hand, Smith and Jones (2010) argue that… | Showing that there is a contrast with a previous argument you have included |
Smith and Jones (2010) assert that… | Showing that the position of the external source is strong but you are likely to have doubts about it |
It has been suggested that… (Smith & Jones, 2010; Brown & Culbertson, 2005; Lloyd & Giggs, 2004) | Showing that you recognise a number of authors have reached a similar conclusion, and you might/might not agree with it |
One advantage of the work of Smith and Jones (2010)… | Showing that you are positively engaging with an external source |
Let’s look at one of the paragraphs from the chocolate essay to see how the text is an interplay of the internal voice of the writer and the external voices of other authors. The internal voice of the writer is colour-coded in yellow; the indirect external voices of other authors (i.e. paraphrases) are coded in grey; and the direct external voices of other authors (i.e. quotations) are coded in blue.
View a text version of the voice explanation above.
This is a balanced paragraph. The writer sets the scene at the beginning of the topic sentence and also links together all of the sentences, using their own voice to lead into content which is provided by the external voices.
Look at the same paragraph re-written, with the amount of the writer’s voice substantially reduced:
View a text version of the above re-written paragraph .
Here the writer is not ‘in charge’ of the paragraph, and it reads a little like a list. That is something your lecturers do not want to see.
When you are drafting your paragraphs, use a colour-coding system like the one used here. It will help you ensure your academic voice is clear!
When you get more confident in using external sources, you will gradually expand the language of your critical internal voice. The Phrasebank website at Manchester University provides examples of some more expressions to use when assessing external sources.
Editing focuses on the big picture elements such as overall structure, appropriate paragraphing and whether the question has been answered.
Proofreading has a micro-focus on the details of your essay, such as formatting, grammar and punctuation.
Everybody has their own personal style of editing and proofreading. You need to focus on the types of errors you commonly make by looking at the marker’s comments on your previous work.
Some people proofread alone; some get other people involved. Having others involved is a really good idea.
Fresh eyes can help you find things you might not otherwise have seen.
Here are some things to consider when proofreading and editing:
View a text version of the above proofreading and editing your essay considerations.
The Purdue OWL website has even more detail on the proofreading process.
Students regularly underestimate the time it takes to write an essay, in particular the planning and researching stages.
Before you begin your essay, have a look at the Massey University assignment planning calculator . You might be surprised how long the whole process takes!
As you can see from the assignment planning calculator, if you only start your essay a few days before the due date, you will have to do things too quickly.
If you think of the essay/cake analogy, you need time to mix all the ingredients properly, or the end result will not be what you want to share with others!
To write a 1000 word essay, ideally you should allow yourself about 3 weeks.
Let’s have a look at how an essay time management ‘cake’ could be divided into slices:
View a text description of the writing an essay time management 'cake' .
You can see that the biggest part of your time is spent on the planning/research elements and redrafting/editing/proofreading elements, which together should comprise around 60% of your time.
Have a look at another model to see what you also need to consider:
Here is the final version of the chocolate essay. You can also download a PDF version of the chocolate essay .
“Chocolate is a healthy food.” Discuss.
Since Spanish explorers brought back chocolate from the new world, chocolate consumption has become a worldwide phenomenon. At first, chocolate, a derivative of the cacao bean, was consumed as a drink, only later achieving mass popularity in tablet or bar form. However, chocolate’s inherent popularity does not equate to it possessing healthy properties, as suggested by the title. The realities of chocolate are more down to earth; a number of these realities will be addressed in this essay. Chocolate has chemical properties that can influence mood and there is possible evidence for some positive impacts of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Yet, such positive attributes are counterbalanced somewhat by the argument that, in some instances, chocolate can be viewed as a drug rather than a food. Moreover, there is the possibility of some correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity. Thus, it will be argued that despite chocolate’s positive effect in some cases on mood and the cardiovascular system it has also been linked to addiction and obesity.
Consumption of chocolate is something that many enjoy, and there is evidence (Parker, Parker, & Brotchie, 2006) that high carbohydrate foods such as chocolate do have a ‘feel good’ effect. Moreover, Scholey and Owen (2013) in a systematic review of the literature in the field point to several studies, such as Macht and Dettmer (2006) and Macht and Mueller (2007), which appear to confirm this effect. Yet, as Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006, p. 150) note, the mood effects of chocolate "are as ephemeral as holding a chocolate in one’s mouth". In addition, mood is something that is difficult to isolate and quantify, and aside from the study by Macht and Dettmer (2006) there appears to be little research on any longer term mood affecting influences of chocolate. Another point is raised by Macht and Dettmer (2006), whose study found that positive responses to chocolate correlated more with anticipation and temporary sensory pleasure, whereas guilt was also a statistically significant factor for many, for whom the ‘feel-good’ effect would be minimalised. As these authors stress, “temporal tracking of [both] positive and negative emotions” (p.335) before and after consuming chocolate in future studies could help in further understanding the ‘feel good’ effect and more negative emotions.
Another possible positive influence of chocolate is upon cardiovascular health. Chocolate, processed accordingly, can be a provider of significant quantities of heart-friendly flavanols (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002) which help in delaying blood clotting and reducing inflammation (Schramm et al., 2001). Such attributes of flavanols in chocolate need to be considered in the context of chocolate’s other components – approximately 30% fat, 61% carbohydrate, 6% protein and 3% liquid and minerals (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002). The key to maximising the benefits of flavanols in chocolate appears to lie in the level of fats present. Cocoa, which is simply chocolate minus the fat, is the most obvious candidate for maximising heart health, but as Hannum, Schmitz and Keen (2002) note, most cocoa products are made through an alkali process which destroys many flavanols. Optimal maximisation of the flavanols involves such compounds being present in cocoa and chocolate products at levels where they are biologically active (Ariefdjohan & Savaiano, 2005).
The biological makeup of chocolate is also relevant in determining whether chocolate is better viewed as a food or a drug, but the boundaries between indulgence and addictive behaviour are unclear. Chocolate contains some biologically active elements including methylxanthines, and cannabinoid-like unsaturated fatty acids (Bruinsma & Taren, 1999) which could represent a neurochemical dependency potential for chocolate, yet are present in exceedingly small amounts. Interestingly, and linked to chocolate and mood, Macdiarmid and Hetherington (1995) claim their study found that “self-identified chocolate ‘addicts’” reported a negative correlation between chocolate consumption and mood. This is perhaps indicative of addictive or compulsive type behaviour. However, as Bruinsma and Taren (1999) note, eating chocolate can represent a sensory reward based, luxurious indulgence, based around texture, aroma and flavour anticipation, rather than a neurochemically induced craving. Yet, it has been argued that chocolate is sometimes used as a form of self-medication, particularly in relation to magnesium deficiency. A study by Pennington (2000 in Steinberg, Bearden, & Keen 2003) noted that women do not generally meet US guidelines for trace elements, including magnesium. This correlates with earlier studies by Abraham and Lubran (1981), who found a high correlation between magnesium deficiency and nervous tension in women. Thus, tension-related chocolate cravings could be a biological entity fuelled by magnesium deficiency. Overall, however, it would appear that the proportion of people using chocolate as a drug rather than a food based sensory indulgence is small, though further research might prove enlightening.
A final point to consider in relation to chocolate is the perception that chocolate is linked to obesity. A person is defined as being obese when their Body Mass Index is greater than 30. The literature on chocolate and obesity has clearly demonstrated that there are no specific correlations between the two variables (Beckett, 2008; Lambert, 2009). This is typified by the findings of Mellor (2013), who found that, over a period of eight weeks of eating 45 grams of chocolate per day, a group of adults demonstrated no significant weight increase. As Lambert (2009) notes, chocolate consumption alone is not likely to cause obesity, unless large amounts of other calorie dense foods are consumed and this calorie dense intake is greater than needed for bodily function, bearing in mind levels of activity. The stereotypical ‘chocoholic’ seems more likely to consume many other sweet foods and be less likely to take exercise than other people, so chocolate consumption is only one possible variable when considering the causes of obesity.
Obesity and chocolate consumption seemingly have no proven correlations. Yet, in this essay, many chocolate focused arguments have been presented, including the transient effect of chocolate on mood and the fact that it is as likely to create feelings of guilt as of well-being. Another possible positive dimension to chocolate is a correlation with cardiovascular health. Yet the potential benefits of flavanols in chocolate are currently offset by the high fat/carbohydrate content of most forms of chocolate. Whether chocolate is a food or a drug is also unclear. The literature outlines the chemical properties of chocolate which could help explain some addictive type behaviour, particularly in regards to nervous tension in women, but there is also a strong research focus on chocolate as a sensory-based indulgence. It can therefore be said that chocolate is not a healthy food, but can be enjoyed as part of a healthy and balanced diet and lifestyle.
(Word count: 1087. This is within 10% of the word limit, which is usually acceptable. Check this with your lecturer if you are in any doubt.)
Abraham, G. E., & Lubran, M. M. (1981). Serum and red cell magnesium levels in patients with premenstrual tension. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 34 (11), 2364-2366. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/34/11/2364.short
Ariefdjohan, M. W., & Savaiano, D. A. (2005). Chocolate and cardiovascular health: Is it too good to be true? Nutrition Reviews , 63 (12), 427-430. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2005.tb00118.x
Beckett, S. T. (2000). The science of chocolate . Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Bruinsma, K., & Taren, D. L. (1999). Chocolate: Food or drug? Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 99 (10), 1249-12. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00307-7
Hannum, S. M., Schmitz, H. H., & Keen, C. L. (2002). Chocolate: A heart-healthy food? Show me the science! Nutrition Today , 37 (3), 103-109. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/nutritiontodayonline/Abstract/2002/05000/Chocol…
Lambert, J. P. (2009). Nutrition and health aspects of chocolate. In S. Beckett (Ed.), Industrial chocolate manufacture and use , (4th ed., pp. 623-635). London: Wiley Blackwell. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444301588.ch27/pdf
Macht, M., & Dettmer, D. (2006). Everyday mood and emotions after eating a chocolate bar or an apple. Appetite , 46 (3), 332-336. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2006.01.014
Macht, M., & Mueller, J. (2007). Immediate effects of chocolate on experimentally induced mood states. Appetite , 49 (3), 667-674. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.05.004
Macdiarmid, J. I., & Hetherington, M. M. (1995). Mood modulation by food: An exploration of affect and cravings in ‘chocolate addicts’. British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 34 (1), 129-138. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1995.tb01445.x
Mellor, D. D. (2013). The effects of polyphenol rich chocolate on cardiovascular risk and glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus (Doctoral dissertation, University of Hull, UK). Retrieved from https://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:7109
Parker, G., Parker, I., & Brotchie, H. (2006). Mood state effects of chocolate. Journal of Affective Disorders , 92 (2), 149-159. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2006.02.007
Scholey, A., & Owen, L. (2013). Effects of chocolate on cognitive function and mood: a systematic review. Nutrition reviews , 71 (10), 665-681. doi:10.1111/nure.12065
Schramm, D. D., Wang, J. F., Holt, R. R., Ensunsa, J. L., Gonsalves, J. L., Lazarus, S. A., Schmitz, H. H., German, J. Bruce, & Keen, C. L. (2001). Chocolate procyanidins decrease the leukotriene-prostacyclin ratio in humans and human aortic endothelial cells. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 73 (1), 36-40. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/73/1/36.full
Steinberg, F. M., Bearden, M. M., & Keen, C. L. (2003). Cocoa and chocolate flavonoids: Implications for cardiovascular health. Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 103 (2), 215-223. doi: 10.1053/jada.2003.50028
‘Integrity’ relates to ‘honesty’, and academic integrity involves writing in an honest way, so that no one will think you are claiming that words or ideas from someone else are your own. This is very important in academic writing in western countries, and if you do not do this you might be accused of plagiarism, which is a serious offence at university.
Plagiarism means using someone else’s words, ideas or diagrams without acknowledgement.
Of course, when we write an essay we need to refer to other people’s ideas. We gave some of the reasons for this before:
Being a good writer involves using other people’s ideas to support your work. However, you should never forget to say where these ideas come from, even if you don’t quote the person’s exact words.
Include a reference in the text, where the words or ideas appear, and in a reference list at the end of the essay.
All the references in the text must appear in the reference list, and all the references in the list must also appear in the text.
There is a short video clip on plagiarism here and a wonderful Plagiarism Carol video here (click on ‘captions’ to get subtitles in English).
Another word connected to academic integrity is collusion .
Collusion means that you work with someone else and submit the same or very similar assignments without your lecturer’s permission.
For example, if you and a friend work together on an essay and then submit identical or very similar versions of the essay, one under your name and one under your friend’s name, that is collusion . However, if you are doing a group work assignment and your lecturer has asked you to work together and submit the assignment jointly, that is not collusion . Collusion, like plagiarism, has an element of dishonesty in it. People who collude do so secretly, as they know that the lecturer would not be happy.
People make genuine mistakes, so lecturers are usually very happy to advise you if you ask them.
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What this handout is about.
This handout will help you figure out what your college instructors expect when they give you a writing assignment. It will tell you how and why to move beyond the five-paragraph essays you learned to write in high school and start writing essays that are more analytical and more flexible.
High school students are often taught to write essays using some variation of the five-paragraph model. A five-paragraph essay is hourglass-shaped: it begins with something general, narrows down in the middle to discuss specifics, and then branches out to more general comments at the end. In a classic five-paragraph essay, the first paragraph starts with a general statement and ends with a thesis statement containing three “points”; each body paragraph discusses one of those “points” in turn; and the final paragraph sums up what the student has written.
The five-paragraph model is a good way to learn how to write an academic essay. It’s a simplified version of academic writing that requires you to state an idea and support it with evidence. Setting a limit of five paragraphs narrows your options and forces you to master the basics of organization. Furthermore—and for many high school teachers, this is the crucial issue—many mandatory end-of-grade writing tests and college admissions exams like the SAT II writing test reward writers who follow the five-paragraph essay format.
Writing a five-paragraph essay is like riding a bicycle with training wheels; it’s a device that helps you learn. That doesn’t mean you should use it forever. Once you can write well without it, you can cast it off and never look back.
The way college instructors teach is probably different from what you experienced in high school, and so is what they expect from you.
While high school courses tend to focus on the who, what, when, and where of the things you study—”just the facts”—college courses ask you to think about the how and the why. You can do very well in high school by studying hard and memorizing a lot of facts. Although college instructors still expect you to know the facts, they really care about how you analyze and interpret those facts and why you think those facts matter. Once you know what college instructors are looking for, you can see some of the reasons why five-paragraph essays don’t work so well for college writing:
Let’s take an example based on our handout on thesis statements . Suppose you’re taking a course on contemporary communication, and the professor asks you to write a paper on this topic:
Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.
Thanks to your familiarity with the five paragraph essay structure and with the themes of your course, you are able to quickly write an introductory paragraph:
Social media allows the sharing of information through online networks among social connections. Everyone uses social media in our modern world for a variety of purposes: to learn about the news, keep up with friends, and even network for jobs. Social media cannot help but affect public awareness. In this essay, I will discuss the impact of social media on public awareness of political campaigns, public health initiatives, and current events.
Now you have something on paper. But you realize that this introduction sticks too close to the five-paragraph essay structure. The introduction starts too broadly by taking a step back and defining social media in general terms. Then it moves on to restate the prompt without quite addressing it: while it’s reasserted that there is an impact, the impact is not actually discussed. And the final sentence, instead of presenting an argument, only lists topics in sequence. You are prepared to write a paragraph on political campaigns, a paragraph on public health initiatives, and a paragraph on current events, but you aren’t sure what your point will be.
So you start again. Instead of trying to come up with something to say about each of three points, you brainstorm until you come up with a main argument, or thesis, about the impact of social media on public awareness. You think about how easy it is to share information on social media, as well as about how difficult it can be to discern more from less reliable information. As you brainstorm the effects of social media on public awareness in connection to political campaigns specifically, you realize you have enough to say about this topic without discussing two additional topics. You draft your thesis statement:
Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.
Next you think about your argument’s parts and how they fit together. You read the Writing Center’s handout on organization . You decide that you’ll begin by addressing the counterargument that misinformation on social media has led to a less informed public. Addressing the counterargument point-by-point helps you articulate your evidence. You find it ends up taking more than one paragraph to discuss the strategies people use to compare and evaluate information as well as the evidence that people end up more informed as a result.
You notice that you now have four body paragraphs. You might have had three or two or seven; what’s important is that you allowed your argument to determine how many paragraphs would be needed and how they should fit together. Furthermore, your body paragraphs don’t each discuss separate topics, like “political campaigns” and “public health.” Instead they support different points in your argument. This is also a good moment to return to your introduction and revise it to focus more narrowly on introducing the argument presented in the body paragraphs in your paper.
Finally, after sketching your outline and writing your paper, you turn to writing a conclusion. From the Writing Center handout on conclusions , you learn that a “that’s my story and I’m sticking to it” conclusion doesn’t move your ideas forward. Applying the strategies you find in the handout, you may decide that you can use your conclusion to explain why the paper you’ve just written really matters.
Yes. Have you ever found yourself in a situation where somebody expects you to make sense of a large body of information on the spot and write a well-organized, persuasive essay—in fifty minutes or less? Sounds like an essay exam situation, right? When time is short and the pressure is on, falling back on the good old five-paragraph essay can save you time and give you confidence. A five-paragraph essay might also work as the framework for a short speech. Try not to fall into the trap, however, of creating a “listing” thesis statement when your instructor expects an argument; when planning your body paragraphs, think about three components of an argument, rather than three “points” to discuss. On the other hand, most professors recognize the constraints of writing blue-book essays, and a “listing” thesis is probably better than no thesis at all.
We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.
Blue, Tina. 2001. “AP English Blather.” Essay, I Say (blog), January 26, 2001. http://essayisay.homestead.com/blather.html .
Blue, Tina. 2001. “A Partial Defense of the Five-Paragraph Theme as a Model for Student Writing.” Essay, I Say (blog), January 13, 2001. http://essayisay.homestead.com/fiveparagraphs.html .
Denecker, Christine. 2013. “Transitioning Writers across the Composition Threshold: What We Can Learn from Dual Enrollment Partnerships.” Composition Studies 41 (1): 27-50.
Fanetti, Susan et al. 2010. “Closing the Gap between High School Writing Instruction and College Writing Expectations.” The English Journal 99 (4): 77-83.
Hillocks, George. 2002. The Testing Trap: How State Assessments Control Learning . New York and London: Teachers College Press.
Hjortshoj, Keith. 2009. The Transition to College Writing , 2nd ed. New York: Bedford/St Martin’s.
Shen, Andrea. 2000. “Study Looks at Role of Writing in Learning.” Harvard Gazette (blog). October 26, 2000. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2000/10/study-looks-at-role-of-writing-in-learning/ .
You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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Academic writing shares some commonality with professional writing, they both:
It can be helpful to think of academic writing as a different genre with different conventions, style and expectations. Being aware of these differences can help you adapt your writing for an academic audience:
Writing for an academic audience | Writing for a professional audience | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Written to demonstrate your learning and meet marking criteria | Written with a specific purpose and audience in mind (e.g. patients, healthcare professionals, managers) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Written in continuous prose with complete paragraphs and full sentences | Can be written using bullet points and very short paragraphs of a few lines | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Explores ideas |
Developing your ideas and arguments
Developing a coherent argument and position in academic writing is often done in the stages before and after you start writing. Planning helps prevent your ideas from wandering, and redrafting can help identify and sharpen up your argument, so it is good to allow enough time for these stages in longer pieces of work. If you are finding it difficult to work out what you think in the midst of all the views of other people, try asking yourself questions about the validity of the evidence that others are basing their views upon: Do you agree or disagree with their standpoint and, importantly, what is making you agree or disagree? A questioning attitude is the basis of critical thinking…and critical thinking is not just something we do when writing academically. The Critical analysis guide produced by the University's Study Advice Team gives tips on critical thinking, reading and writing:
Good assignment planning starts with ideas generation and identifying what you know and what you want to find out. Before readin gThis is a really valuable stage which many people miss out, but it makes your reading and planning much easier. Before rushing into your reading, note down your initial thoughts about the question/topic - an essay plan, spider diagram or mind map are all good techniques for this. The kinds of things to note briefly are:
This helps you start formulating your argument and direction for answering the question. It also helps you focus your reading, as you can pinpoint what you need to find out and go straight to the parts of books, chapters, articles that will be most relevant. After readingAfter your reading, it is often good to summarise all your findings on a page – again, a spider diagram or mind map can help with this. Bringing together the key points from your reading helps clarify what you have found out, and helps you find a pathway through all the ideas and issues you have encountered. If you include brief details of authors and page nos. for key information, it can act as a quick at-a-glance guide for finding the evidence you need to support your points later. It also helps you see how your initial response to the question might have changed or become more sophisticated in light of the reading you've done. It leads into planning your essay structure which can be done in any way that suits you best: A bullet point list, spider diagram, short summary. It does not matter as long as you have a ‘road map’ to keep you on track when writing. If you are finding it hard to get started, or there are certain aspects of your academic writing you’d like to develop, try some of these quick writing strategies:
Your argument/positionYou can think of the argument running through a piece of academic writing like a river. Sometimes it is only possible to identify your argument clearly once you have written your first draft, as the act of writing helps clarify your thoughts. We often do not know what our position is on an issue until we have expressed what we think. The redrafting stage is a good time to identify that argument and draw it out fully. You can do this by making sure that there is a consistent message (or river) running from your introduction to your conclusion, and that every paragraph has a role to play in advancing this message Skip to 45 seconds in on this short video for an explanation of the idea of an argument as a river, or feel free to watch the whole video for more on Structuring your Essay. If you are unable to view this video on YouTube it is also available on YuJa - view the Structuring your essay video on YuJa (University username and password required) Try this writing strategyWhat's my argument? Can you summarise your overall answer to your assignment question in a paragraph? Try writing a short summary of your argument and refer to it to help ensure you are bringing this out clearly throughout your writing. For more writing strategies to help develop your academic writing see the ‘Writing strategies’ page in this guide. Structuring your work and paragraphing
Structure is important in academic writing because it helps to make your ideas clear, guides the reader's comprehension and can strengthen your arguments. Some academic writing, such as scientific reports, have a given structure or template. In this case, you should find out what is required under each heading and adhere to this; it is most likely mapped to the marking criteria so you will lose marks for not following a stated structure. Other writing might require you to select and organise the material you are writing yourself and so develop a structure from scratch. Usually, in the introduction you should set out the structure so that the reader knows what to expect and the order in which it will be presented. The order in which information is presented should be logical so that the reader can follow your ideas and research, ideally write your structure with just one point/argument/idea per paragraph. In addition, the ideas should flow or be linked so that the reader is drawn through an explanation or argument, rather than stopping and starting at each new point. The conclusion to the piece should draw together all the points or ideas and come to a conclusion. Whether you are following a template or devising your own structure, paragraphs in academic writing can be thought of like a ‘mini-essay’ with an introduction, main body and conclusion. The first line introduces the point being made, the main body presents and discusses the evidence to support the point and the final line concludes the point and links it back to the assignment title. Other useful guides
When presenting a point of view, such as a line of argument for an essay, decide on the main points that you want to communicate. A paragraph can be planned (like a mini-essay) using the PEEL format:
Like any model, not all your paragraphs will fit neatly into this framework, but it is a useful guide to check the balance of your paragraphs: Do you have a clear point? Does the end of the paragraph link to the beginning? Have you interpreted your evidence not just left it there to ‘speak for itself’? Also it is helpful to think of the length of your paragraphs. If they are only a few lines long, it is unlikely you are interpreting your evidence fully. If they are over a page in length, it is likely you have more than one main point and need to separate them out. Skip to 5 minutes in on this video tutorial for an explanation and example of the model paragraph or feel free to watch the whole video for more on Targeted Reading and Use of Evidence. If you are unable to view this video on YouTube it is also available on YuJa - view the Targeted reading and use of evidence video on YuJa (University username and password required) You do not have to refer to each piece of evidence in the same depth. Sometimes you need to show that you understand the wider context of the issue, and a short summary of the key issues and key researchers is all that is needed. For example: Many studies have investigated household accidents caused by cheese. These studies disagree about the most significant reasons for cheese-based injury with some arguing that choking on cheese poses the highest risk (1-3). Other studies claim that burns from melted cheese are more hazardous (4,5), whilst a minority of recent studies have identified slipping on cheese as a growing danger (6). A significant amount of reading and in-depth understanding of the field is demonstrated in those sentences above even though the individual mentions of the evidence are quite short. The summary maps out the state of current research and the positions taken by the key researchers, and despite being short it has taken careful reading, grouping, identification, and understanding of the issues. Sometimes you need to go into greater depth and refer to some sources in more detail in order to interrogate the methods and standpoints expressed by these researchers. For example: A recent study introduces a new model for assessing the relative dangers of cheese related-injuries, identifying the overall total damage done as more important than the frequency of injuries (1). However, this model does not adequately take into account the theory of 'Under-reporting' which states that people are less likely to report frequently occurring small accidents until a critical mass of injuries are reached (2). Even in this more analytical piece of writing, only the relevant points of the study and the theory are mentioned briefly - but you need a confident and thorough understanding to refer to them so concisely. If you find it challenging to integrate evidence into your paragraphs, have a look at:
See also this video from the University's Study Advice Team on effective paraphrasing for postgraduates: If you are unable to view this video on YouTube it is also available on YuJa - view the Effective paraphrasing for postgraduates video on YuJa (University username and password required) Do not be tempted to use complex language or expressions that are not your own, just to make your writing appear "academic". Use straightforward language. Your reader needs to understand the information or ideas that you are conveying. Communicate succinctly without losing vital information or meaning. It is often easier to write fluently and then to edit out unnecessary words and phrases. Some academic writing, such as scientific informatoin, needs to be especially precise. A reader may need to have all the information required to understand exact conditions of a scientific study and to replicate it. Using simple sentences can be helpful. Avoid using non-quantifiable descriptions, such as: The company's production rate was high <--replace with--> The company produced 16,00 units per week. The wind was strong <--replace with--> The wind measured 6 on the Beaufort scale. Editing tips to reduce word count
Your written work may be interesting, well structured and informed. Yet it may still make a bad impression because of poor proof reading. Part of your assessment will usually relate to the standard of your written English. It's important to pay attention to things like tenses, gender, plurals and the structure of your sentences, especially if you have rewritten or moved sections of your work. It's easy to lose marks - but it's also easy to make sure you don't. Below are ten brief tips to help you to proof read your work as effectively as possible.
Top tips for effective proof reading
Writing at level 7
When at studying level 7 (Masters Level), your academic writing must reflect the level of critical analysis, synthesis and application to practice commensurate with this level of study. Studying at level 7 means developing your studying practices from those suited to being an independent learner to those suited to being an independent practitioner . You will be working at a more complex and sophisticated level, with a need for broader and more independently sourced resources. You will need not only to evaluate what other people have found but also to put your own knowledge and research into context. You will be expected to be meticulous and professional and show higher standards of scholarship. The advice on this page aims to explain some of the differences between undergraduate and Masters level study. The full marking criteria for taught postgraduate study can be found at the link below, the information in this section of the guide interprets this information to the context in which you are doing your studies.
Guidance on the requirements for assessments are included in the individual module handbooks. Some overarching principles will apply across all the assessments for all practitioners:
Key concepts of level 7 writingAchievement of level 7 study includes:
Accurate and appropriate use of language in your writing is one way of demonstrating academic rigour. You will need to be more thoughtful about the way you use language. Remember that the best writing style is clear and accurate, not unnecessarily complicated. If English is not your first language, there is more specialised support and advice available from the University's International Study and Language Institute website (link below). At level 7 you cannot get away with writing about something that you only vaguely understand, or squeezing in a theory in the hope it will gain extra marks - your markers will be able to tell, and this does not demonstrate the accuracy or professionalism of a researcher. Imagine you write the sentence: "Freudian psychoanalysis demonstrates how our personalities are developed from our childhood experiences." At level 7, the word 'demonstrates' becomes very loaded and potentially inaccurate. This is because you are expected to interrogate the assumptions, boundaries, and way in which knowledge is constructed in your subject. With this in mind, the sentence above raises a lot of contextual questions: To what extent could Freud's theory of psychoanalysis really be said to 'demonstrate' the origins of our personalities? What part of Freud's many theories are you referring to when you write 'psychoanalysis'? What about the developments in psychoanalysis that have happened since Freud, and the many arguments against his theories? Your writing needs to take these questions into account, and at least be aware of them, even if you don't address all of them. Do not just stop at discussing the pros and cons of a debate; academics rarely agree on interpretations of theories or ideas, so academic knowledge is more like a complex network of views than two clear sides.
Writing at level 6
When studying at level 6 (Bachelor's level) you will be aware that you need to develop your academic writing for higher education - but how? Will you need to use a lot of long words and complicated sentences? Will you be expected to include some original idea that no-one else has ever written about to get good marks? Actually neither of these are what good academic writing is about. Rather you will need to be able to communicate complicated ideas clearly, know how to support the things you say with evidence, and explain your thinking. Academic rigour means checking and testing information to assess whether it is free of errors and is backed by accurate and appropriate evidence. It needs to be strong so that it can support your arguments - like making sure foundations will hold a building up. Whether you are writing about someone else's ideas or your own, you will be expected to support the points you wish to make with evidence, perhaps from your own primary research or observations, or from your reading. When this evidence is taken from someone else's work (a book, journal article or website, for instance), you need to provide a reference or citation to show the source. The full marking criteria for bachelor's study can be found at the link below, the information in this section of the guide interprets this information to the context in which you are doing your studies.
In higher education, you are going to be asked to think about, explain and discuss a complex range of ideas and arguments. You may be bringing together ideas from a number of different scholars that you have read, for instance: or showing what the results of your own primary research mean in the context of a particular problem. In either case, it's important to write clearly so that your reader can be certain that they understand what you're saying, and that you understand what you're writing about. How is this different from your previous study?
Avoid long, complex sentences... You are less likely to lose track of what you are trying to say if you write in shorter sentences. If you need to link a number of ideas together in a sentence, make sure you separate them with appropriate punctuation: commas, semi-colons, colons and parentheses. More on how to use punctuation. Longer words don't make your writing more academic... A good piece of advice is to 'write to express, not to impress'. You are looking for words that will best communicate your ideas. Sometimes these will be long complicated words and sometimes they will be shorter. What you need is the most appropriate words for the job they have to do. Give your reader signposts... If you tell your reader what you are going to say, they will know what to look out for. Include a few sentences in your introduction on how you are going to answer the question: something like, "This essay will discuss the proposition that Brown's thesis is flawed. The proposition will be examined by first considering x, then looking at y, and finally z. Conclusions will then be drawn about the validity of Brown's thesis." Then start each of your sections with a topic sentence (or sub-heading, in a report) that shows what it is you are going to be discussing. Watch out for informality and vagueness... You are trying to reduce any possibility of your reader misunderstanding what you are trying to say, so aim to avoid the kind of language that might be interpreted differently by different readers. More on writing formally:
It is confusing when you are told you need to be original in your thinking - but then you are told that you need more references to other people's work too. In higher education, being original is rarely about having a brilliant idea that no-one has ever had before. Rather it means that you will be expected to take different sources of information and think about how they fit (or do not fit) together so that you can work out your own interpretation and understanding of the topic. Always start from your own ideas… so that you are less likely to fall into the trap of uncritically believing the first scholar you read. Before you start doing detailed research, take what you know already about the topic, and use it to make an educated guess about the answer to the question or main message about the topic you are researching. Then test that idea against your reading or research. Your conclusion is for summing up… not for adding speculative ideas with no evidence to support them. If you have a brilliant original idea and can show how you worked it out and how it fits into the evidence you have, then include it in the main body of your work. Do not worry!... your work will naturally be original if you always think critically and have a bit of confidence in your own interpretations and evaluations. If you and your best friend both read the same books and articles, attended the same lectures, and wrote an answer to the same question, they would still both be different and original, provided you do your own thinking and don't uncritically believe other people's ideas.
Analytical Essay Guide: Primary Document Analysis & Writing TipsCreative WritingThe Department of English offers creative writing instruction in multiple formats and offers several degrees and qualifications. UndergraduateAt the undergraduate level, students who are enrolled in a B.A. program at UT Austin can pursue the Creative Writing Certificate . For graduate students, there are two degree options in creative writing:
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What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don’ts for StudentsAcademic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays , research papers , and dissertation in academic style. Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.
Instantly correct all language mistakes in your textUpload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes Table of contentsTypes of academic writing, academic writing is…, academic writing is not…, useful tools for academic writing, academic writing checklist. Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.
Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help convey information as effectively as possible. Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school , or build an academic career, effective writing is an essential skill. Check for common mistakesUse the best grammar checker available to check for common mistakes in your text. Fix mistakes for free Formal and unbiasedAcademic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted. To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology and being honest about the limitations of your research. The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research. Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal language , including slang, contractions , clichés, and conversational phrases:
Clear and preciseIt’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language :
Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:
Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields. However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:
The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language. Focused and well structuredAn academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement , and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose. A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.
Well sourcedAcademic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous research. It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use academic databases and your university library to find credible sources. You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.
There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism . A good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late. You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators. APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator Correct and consistentAs well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:
In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before you submit. If you don’t feel confident in your own proofreading abilities, you can get help from Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or Grammar Checker . Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself. Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:
The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor. When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:
Long-windedMany students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible. If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:
Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words. Emotive and grandioseAn academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims. Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language :
Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated , unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:
There are a a lot of writing tools that will make your writing process faster and easier. We’ll highlight three of them below. Paraphrasing toolAI writing tools like ChatGPT and a paraphrasing tool can help you rewrite text so that your ideas are clearer, you don’t repeat yourself, and your writing has a consistent tone. They can also help you write more clearly about sources without having to quote them directly. Be warned, though: it’s still crucial to give credit to all sources in the right way to prevent plagiarism . Grammar checkerWriting tools that scan your text for punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes. When it detects a mistake the grammar checke r will give instant feedback and suggest corrections. Helping you write clearly and avoid common mistakes . You can use a summarizer if you want to condense text into its most important and useful ideas. With a summarizer tool, you can make it easier to understand complicated sources. You can also use the tool to make your research question clearer and summarize your main argument. Receive feedback on language, structure, and formattingProfessional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
See an example Use the checklist below to assess whether you have followed the rules of effective academic writing.
I avoid informal terms and contractions . I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”). I avoid emotive or exaggerated language. I avoid redundant words and phrases. I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed. I present information as precisely and accurately as possible. I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas. My text is logically organized using paragraphs . Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence . Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question . I support my claims with evidence. I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section. I consistently use either UK or US English . I format numbers consistently. I cite my sources using a consistent citation style . Your text follows the most important rules of academic style. Make sure it's perfect with the help of a Scribbr editor! Is this article helpful?Other students also liked.
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College Prep 101: Expert Tips on Search, Applications & EssaysFeeling a little overwhelmed about how to find (and then successfully apply to) colleges. This College Prep 101 webinar series – led by our admission counselor experts – is designed for you to feel confident going into your college search and make sure you’re putting your best self forward in the application process. Watch one, two, or all of them to learn how to navigate this exciting (and sometimes stressful) next step in your education! FYI: We’re using Zoom Webinar – no Zoom account, microphone, or camera is needed, but you will be able to ask live questions in the Q&A section. Just plan to access the webinar from a device of some kind (phone, laptop, chrome book, etc). The College Search Process: Where do I start?Tuesday, september 17, 6:30-7:00pm pt. How do you choose a college? How do you pick the right type of school? What questions should you be asking to narrow down your search and how do you decide where to apply? These questions are common ones we hear at the beginning of the college search process. It can feel overwhelming, but after this webinar, you’ll know how to make a solid start. College Applications: How to Land in the 'Yes' PileWednesday, september 18, 6:30-7:00pm pt. Have you wondered what the college application process is really like? How does an admission counselor at a 4-year university review your application? What classes should you be taking in high school? What experiences are important? Will a bad grade in one class ruin your chances of getting into your dream college? And what helps you as an applicant stand out from the crowd? If you are curious how to land in the ‘yes’ pile, then this webinar is for you! The College Essay: Writing with ConfidenceThursday, september 19, 6:30-7:00pm pt. Does a college essay really make a difference? Absolutely! But the hardest part is often deciding where to start and what to write about. We will cover how to pick a topic, how to sound authentic, and how to engage a reader (while also staying within the word count)! You’ll leave this webinar equipped with tips to make writing your admissions essay a breeze. EXPLORE MORESchedule visit, meet your counselor, student videos. |
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A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.. Short videos to support your essay writing skills. There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing ...
Step 2: Pick one of the things you wrote down, flip your paper over, and write it at the top of your paper, like this: This is your thread, or a potential thread. Step 3: Underneath what you wrote down, name 5-6 values you could connect to this. These will serve as the beads of your essay.
Essay writing process. The writing process of preparation, writing, and revisions applies to every essay or paper, but the time and effort spent on each stage depends on the type of essay.. For example, if you've been assigned a five-paragraph expository essay for a high school class, you'll probably spend the most time on the writing stage; for a college-level argumentative essay, on the ...
Use your essays to empower your chances of acceptance, merit money, and scholarships.". This college essay tip is by Dr. Rebecca Joseph, professor at California State University and founder of All College Application Essays, develops tools for making the college essay process faster and easier. 15. Get personal.
An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates. In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills. Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence ...
The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body. This article provides useful templates and tips to help you outline your essay, make decisions about your structure, and ...
Here we'll cover the seven main points of planning and executing a well-written essay: understanding the question. researching and gathering helpful resources. putting together an essay plan. writing the essay. tackling the introduction and conclusion. reviewing what you've written.
The basic steps for how to write an essay are: Generate ideas and pick a type of essay to write. Outline your essay paragraph by paragraph. Write a rough first draft without worrying about details like word choice or grammar. Edit your rough draft, and revise and fix the details. Review your essay for typos, mistakes, and any other problems.
Sample College Essay 2 with Feedback. This content is licensed by Khan Academy and is available for free at www.khanacademy.org. College essays are an important part of your college application and give you the chance to show colleges and universities your personality. This guide will give you tips on how to write an effective college essay.
What to Look for in a College Essay Topic. There's no single answer to the question of what makes a great college essay topic, but there are some key factors you should keep in mind. The best essays are focused, detailed, revealing and insightful, and finding the right topic is vital to writing a killer essay with all of those qualities.
Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student who strives to succeed at essay writing.
College Essay Guy - Personal statement and college essay tips, guides, resources, consulting, and webinars for students, parents and counselors. ... Essay Writing Curriculum. Two private, live training sessions with your team; A schedule of daily assignments with interactive exercises that help foster moments of self-discovery;
2. Define your argument. As you plan and prepare to write the essay, you must consider what your argument is going to be. This means taking an informed position or point of view on the topic presented in the question, then defining and presenting a specific argument. Consider these two argument statements:
Conclusion. You are ready to write an essay after you have done these steps: Identified all the components that you must cover so that you address the essay question or prompt. Conducted your initial research and decided on your tentative position and line of argument. Created a preliminary outline for your essay that presents the information ...
Follow these tips to write an impactful essay that can work in your favor. 1. Start Early. Few people write well under pressure. Try to complete your first draft a few weeks before you have to turn it in. Many advisers recommend starting as early as the summer before your senior year in high school.
Making an all-state team → outstanding achievement. Making an all-state team → counting the cost of saying "no" to other interests. Making a friend out of an enemy → finding common ground, forgiveness. Making a friend out of an enemy → confront toxic thinking and behavior in yourself.
Normally, when writing an essay at university you will be expected to use only academic sources. The following learning guide on source credibility will help you to determine whether an external source is academic or not. The chocolate essay uses the American Psychological Association (APA) style of referencing, which is easy to distinguish ...
In summary, here are 10 of our most popular essay writing courses. Getting Started with Essay Writing: University of California, Irvine. Academic English: Writing: University of California, Irvine. Writing in English at University: Lund University. Writing in the Sciences: Stanford University.
The Online Writing Lab (the Purdue OWL) at Purdue University houses writing resources and instructional material, and we provide these as a free service at Purdue. Students, members of the community, and users worldwide will find information to assist with many writing projects. Teachers and trainers may use this material for in-class and out ...
The five-paragraph model is a good way to learn how to write an academic essay. It's a simplified version of academic writing that requires you to state an idea and support it with evidence. Setting a limit of five paragraphs narrows your options and forces you to master the basics of organization. Furthermore—and for many high school ...
This college essay tip is by Abigail McFee, Admissions Counselor for Tufts University and Tufts '17 graduate. 2. Write like a journalist. "Don't bury the lede!" The first few sentences must capture the reader's attention, provide a gist of the story, and give a sense of where the essay is heading.
You will explore the basics of essay construction, composition, editing, grammar, spelling, and punctuation and learn what makes a compelling college application essay topic. With this foundation, you will develop an engaging personal narrative and refine your writing to persuasively showcase your unique experiences, talents, and aspirations.
Writing a great college essay introduction can make or break your application. Learn how to craft a distinctive and specific opening that hooks your reader and showcases your personality. Find examples and tips from Scribbr, the expert in academic writing.
Whether you are following a template or devising your own structure, paragraphs in academic writing can be thought of like a 'mini-essay' with an introduction, main body and conclusion. The first line introduces the point being made, the main body presents and discusses the evidence to support the point and the final line concludes the ...
English document from University of Miami, 2 pages, Using a selected primary document students will present a concise, coherent 4-5 page essay based on the assignment overview identified in Task 1 of Week 13. Students will upload their completed essay directly to BlackBoard. There is a primary document ana
The Department of English offers creative writing instruction in multiple formats and offers several degrees and qualifications. Undergraduate. At the undergraduate level, students who are enrolled in a B.A. program at UT Austin can pursue the Creative Writing Certificate. Graduate. For graduate students, there are two degree options in ...
Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You'll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you'll be expected to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style. Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but ...
The College Essay: Writing with Confidence Thursday, September 19, 6:30-7:00pm PT. Does a college essay really make a difference? Absolutely! But the hardest part is often deciding where to start and what to write about. We will cover how to pick a topic, how to sound authentic, and how to engage a reader (while also staying within the word count)!