self presentation management

Impression Management: Erving Goffman Theory

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

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Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

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On This Page:

• Impression management refers to the goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object, or event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction.
• Generally, people undertake impression management to achieve goals that require they have a desired public image. This activity is called self-presentation.
• In sociology and social psychology, self-presentation is the conscious or unconscious process through which people try to control the impressions other people form of them.
• The goal is for one to present themselves the way in which they would like to be thought of by the individual or group they are interacting with. This form of management generally applies to the first impression.
• Erving Goffman popularized the concept of perception management in his book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life , where he argues that impression management not only influences how one is treated by other people but is an essential part of social interaction.

Impression Management in Sociology

Impression management, also known as self-presentation, refers to the ways that people attempt to control how they are perceived by others (Goffman, 1959).

By conveying particular impressions about their abilities, attitudes, motives, status, emotional reactions, and other characteristics, people can influence others to respond to them in desirable ways.

Impression management is a common way for people to influence one another in order to obtain various goals.

While earlier theorists (e.g., Burke, 1950; Hart & Burk, 1972) offered perspectives on the person as a performer, Goffman (1959) was the first to develop a specific theory concerning self-presentation.

In his well-known work, Goffman created the foundation and the defining principles of what is commonly referred to as impression management.

In explicitly laying out a purpose for his work, Goffman (1959) proposes to “consider the ways in which the individual in ordinary work situations presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kind of things he may or may not do while sustaining his performance before them.” (p. xi)

Social Interaction

Goffman viewed impression management not only as a means of influencing how one is treated by other people but also as an essential part of social interaction.

He communicates this view through the conceit of theatre. Actors give different performances in front of different audiences, and the actors and the audience cooperate in negotiating and maintaining the definition of a situation.

To Goffman, the self was not a fixed thing that resides within individuals but a social process. For social interactions to go smoothly, every interactant needs to project a public identity that guides others’ behaviors (Goffman, 1959, 1963; Leary, 2001; Tseelon, 1992).

Goffman defines that when people enter the presence of others, they communicate information by verbal intentional methods and by non-verbal unintentional methods.

According to Goffman, individuals participate in social interactions through performing a “line” or “a pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts by which he expresses his view of the situation and through this his evaluation of the participants, especially himself” (1967, p. 5).

Such lines are created and maintained by both the performer and the audience. By enacting a line effectively, a person gains positive social value or “face.”

The verbal intentional methods allow us to establish who we are and what we wish to communicate directly. We must use these methods for the majority of the actual communication of data.

Goffman is mostly interested in the non-verbal clues given off which are less easily manipulated. When these clues are manipulated the receiver generally still has the upper hand in determining how realistic the clues that are given off are.

People use these clues to determine how to treat a person and if the intentional verbal responses given off are actually honest. It is also known that most people give off clues that help to represent them in a positive light, which tends to be compensated for by the receiver.

Impression Management Techniques

• Suppressing emotions : Maintaining self-control (which we will identify with such practices as speaking briefly and modestly).
• Conforming to Situational Norms : The performer follows agreed-upon rules for behavior in the organization.
• Flattering Others : The performer compliments the perceiver. This tactic works best when flattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension important to the perceiver.
• Being Consistent : The performer’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreement between the performer’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

Self-Presentation Examples

Self-presentation can affect the emotional experience . For example, people can become socially anxious when they are motivated to make a desired impression on others but doubt that they can do so successfully (Leary, 2001).

In one paper on self-presentation and emotional experience, Schlenker and Leary (1982) argue that, in contrast to the drive models of anxiety, the cognitive state of the individual mediates both arousal and behavior.

The researchers examine the traditional inverted-U anxiety-performance curve (popularly known as the Yerkes-Dodson law) in this light.

The researchers propose that people are interpersonally secure when they do not have the goal of creating a particular impression on others.

They are not immediately concerned about others’ evaluative reactions in a social setting where they are attempting to create a particular impression and believe that they will be successful in doing so.

Meanwhile, people are anxious when they are uncertain about how to go about creating a certain impression (such as when they do not know what sort of attributes the other person is likely to be impressed with), think that they will not be able to project the types of images that will produce preferred reactions from others.

Such people think that they will not be able to project the desired image strongly enough or believe that some event will happen that will repudiate their self-presentations, causing reputational damage (Schlenker and Leary, 1982).

Psychologists have also studied impression management in the context of mental and physical health .

In one such study, Braginsky et al. (1969) showed that those hospitalized with schizophrenia modify the severity of their “disordered” behavior depending on whether making a more or less “disordered” impression would be most beneficial to them (Leary, 2001).

Additional research on university students shows that people may exaggerate or even fabricate reports of psychological distress when doing so for their social goals.

Hypochondria appears to have self-presentational features where people convey impressions of illness and injury, when doing so helps to drive desired outcomes such as eliciting support or avoiding responsibilities (Leary, 2001).

People can also engage in dangerous behaviors for self-presentation reasons such as suntanning, unsafe sex, and fast driving. People may also refuse needed medical treatment if seeking this medical treatment compromises public image (Leary et al., 1994).

Key Components

There are several determinants of impression management, and people have many reasons to monitor and regulate how others perceive them.

For example, social relationships such as friendship, group membership, romantic relationships, desirable jobs, status, and influence rely partly on other people perceiving the individual as being a particular kind of person or having certain traits.

Because people’s goals depend on them making desired impressions over undesired impressions, people are concerned with the impressions other people form of them.

Although people appear to monitor how they come across ongoingly, the degree to which they are motivated to impression manage and the types of impressions they try to foster varies by situation and individuals (Leary, 2001).

Leary and Kowalski (1990) say that there are two processes that constitute impression management, each of which operate according to different principles and are affected by different situations and dispositional aspects. The first of these processes is impression motivation, and the second is impression construction.

Impression Motivation

There are three main factors that affect how much people are motivated to impression-manage in a situation (Leary and Kowalski, 1990):

(1) How much people believe their public images are relevant to them attaining their desired goals.

When people believe that their public image is relevant to them achieving their goals, they are generally more motivated to control how others perceive them (Leary, 2001).

Conversely, when the impressions of other people have few implications on one’s outcomes, that person’s motivation to impression-manage will be lower.

This is why people are more likely to impression manage in their interactions with powerful, high-status people than those who are less powerful and have lower status (Leary, 2001).

(2) How valuable the goals are: people are also more likely to impress and manage the more valuable the goals for which their public impressions are relevant (Leary, 2001).

(3) how much of a discrepancy there is between how they want to be perceived and how they believe others perceive them..

People are more highly motivated to impression-manage when there is a difference between how they want to be perceived and how they believe others perceive them.

For example, public scandals and embarrassing events that convey undesirable impressions can cause people to make self-presentational efforts to repair what they see as their damaged reputations (Leary, 2001).

Impression Construction

Features of the social situations that people find themselves in, as well as their own personalities, determine the nature of the impressions that they try to convey.

In particular, Leary and Kowalski (1990) name five sets of factors that are especially important in impression construction (Leary, 2001).

Two of these factors include how people’s relationships with themselves (self-concept and desired identity), and three involve how people relate to others (role constraints, target value, and current or potential social image) (Leary and Kowalski, 1990).

Self-concept

The impressions that people try to create are influenced not only by social context but also by one’s own self-concept .

People usually want others to see them as “how they really are” (Leary, 2001), but this is in tension with the fact that people must deliberately manage their impressions in order to be viewed accurately by others (Goffman, 1959).

People’s self-concepts can also constrain the images they try to convey.

People often believe that it is unethical to present impressions of themselves different from how they really are and generally doubt that they would successfully be able to sustain a public image inconsistent with their actual characteristics (Leary, 2001).

This risk of failure in portraying a deceptive image and the accompanying social sanctions deter people from presenting impressions discrepant from how they see themselves (Gergen, 1968; Jones and Pittman, 1982; Schlenker, 1980).

People can differ in how congruent their self-presentations are with their self-perceptions.

People who are high in public self-consciousness have less congruency between their private and public selves than those lower in public self-consciousness (Tunnell, 1984; Leary and Kowalski, 1990).

Desired identity

People’s desired and undesired selves – how they wish to be and not be on an internal level – also influence the images that they try to project.

Schlenker (1985) defines a desirable identity image as what a person “would like to be and thinks he or she really can be, at least at his or her best.”

People have a tendency to manage their impressions so that their images coincide with their desired selves and stay away from images that coincide with their undesired selves (Ogilivie, 1987; Schlenker, 1985; Leary, 2001).

This happens when people publicly claim attributes consistent with their desired identity and openly reject identities that they do not want to be associated with.

For example, someone who abhors bigots may take every step possible to not appear bigoted, and Gergen and Taylor (1969) showed that high-status navel cadets did not conform to low-status navel cadets because they did not want to see themselves as conformists (Leary and Kowalski, 1990).

Target value

people tailor their self-presentations to the values of the individuals whose perceptions they are concerned with.

This may lead to people sometimes fabricating identities that they think others will value.

However, more commonly, people selectively present truthful aspects of themselves that they believe coincide with the values of the person they are targeting the impression to and withhold information that they think others will value negatively (Leary, 2001).

Role constraints

the content of people’s self-presentations is affected by the roles that they take on and the norms of their social context.

In general, people want to convey impressions consistent with their roles and norms .

Many roles even carry self-presentational requirements around the kinds of impressions that the people who hold the roles should and should not convey (Leary, 2001).

Current or potential social image

People’s public image choices are also influenced by how they think they are perceived by others. As in impression motivation, self-presentational behaviors can often be aimed at dispelling undesired impressions that others hold about an individual.

When people believe that others have or are likely to develop an undesirable impression of them, they will typically try to refute that negative impression by showing that they are different from how others believe them to be.

When they are not able to refute this negative impression, they may project desirable impressions in other aspects of their identity (Leary, 2001).

Implications

In the presence of others, few of the behaviors that people make are unaffected by their desire to maintain certain impressions. Even when not explicitly trying to create a particular impression of themselves, people are constrained by concerns about their public image.

Generally, this manifests with people trying not to create undesired impressions in virtually all areas of social life (Leary, 2001).

Tedeschi et al. (1971) argued that phenomena that psychologists previously attributed to peoples’ need to have cognitive consistency actually reflected efforts to maintain an impression of consistency in others’ eyes.

Studies have supported Tedeschi and their colleagues’ suggestion that phenomena previously attributed to cognitive dissonance were actually affected by self-presentational processes (Schlenker, 1980).

Psychologists have applied self-presentation to their study of phenomena as far-ranging as conformity, aggression, prosocial behavior, leadership, negotiation, social influence, gender, stigmatization, and close relationships (Baumeister, 1982; Leary, 1995; Schlenker, 1980; Tedeschi, 1981).

Each of these studies shows that people’s efforts to make impressions on others affect these phenomena, and, ultimately, that concerns self-presentation in private social life.

For example, research shows that people are more likely to be pro-socially helpful when their helpfulness is publicized and behave more prosocially when they desire to repair a damaged social image by being helpful (Leary, 2001).

In a similar vein, many instances of aggressive behavior can be explained as self-presentational efforts to show that someone is willing to hurt others in order to get their way.

This can go as far as gender roles, for which evidence shows that men and women behave differently due to the kind of impressions that are socially expected of men and women.

Baumeister, R. F. (1982). A self-presentational view of social phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 3-26.

Braginsky, B. M., Braginsky, D. D., & Ring, K. (1969). Methods of madness: The mental hospital as a last resort. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Buss, A. H., & Briggs, S. (1984). Drama and the self in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1310-1324. Gergen, K. J. (1968). Personal consistency and the presentation of self. In C. Gordon & K. J. Gergen (Eds.), The self in social interaction (Vol. 1, pp. 299-308). New York: Wiley.

Gergen, K. J., & Taylor, M. G. (1969). Social expectancy and self-presentation in a status hierarchy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 5, 79-92.

Goffman, E. (1959). The moral career of the mental patient. Psychiatry, 22(2), 123-142.

• Goffman, E. (1963). Embarrassment and social organization.

Goffman, E. (1978). The presentation of self in everyday life (Vol. 21). London: Harmondsworth.

Goffman, E. (2002). The presentation of self in everyday life. 1959. Garden City, NY, 259.

Martey, R. M., & Consalvo, M. (2011). Performing the looking-glass self: Avatar appearance and group identity in Second Life. Popular Communication, 9 (3), 165-180.

Jones E E (1964) Ingratiation. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.

Jones, E. E., & Pittman, T. S. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. Psychological perspectives on the self, 1(1), 231-262.

Leary M R (1995) Self-presentation: Impression Management and Interpersonal Behaior. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

Leary, M. R.. Impression Management, Psychology of, in Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.). (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (Vol. 11). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological bulletin, 107(1), 34.

Leary M R, Tchvidjian L R, Kraxberger B E 1994 Self-presentation may be hazardous to your health. Health Psychology 13: 461–70.

Ogilvie, D. M. (1987). The undesired self: A neglected variable in personality research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 379-385.

• Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management (Vol. 222). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Schlenker, B. R. (1985). Identity and self-identification. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 65-99). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization model. Psychological bulletin, 92(3), 641.

Tedeschi, J. T, Smith, R. B., Ill, & Brown, R. C., Jr. (1974). A reinterpretation of research on aggression. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 540- 563.

Tseëlon, E. (1992). Is the presented self sincere? Goffman, impression management and the postmodern self. Theory, culture & society, 9(2), 115-128.

Tunnell, G. (1984). The discrepancy between private and public selves: Public self-consciousness and its correlates. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 549-555.

Further Information

• Solomon, J. F., Solomon, A., Joseph, N. L., & Norton, S. D. (2013). Impression management, myth creation and fabrication in private social and environmental reporting: Insights from Erving Goffman. Accounting, organizations and society, 38(3), 195-213.
• Gardner, W. L., & Martinko, M. J. (1988). Impression management in organizations. Journal of management, 14(2), 321-338.
• Scheff, T. J. (2005). Looking‐Glass self: Goffman as symbolic interactionist. Symbolic interaction, 28(2), 147-166.

The Art of Self Presentation: Impression Management and Self-Identity

Table of Contents

Have you ever considered how the simple act of introducing yourself at a party, or the way you dress for a job interview, can be a strategic move? Behind these seemingly mundane actions lies a complex process we all engage in, known as self\-presentation . Self-presentation, or impression management , is not just about vanity or a superficial attempt to be liked. It’s a fundamental aspect of human interaction, deeply rooted in psychology and sociology. Let’s dive into the nuances of how we present ourselves to the world and the motives that drive us to manage impressions.

Understanding self-presentation

Self-presentation is the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them. It’s a performance where the stage is everyday life, and the audience is the people around us. We employ a variety of verbal, nonverbal, and stylistic cues to craft an image that serves our goals. Whether it’s the confidence in our voice during a presentation, the firmness of our handshake, or the meticulous choice of attire for an event, each element is a deliberate choice in the art of self-presentation.

Verbal cues

• Language and tone: The words we choose and the tone we adopt can convey authority, warmth, intelligence, or humility.
• Storytelling: Narratives about our experiences and achievements can shape how others see us.

Non verbal cues

• Body language: Posture, gestures, and facial expressions communicate emotions and attitudes without words.
• Eye contact: Maintaining or avoiding eye contact can signal confidence, respect, or evasion.

Stylistic cues

• Dress and grooming: How we dress and groom ourselves can signal our social status, professionalism, or group affiliations.
• Accessories and props: Objects we carry or display can be symbols of our identity or status.

The motives behind self-presentation

Why do we go to such lengths to manage how others perceive us? There are two primary drivers: instrumental and expressive motives . Instrumental motives are goal-directed. We present ourselves in a certain way to achieve specific outcomes, such as gaining favor, avoiding conflict, or securing a promotion. On the other hand, expressive motives are about self-expression and identity. We manage impressions to convey who we believe we are and to maintain a consistent self-image.

Instrumental motives

• Influence: We may present ourselves as competent or likable to sway others to our point of view or to get them to do something for us.
• Obtaining rewards: A well-managed impression can lead to tangible benefits like job offers, social connections, or recognition.

Expressive motives

• Self-identity: Through self-presentation, we affirm and communicate our values, beliefs, and unique personality traits.
• Group identity: We may also use self-presentation to identify with a particular social group, aligning ourselves with its norms and values.

Maintaining consistency in self-presentation

The key to effective self-presentation is consistency. Inconsistencies between our words and actions can lead to a loss of credibility and trust. For instance, if you profess a commitment to environmental causes but are seen littering, this discrepancy can tarnish your image. Such inconsistencies can also lead to cognitive dissonance , a psychological state where we experience discomfort due to conflicting beliefs or behaviors. To resolve this discomfort, we may adjust our attitudes or behaviors to align with the image we wish to project.

Aligning actions and words

• Consistent messaging: Ensure that what you say matches what you do. This builds trust and authenticity in your image.
• Behavioral adjustments: Sometimes, to maintain consistency in our self-presentation, we may change our behavior to align with the impressions we’ve created.

Dealing with cognitive dissonance

• Awareness: Recognize when your actions do not match your expressed attitudes or the identity you’re trying to convey.
• Adjustment: Alter your behaviors or attitudes to reduce the dissonance and create a coherent self-image.

Self-presentation in the digital age

As we navigate the digital world, self-presentation has taken on new dimensions. Social media platforms have become stages where we curate images of ourselves through photos, status updates, and interactions. The line between public and private selves blurs as we manage impressions for a potentially global audience. This digital self\-presentation comes with its own challenges and opportunities for expression and influence.

Creating a digital identity

• Curated content: We carefully select which parts of our lives to share online, often emphasizing positive and flattering aspects to craft an idealized self-image.
• Feedback loops: Likes, comments, and shares provide immediate feedback, influencing future self-presentation choices.

Navigating the pitfalls

• Authenticity vs. curation: Striking a balance between presenting an ideal self and remaining authentic is a challenge in the digital world.
• Privacy concerns: Deciding how much personal information to share online is a critical aspect of digital self-presentation.

Self-presentation is a crucial part of human interaction, deeply intertwined with our social world and our sense of self. Whether we’re aware of it or not, we’re all engaged in impression management, both offline and online. By understanding the motives and methods behind self-presentation, we can navigate social situations more effectively and authentically. It’s a delicate dance of influence and expression, where the ultimate goal is to present a self that aligns with our identity and aspirations.

What do you think? How do you manage your self-presentation in different social settings? Have you ever experienced cognitive dissonance due to misalignment between your actions and the image you wanted to project?

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Social Psychology

1 Definition, Concept and Research Methods in Social Psychology

• Definition and Concept of Social Psychology
• Research Methods in Social Psychology
• Experimental Methods
• Non-Experimental Methods
• Other Research Methods
• Research Ethics

2 Historical Perspective of Social Psychology, Social Psychology and Other Related Disciplines

• Historical Perspective
• Landmarks in the History of Social Psychology
• Social Psychology and Other Related Disciplines
• Significance of Social Psychology Today

3 Social and Person Perception – Definition, Description and Functional Factors

• Social Cognition – Description and Nature
• Social Perception – Definition
• Understanding Temporary States
• Understanding of the Most Permanent or Lasting Characteristics – Attributions
• Impression Formation
• Implicit Personality Theory
• Person Perception
• Social Categorisation

4 Cognitive Basis and Dynamics of Social Perception and Person Perception

• Cognitive and Motivational Basis of Social and Person Perception
• Bias in Attribution
• Role of Emotions and Motivation in Information Processing
• Motivated Person Perception
• Effect of Cognitive and Emotional States

5 Definition, Concept, Description, Characteristic of Attitude

• Defining Attitudes
• Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs
• Formation of Attitudes
• Functions of Attitudes

6 Components of Attitude

• ABCs of Attitudes
• Properties of Attitudes

7 Predicting Behaviour from Attitude

• Relationship between Attitude and Behaviour
• Attitudes Predict Behaviour
• Attitudes Determine Behaviour?
• Behaviour Determine Attitudes

8 Effecting Attitudinal Change and Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Compliance of Self-perception Theory, Self-affirmation

• Self Presentation
• Cognitive Dissonance
• Self Perception
• Self Affirmation

9 Introduction to Groups- Definition, Characteristics and Types of Groups

• Groups-Definition Meaning and Concepts
• Characteristics Features of Group
• Types of Group
• The Role of Groups

10 Group Process- Social Facilitation, Social Loafing, Group Interaction, Group Polarization and Group Mind

• Social Facilitation
• Social Loafing
• Group Interaction
• Group Polarization

11 Group Behaviour- Influence of Norms, Status and Roles; Introduction to Crowd Behavioural Theory, Crowd Psychology (Classical and Convergence Theories)

• Human Behaviour in Groups
• Influence of Norms Status and Roles
• Crowd Behavioural Theory
• Crowd Psychology

12 Crowd Psychology- Collective Consciousness and Collective Hysteria

• Crowd: Definition and Characteristics
• Crowd Psychology: Definition and Characteristics
• Collective Behaviour
• Collective Hysteria

13 Definition of Norms, Social Norms, Need and Characteristics Features of Norms

• Meaning of Norms
• Types of Norms
• Violation of Social Norms
• Need and Importance of Social Norms
• Characteristic Features of Social Norms

14 Norm Formation, Factors Influencing Norms, Enforcement of Norms, Norm Formation and Social Conformity

• Norm Formation
• Factors Influencing Norm Formation
• Enforcement of Norms
• Social Conformity

15 Autokinetic Experiment in Norm Formation

• Autokinetic Effect
• Sherif’s Experiment
• Salient Features of Sherif’s Autokinetic Experiments
• Critical Appraisal
• Related Latest Research on Norm Formation

16 Norms and Conformity- Asch’s Line of Length Experiments

• Solomon E. Asch – A Leading Social Psychologist
• Line and Length Experiments
• Alternatives Available with Probable Consequences
• Explanation of the Yielding Behaviour
• Variants in Asch’s Experiments
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Impression Management: How to Influence the Way Others See You

These strategies can help you take control of your image.

Alice Morgan for Verywell Mind / Stocksy

Theories of Impression Management

• Impression Management Behaviors
• Influential Factors
• Real-World Examples

Impression Management in Professional Settings

Tips for managing impressions effectively.

• Psychological Effects

Impression Management and Deception

Impression management is all of the conscious and unconscious processes that we use to control how others perceive us. It involves actions that often cast us in a favorable light in order to achieve our goals.

"We all engage in purposeful and subconscious behaviors to manage the perceptions that others have of us. This kind of behavior is a normal aspect of everyday behavior in personal and professional settings," explains Nicholas Forlenza, PhD, a psychologist, licensed certified social worker, and founder of Psychological Wellness Partners .

Controlling the impression we leave with others doesn't just help us get what we want—it also influences our interpersonal relationships. Forlenza also notes that being able to manage the impression you leave on others is an essential part of building trust, strengthening bonds, and avoiding conflict.

Good impressions forge friendships, attract romantic partners, and foster professional connections. Such meaningful relationships impact our social health, mental well-being, and career success. 

At a Glance

Impressions matter, which is exactly why we spend so much time and energy devoted to conveying a certain type of image. Sociologists and other behavior experts suggest that this is a lot like an actor putting on a performance. But if your social life is a theater, it is important to remember that you are both a performer and an audience member.

You are trying to manage your own image while at the same time interacting with and making judgments about other people’s images. It’s a complex interplay that can have an impact on your relationships, accomplishments, and emotional well-being.

Sociologist Erving Goffman took a dramaturgical perspective to explain how people manage and evaluate impressions. Social interactions, he suggested, are much like theatrical performances.  

In order to form an impression, people craft their performances and engage in social environments as both actors and performers.

At the heart of Goffman's theory were his ideas of the "front stage" and "backstage" self. A person's public persona, or the image they present to others, is their "front stage" self. This can be contrasted with their less formal, more relaxed "backstage self." The backstage self is more authentic, but its something you probably only show in private when you are by yourself or around close friends and family.

Goffman also suggested that people use various techniques to form, maintain, and repair the impressions that they give. We all use various methods to do this, including nonverbal communication , body language , facial expressions, and other signals. How we act, the way we dress, and the signals shape impressions and relationships.

Simply put, Goffman's theory suggests that people engage in performance when they are interacting with other people. The goal of this act is to cultivate the image they hope to convey. It is in private that people act like their genuine, authentic selves.

But our actions alone aren’t the only factors that shape impressions. According to social identity theory , the people we spend time with and the groups we affiliate with also have an essential role in the impression management process.

This theory suggests that group memberships have an important role in impression management. To form positive impressions, people align themselves with certain groups that suit the image they are trying to convey. For example, if you want to convey the impression that you are a competent professional, you might join certain professional or networking groups associated with your values. 

Types of Impression Management Behaviors

"Impression management is an important part of many social interactions in order to achieve desired outcomes. Adapting our behavior in this way increases the likelihood of being viewed positively and accepted in various forms of social groups," Forlenza explains.

The tactics we use to form these impressions can vary depending on our needs, the situation, and the audience. There are several key behaviors that people use to control the impression that others form. These behaviors include:

Ingratiation

Ingratiation is all about trying to get approval from others. It involves behaviors like complimenting, flattering, or agreeing with others to encourage people to like you more.

At a job interview, for example, a job candidate might try to ingratiate themselves by expressing admiration for the potential employer's accomplishments.

Such behavior can be genuine or manipulative, depending on what the person doing it is trying to accomplish. If they are trying to get someone to do something for them, it may be manipulative; if they are trying to forge a genuine bond, then it may be authentic.

Intimidation

In some cases, people utilize intimidation to assert power or exert influence over others and shape their perceptions and beliefs. Common ways of doing this involve being assertive, acting aggressively, or even displaying dominance to encourage compliance (or even fear).

Exemplification

Have you ever encountered someone who seems like the epitome of perfection? They might be using an impression management tactic known as exemplification. They go all-out to project an image of perfection. The goal of this type of behavior is to win the admiration of others. 

For example, they might seem to have the perfect work ethic, the highest moral standards, and the most flawless image–which goes a long way toward making them a role model. This tactic can sometimes work, but it can sometimes backfire if the image people project seems phony or inauthentic.

Supplication

Revealing weaknesses and appealing to people's sympathies can also be a way to influence others' impressions. In such cases, people might present themselves as needy, helpless, vulnerable, or dependent. The goal is to tug at your heartstrings, leaning on people's natural empathy to ensure they're willing to lend a helping hand. 

It can be an effective tool when people need a little extra help. Plus, it fosters prosocial behaviors that can be important in positive interpersonal dynamics.

Assertiveness

If you are trying to convey the impression of confidence, knowing when to speak your mind and assert your opinion can be particularly important. Assertiveness means stating your opinions and setting boundaries calmly and confidently. It can also involve personal storytelling and self-promotion.

This approach helps people feel empowered and lets people know you are self-assured and willing to take charge when needed.

For example, while negotiating a contract with your employer, you might use assertive behaviors–like making eye contact, actively listening, and calmly asserting non-negotiable points–to convey your boundaries and ensure that people see you as confident and competent.

Self-Monitoring

Monitoring and regulating your emotions and reactions is critical to effective impression management. Self-monitoring involves reading social cues and attuning your behavior to suit the situation and achieve your goals. It requires a high level of self-regulation and emotional intelligence , which helps you read the room and respond in ways that suit your needs.

In the workplace, people tend to have much better impressions of others who effectively manage their own emotions and maintain a calm demeanor. These skills can also help with avoiding potential conflicts in the workplace.

For example, when interacting with others in a social setting, you might match your demeanor and communication to match the demands of the situation. Because you can clearly recognize the tone and image you need to strike, you can create a favorable impression in that particular situation.

Self-Presentation

Self-presentation is a specific component of impression management that focuses on the ways people present themselves to others. It involves putting out signals conveying the image we hope to communicate in order to get social approval and positive feedback from others.

Much of this behavior is conscious, but unconscious forces can also shape the impressions that we give to others.

Factors Influencing Impression Management

Factors that can influence impression management include:

Self-Esteem

If you want to present yourself as confident and assured, it often involves having a strong sense of self-esteem . People with good self-esteem are able to assert themselves in social situations, while people with low self-esteem may come off as more guarded and defensive.

Personality Traits

Personality traits and tendencies influence how you present yourself to others. For example, extroverted people tend to be more outgoing and gregarious in social situations, while introverted people are more cautious and reserved.

Social Roles

Our roles in different situations also affect the impression behaviors we use to manage how others perceive us. You might adopt different strategies as you interact with your friends versus how you respond to your colleagues. In many cases, the impression we strive to form is influenced by the norms associated with different social roles.

We also modify our actions based on what we hope to accomplish in a situation. How you present yourself to your friends will probably differ from how you present yourself at a job interview. You adjust your impression management strategies based on whether you are trying to win approval, build rapport, convey competence, or establish authority in a situation.

Audience Characteristics

We also tailor the image we present based on our audience. If you are more familiar with the audience, you are more likely to act informally and casually. More formal situations, on the other hand, dictate a more cautious approach based on that audience's expectations and goals.

Cultural Factors

Your cultural background also influences aspects of self-presentation and impression management. Individualistic cultures prize conveying autonomy and self-reliance, while collectivist cultures emphasize expressions that support group harmony.

Impression Management in Everyday Life

We utilize impression management as part of our everyday life in many different ways. In our day to day relationships, it helps us form a consistent image to help the people around us understand who we are. Some other ways that impression management functions in everyday life include the following examples:

• First impressions : You might engage in behaviors like smiling, making good eye contact, and listening actively to help people form a positive first impression and view you as friendly and likable.
• Job interviews : You might intentionally adjust your behavior to portray yourself as competent, confident, and experienced. By projecting a professional image, you are able to highlight the abilities and achievements that make you an ideal candidate.
• Social media : You might curate your social media presence to convey a specific image. This can include the type of comments you post, the pages and people you follow, and the posts you choose to like and share.
• Public speaking : When presenting in front of a group, you may adapt your behavior and speech to ensure that people form the right impression of what you have to say. This can include using body language, speech structure, and persuasive tactics to ensure people remember your argument.
• Social identity : By managing the way we present ourselves to others, we are able to align ourselves with certain norms, values, and groups that help reinforce our identity and create a sense of belonging .
• Politics and media : Politicians, actors, and other public figures also utilize impression management to shape how the public perceives them. This is done through tactics like strategically communicating information, framing narratives to suit their image, garnering public trust, and espousing certain values.

"Impression management is essential in professional settings as well, where such skills increase the likelihood of obtaining employment, advancing in careers, and improving professional relationships," Forlenza says.

In competitive work settings, making a positive impression on your colleagues, supervisors, clients, and extended network can make or break your efforts to advance your career. If people perceive you as effective, competent, and trustworthy, you may be more likely to be promoted and achieve other career benefits.

Managing your self-image also influences your professional relationships. Creating a positive impression on co-workers, employers, and customers can lead to more opportunities for further career growth and impact leadership success.

What can you do to help ensure you leave a good impression on others in both personal and professional settings?

Learn More About the Organization

Forlenza suggests that you should start by familiarizing yourself with the a company's culture and value system. In professional settings, it's important to ensure that your behaviors and decision-making align with these aspects of the organization.

Be Authentic

"Leaving a good impression is important but more importantly that you are being authentic in the impression you are leaving. People will feel more comfortable and feel a real connection when you are acting like your true self," explains Abbey Sangmeister, MS.Ed, LPC, ACS, a therapist, burnout coach, and founder of Evolving Whole .

Different situations call for different behaviors, but being genuine in how you present yourself can lead to the best outcomes.

Authenticity gets you further with your connections, and the connections you make will align more with you and your services or product. This will also lead to people having better success when working or referring to you.

Practice Active Listening

Forming the right impression requires being abe to read the room and understand what other people expect and need in any given situation. That means paying attention to others and using active listening to hear and understand what they are trying to communicate.

"It is also important when you are meeting people to actively listen to them, not focus on only selling your services or product, and to ask how you can support their endeavors," Sangmeister says.

Present Yourself Professionally

Forlenza notes that you should make sure that your impression matches the tone and expectations of the setting. This means dressing appropriately and maintaining a professional appearance. 

"Basic workplace behaviors such as punctuality, reliability, and respect towards coworkers are important for managing the perceptions others have of us," he explains.

Communicate Effectively

Forlenza and Sangmeister both note that effective interpersonal communication is a critical component of impression management. This means listening to others, communicating clearly, and taking a genuine, empathetic approach when interacting with others in the workplace.

Forlenza also recommends staying open to feedback and staying motivated to keep learning. Showing that you are a team player who is open to ongoing growth can help others form a more positive impression of you in the workplace.

The Psychological Effects of Impression Management

Managing the impressions we leave on others can have a range of psychological and social effects:

Self-Concept

The process of cultivating and projecting an impression can influence our self-concept and self-esteem. When we form positive impressions, we are more likely to get positive feedback and have rewarding social experiences, both of which bolster how we see ourselves.

Negative experiences, on the other hand, can undermine self-esteem. When we fail to create a good impression, it can lead to feelings of inadequacy or self-doubt.

Social Anxiety

For some people, worrying about the impression they leave on others can be extremely anxiety-provoking. Such anxiety can become particularly severe during high-stakes situations, like when a person is interviewing for a new job or speaking in public. The fear of negative evaluations can lead to feelings of social anxiety that can become debilitating at times.

Constantly monitoring your behavior in order to forge a specific impression can be exhausting, especially if the image you are trying to create contrasts with who you are in private. For example, if you are an introvert trying to act like an extrovert, you might find yourself feeling fatigued and overwhelmed when you have to spend a lot of time in social situations without any time to yourself.

This can lead to feelings of chronic stress and burnout that can ultimately take a toll on your health and well-being.

Cognitive Dissonance

Impression management can create feelings of cognitive dissonance in cases where your public self conflicts with your private self. You might find yourself feeling dissatisfied that your own image of your ideal self doesn't match up with how others see you. Or you might feel inauthentic if your public perception is wildly different from who you are in your private life. 

One study found that impression management could negatively affect life satisfaction. While maintaining impressions plays a major role in social functioning, the researchers suggested that it can undermine one's personal sense of control and contribute to feelings of loneliness.

Managing the impression we give to others is usually about presenting ourselves favorably. This may not always present the full picture—it's not necessarily dishonest, but people often take steps to disguise their flaws so people don't get a bad impression.

However, people sometimes use impression management to intentionally manipulate or mislead others. This may involve presenting false or deceptive information as a way to avoid negative consequences to for personal gain. 

Ways that impression management can be used deceptively include:

• Strategically presenting information to downplay flaws, fabricate information, or conceal negative aspects of a person's behavior.
• Misleading or lying by engaging in exaggeration, embellishment, or omission.

Unfortunately, using deception to manage impressions erodes trust and hurts social relationships. When people sense that someone is being deceptive or dishonest, suspicions and distrust are generated, making communication harder.

Research suggests that such behaviors can also negatively affect a person's professional performance and success. One study found that using ingratiation and self-promoting behaviors in the workplace can deplete self-control resources. When this happens, it can lead to harmful, counterproductive behaviors.

Keep in Mind

Impression management is a complex process that involves many different aspects of your self-concept, personality, social behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Forming good impressions is vital for success, but maintaining impressions that are inauthentic or that conflict with your true values can lead to stress, conflict, and other problems.

In order to form impressions and develop relationships that support your well-being, strive to cultivate a strong emotional awareness that allows you to adapt to the situation while still remaining true to who you really are.

O’Boyle N. Performers: Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective . In: Communication Theory for Humans . Springer International Publishing; 2022:103-125. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-02450-4_5

Kivisto P, Pittman D. Goffman's dramaturgical sociology: Personal sales and service in a commodified world . In: Illuminating Social Life: Classical and Contemporary Theory Revisited . SAGE Publications, Inc.; 2013.doi:10.4135/9781506335483

Yan M, Xie YP, Zhao J, Zhang YJ, Bashir M, Liu Y. How ingratiation links to counterproductive work behaviors: The roles of emotional exhaustion and power distance orientation .  Front Psychol . 2020;11:2238. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02238

Wang Y, Highhouse S. Different consequences of supplication and modesty: Self-effacing impression management behaviors and supervisory perceptions of subordinate personality . Human Performance . 2016;29(5):394-407. doi:10.1080/08959285.2016.1204302

Sung C, Lin CC, Connor A, Chan F. Disclose or not? Effect of impression management tactics on hireability of persons with epilepsy .  Epilepsia . 2017;58(1):128-136. doi:10.1111/epi.13619

Nichols AL. Self‐presentation theory/impression management . In: Carducci BJ, Nave CS, Nave CS, eds. The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences . 1st ed. Wiley; 2020:397-400. doi:10.1002/9781118970843.ch66

Hjetland GJ, Finserås TR, Sivertsen B, Colman I, Hella RT, Skogen JC. Focus on self-presentation on social media across sociodemographic variables, lifestyles, and personalities: A cross-sectional study . Int J Environ Res Public Health . 2022;19(17):11133. doi:10.3390/ijerph191711133

Gundogdu D, Finnerty AN, Staiano J, et al. Investigating the association between social interactions and personality states dynamics .  R Soc Open Sci . 2017;4(9):170194. doi:10.1098/rsos.170194

Elliot AJ, Aldhobaiban N, Murayama K, Kobeisy A, Gocłowska MA, Khyat A. Impression management and achievement motivation: Investigating substantive links .  Int J Psychol . 2018;53(1):16-22. doi:10.1002/ijop.12252

Riemer H, Shavitt S. Impression management in survey responding: Easier for collectivists or individualists ?  J Consum Psychol . 2011;21(2):157-168. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2010.10.001

Provis C. Impression management and business ethics . In: Poff DC, Michalos AC, eds. Encyclopedia of Business and Professional Ethics . Springer International Publishing; 2023:1127-1130. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22767-8_1212

Goodman FR, Kelso KC, Wiernik BM, Kashdan TB. Social comparisons and social anxiety in daily life: An experience-sampling approach .  J Abnorm Psychol . 2021;130(5):468-489. doi:10.1037/abn0000671

Wang W, Zhou K, Yu Z, Li J. The cost of impression management to life satisfaction: Sense of control and loneliness as mediators .  Psychol Res Behav Manag . 2020;13:407-417. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S238344

Ni H, Li Y, Zeng Y, Duan J. The double-edged sword effect of employee impression management and counterproductive work behavior: From the perspective of self-control resource theory .  Front Psychol . 2023;14:1053784. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1053784

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The self presentation theory and how to present your best self

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What does self presentation mean?

What are self presentation goals, individual differences and self presentation.

How can you make the most of the self presentation theory at work?  

We all want others to see us as confident, competent, and likeable — even if we don’t necessarily feel that way all the time. In fact, we make dozens of decisions every day — whether consciously or unconsciously — to get people to see us as we want to be seen. But is this kind of self presentation dishonest? Shouldn’t we just be ourselves?

Success requires interacting with other people. We can’t control the other side of those interactions. But we can think about how the other person might see us and make choices about what we want to convey. 

Self presentation is any behavior or action made with the intention to influence or change how other people see you. Anytime we're trying to get people to think of us a certain way, it's an act of self presentation. Generally speaking, we work to present ourselves as favorably as possible. What that means can vary depending on the situation and the other person.

Although at first glance this may seem disingenuous, we all engage in self-presentation. We want to make sure that we show up in a way that not only makes us look good, but makes us feel good about ourselves.

Early research on self presentation focused on narcissism and sociopathy, and how people might use the impression others have of them to manipulate others for their benefit. However, self presentation and manipulation are distinct. After all, managing the way others see us works for their benefit as well as ours.

Imagine, for example, a friend was complaining to you about   a tough time they were having at work . You may want to show up as a compassionate person. However, it also benefits your friend — they feel heard and able to express what is bothering them when you appear to be present, attentive, and considerate of their feelings. In this case, you’d be conscious of projecting a caring image, even if your mind was elsewhere, because you value the relationship and your friend’s experience.

To some extent, every aspect of our lives depends on successful self-presentation. We want our families to feel that we are worthy of attention and love. We present ourselves as studious and responsible to our teachers. We want to seem fun and interesting at a party, and confident at networking events. Even landing a job depends on you convincing the interviewer that you are the best person for the role.

There are three main reasons why people engage in self presentation:

Tangible or social benefits:

In order to achieve the results we want, it often requires that we behave a certain way. In other words, certain behaviors are desirable in certain situations. Matching our behavior to the circumstances can help us connect to others,   develop a sense of belonging , and attune to the needs and feelings of others.

Example:   Michelle is   a new manager . At her first leadership meeting, someone makes a joke that she doesn’t quite get. When everyone else laughs, she smiles, even though she’s not sure why.

By laughing along with the joke, Michelle is trying to fit in and appear “in the know.” Perhaps more importantly, she avoids feeling (or at least appearing) left out, humorless, or revealing that she didn’t get it — which may hurt her confidence and how she interacts with the group in the future.

To facilitate social interaction:

As mentioned, certain circumstances and roles call for certain behaviors. Imagine a defense attorney. Do you think of them a certain way? Do you have expectations for what they do — or don’t — do? If you saw them frantically searching for their car keys, would you feel confident with them defending your case?

If the answer is no, then you have a good idea of why self presentation is critical to social functioning. We’re surprised when people don’t present themselves in a way that we feel is consistent with the demands of their role. Having an understanding of what is expected of you — whether at home, work, or in relationships — may help you succeed by inspiring confidence in others.

Example:   Christopher has always been called a “know-it-all.” He reads frequently and across a variety of topics, but gets nervous and tends to talk over people. When attending a networking event, he is uncharacteristically quiet. Even though he would love to speak up, he’s afraid of being seen as someone who “dominates” the conversation. 

Identity Construction:

It’s not enough for us to declare who we are or what we want to be — we have to take actions consistent with that identity. In many cases, we also have to get others to buy into this image of ourselves as well. Whether it’s a personality trait or a promotion, it can be said that we’re not who   we   think we are, but who others see.

Example:   Jordan is interested in moving to a client-facing role. However, in their last performance review, their manager commented that Jordan seemed “more comfortable working independently.” 

Declaring themselves a “people person” won’t make Jordan’s manager see them any differently. In order to gain their manager’s confidence, Jordan will have to show up as someone who can comfortably engage with clients and thrive in their new role.

We may also use self presentation to reinforce a desired identity for ourselves. If we want to accomplish something, make a change, or   learn a new skill , making it public is a powerful strategy. There's a reason why people who share their goals are more likely to be successful. The positive pressure can help us stay accountable to our commitments in a way that would be hard to accomplish alone.

Example:   Fatima wants to run a 5K. She’s signed up for a couple before, but her perfectionist tendencies lead her to skip race day because she feels she hasn’t trained enough. However, when her friend asks her to run a 5K with her, she shows up without a second thought.

In Fatima’s case, the positive pressure — along with the desire to serve a more important value (friendship) — makes showing up easy.

Because we spend so much time with other people (and our success largely depends on what they think of us), we all curate our appearance in one way or another. However, we don’t all desire to have people see us in the same way or to achieve the same goals. Our experiences and outcomes may vary based on a variety of factors.

One important factor is our level of self-monitoring when we interact with others. Some people are particularly concerned about creating a good impression, while others are uninterested. This can vary not only in individuals, but by circumstances.   A person may feel very confident at work , but nervous about making a good impression on a first date.

Another factor is self-consciousness — that is, how aware people are of themselves in a given circumstance. People that score high on scales of public self-consciousness are aware of how they come across socially. This tends to make it easier for them to align their behavior with the perception that they want others to have of them.

Finally, it's not enough to simply want other people to see you differently. In order to successfully change how other people perceive you, need to have three main skills: 

1. Perception and empathy

Successful self-presentation depends on being able to correctly perceive   how people are feeling , what's important to them, and which traits you need to project in order to achieve your intended outcomes.

2. Motivation

If we don’t have a compelling reason to change the perception that others have of us, we are not likely to try to change our behavior. Your desire for a particular outcome, whether it's social or material, creates a sense of urgency.

3.  A matching skill set

You’ve got to be able to walk the talk. Your actions will convince others more than anything you say. In other words, you have to provide evidence that you are the person you say you are. You may run into challenges if you're trying to portray yourself as skilled in an area where you actually lack experience.

How can you make the most of the self presentation theory at work?

At its heart, self presentation requires a high-level of self awareness and empathy. In order to make sure that we're showing up as our best in every circumstance — and with each person — we have to be aware of our own motivation as well as what would make the biggest difference to the person in front of us.

Here are 6 strategies to learn to make the most of the self-presentation theory in your career:

1. Get feedback from people around you

Ask a trusted friend or mentor to share what you can improve. Asking for feedback about specific experiences, like a recent project or presentation, will make their suggestions more relevant and easier to implement.

2. Study people who have been successful in your role

Look at how they interact with other people. How do you perceive them? Have they had to cultivate particular skills or ways of interacting with others that may not have come easily to them?

3. Be yourself

Look for areas where you naturally excel and stand out. If you feel comfortable, confident, and happy, you’ll have an easier time projecting that to others. It’s much harder to present yourself as confident when you’re uncomfortable.

4. Be aware that you may mess up

As you work to master new skills and ways of interacting with others,   keep asking for feedback . Talk to your manager, team, or a trusted friend about how you came across. If you sense that you’ve missed the mark, address it candidly. People will understand, and you’ll learn more quickly.

Try saying, “I hope that didn’t come across as _______. I want you to know that…”

5. Work with a coach

Coaches are skilled in interpersonal communication and committed to your success. Roleplay conversations to see how they land, and practice what you’ll say and do in upcoming encounters. Over time, a coach will also begin to know you well enough to notice patterns and suggest areas for improvement.

6. The identity is in the details

Don’t forget about the other aspects of your presentation. Take a moment to visualize yourself being the way that you want to be seen. Are there certain details that would make you feel more like that person? Getting organized, refreshing your wardrobe, rewriting your resume, and even cleaning your home office can all serve as powerful affirmations of your next-level self.

Self presentation is defined as the way we try to control how others see us, but it’s just as much about how we see ourselves. It is a skill to achieve a level of comfort with who we are   and   feel confident to choose how we self-present. Consciously working to make sure others get to see the very best of you is a wonderful way to develop into the person you want to be.

Understand Yourself Better:

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Allaya Cooks-Campbell

With over 15 years of content experience, Allaya Cooks Campbell has written for outlets such as ScaryMommy, HRzone, and HuffPost. She holds a B.A. in Psychology and is a certified yoga instructor as well as a certified Integrative Wellness & Life Coach. Allaya is passionate about whole-person wellness, yoga, and mental health.

Impression management: Developing your self-presentation skills

6 presentation skills and how to improve them, how to make a presentation interactive and exciting, how to give a good presentation that captivates any audience, what is self-preservation 5 skills for achieving it, how to not be nervous for a presentation — 13 tips that work (really), how self-knowledge builds success: self-awareness in the workplace, self-promotion: how to showcase your skills and experience, developing psychological flexibility, how self-compassion strengthens resilience, how self-efficacy can boost your personal success, what is self-awareness and how to develop it, what i didn't know before working with a coach: the power of reflection, self-advocacy: improve your life by speaking up, building resilience part 6: what is self-efficacy, why learning from failure is your key to success, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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Self-Presentation Theory

Self-Presentation Theory: Understanding the Art of Impression Management

In the grand theater of life, where every social interaction is a stage and we are both the actors and the audience, self-presentation theory takes center stage. It whispers the secrets of our performances, the subtle art of crafting personas, and the intricate dance between authenticity and impression. As we pull back the curtain on this psychological narrative, we delve into the depths of human behavior, exploring how the masks we wear and the roles we play are not merely acts of deception but profound expressions of our deepest desires to connect, belong, and be understood in the ever-unfolding drama of existence.

Self-presentation theory, originating from the field of social psychology, delves into the intricate ways individuals strategically convey and portray their desired image to others. This theory explores the underlying motivations and cognitive processes governing how people present themselves in social situations, aiming to understand the dynamics of impression management.

Key Definition:

Self-presentation theory refers to the behavior and strategies individuals use to shape the perceptions that others form about them. This theory suggests that individuals strive to convey a favorable impression to others by managing their public image. It encompasses various aspects such as impression management, identity, and social interaction, and is often associated with social psychology and communication studies. According to this theory, individuals may engage in behaviors such as self-disclosure, performance, and conformity to influence how others perceive them.

Origins and Development

The concept of self-presentation theory was initially formulated by sociologist Erving Goffman, in his seminal work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life , originally published in 1956. Goffman’s was first to create a specific theory concerning self-presentation, laying the foundation for what is now commonly referred to as impression management. His book became widely known after its publication in the United States in 1959.

Goffman’s theory draws from the imagery of theater to portray the importance of human social interaction. He proposed that in social interactions, individuals perform much like actors on a stage, managing the impressions others form of them by controlling information in various ways. This process involves a “front” where the individual presents themselves in a certain manner, and a “back” where they can step out of their role.

His work has been influential in sociology, social psychology, and anthropology, as it was the first to treat face-to-face interaction as a subject of sociological study. Goffman’s dramaturgical analysis observes a connection between the kinds of acts people put on in their daily life and theatrical performances. The theory has had a lasting impact on our understanding of social behavior and continues to be a significant reference point in studies of social interaction.

Impression Management Strategies

Much of Goffman’s early work suggests that “avoidance of shame is an important, indeed a crucial, motive in virtually all social behavior.” Goffman posits that impression management is typically a greater motivation than rational and instrumental goals. Thomas J. Scheff explains that “one tries to control the impression one makes on others, even others who are not significant to one’s life” ( Scheff, 1997. Kindle location: 4,106 ).

Self-presentation theory encompasses a spectrum of strategies employed by individuals to shape others’ perceptions of them. Impression management strategies in social interaction theory are the various techniques individuals use to influence how others perceive them. Individuals employ these strategies to present themselves in a favorable light. The motivation is to achieve specific goals or maintain certain relationships. Here are some key impression management strategies:

• Self-Promotion : Highlighting one’s own positive qualities, achievements, and skills to be seen as competent and capable.
• Ingratiation : Using flattery or praise to make oneself likable to others, often to gain their favor or approval.
• Exemplification : Demonstrating one’s own moral integrity or dedication to elicit respect and admiration from others.
• Intimidation : Projecting a sense of power or threat to influence others to comply with one’s wishes.
• Supplication : Presenting oneself as weak or needy to elicit sympathy or assistance from others.

These strategies can be assertive, involving active attempts to shape one’s image, or defensive, aimed at protecting one’s image. The choice of strategy depends on the individual’s goals, the context of the interaction, and the nature of the relationship.

The Game of Presentation

In many ways, self-presentation opposes other psychology concepts such as authenticity. We adapt to ur environments, and present ourselves accordingly. We act much different at grandma’s house than we do when out drinking with our friends. Perhaps, authenticity is context dependent. However, we can present ourselves differently in different situations without violating core self-values. The presentations may differ but the self remains unchanged.

Carl Jung mused in reflection of his childhood interactions with his friends that, “I found that they alienated me from myself. When I was with them I became different from the way I was at home.” He continues, “it seemed to me that the change in myself was due to the influence of my schoolfellows, who somehow misled me or compelled me to be different from what I thought I was” ( Jung, 2011 ).

Jonathan Haidt suggests that it is merely game. He wrote, “to win at this game you must present your best possible self to others. You must appear virtuous, whether or not you are, and you must gain the benefits of cooperation whether or not you deserve them.” He continues to warn “but everyone else is playing the same game, so you must also play defense—you must be wary of others’ self-presentations, and of their efforts to claim more for themselves than they deserve” ( Haidt, 2003. Kindle location: 1,361 ).

Healthy and Unhealthy Modes of Self-Presentation

We all self-present, creating images that fit the context. While seeking a partner, we self-present a person who is worthy of investing time in. Only in time, do some of these masks begin to fade. Impression management is essential to build new relationships, get the job, and prevent social rejection. Mahzarin R, Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald wrote, “honesty may be an overrated virtue. If you decided to report all of your flaws to friends and to apply a similar standard of total honesty when talking to others about their shortcomings, you might soon find that you no longer have friends.” they continue, “our daily social lives demand, and generally receive, repeated lubrication with a certain amount of untruthfulness, which keeps the gears of social interaction meshing smoothly” ( Banaji & Greenwald, 2016, pp. 28-29 ).

However, this healthy practice morphs into something sinister when the presented self has nothing to do with the real self. Daniel Goleman refers to individuals that engage in unhealthy deceitful presentations as social chameleons. He wrote, “the social chameleon will seem to be whatever those he is with seem to want. The sign that someone falls into this pattern…is that they make an excellent impression, yet have few stable or satisfying intimate relationships” ( Golman, 2011. Kindle location: 2,519 ).

Goleman explains that “a more healthy pattern, of course, is to balance being true to oneself with social skills, using them with integrity.” He adds, “social chameleons, though, don’t mind in the least saying one thing and doing another, if that will win them social approval” ( Goleman, 2011. Kindle location: 2,523 ).

Situational Influences

The application of self-presentation strategies is contingent upon the social context and the specific goals an individual pursues. In professional settings, individuals may engage in self-promotion to advance their careers, while in personal relationships, they might prioritize authenticity and sincerity. The ubiquity of social media further complicates self-presentation, as individuals navigate the curation of online personas and the management of digital identities.

In the professional realm, the strategic presentation of oneself can play a crucial role in career development and success. This may involve showcasing one’s achievements, skills, and expertise to stand out in a competitive environment. However, it’s important to strike a balance between self-promotion and humility to maintain credibility and foster positive professional relationships.

On the other hand, personal relationships often thrive on genuine connections and authenticity. In these contexts, individuals may choose to present themselves in a sincere manner, emphasizing vulnerability and openness to establish meaningful connections with others. While occasional self-promotion may still occur, the emphasis is more on building trust and rapport.

Social Media and Self-Presentation

The rise of social media has introduced a new layer of complexity to self-presentation. Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn offer opportunities for individuals to craft their virtual identities. This process involves selective sharing of information, curation of posts and images, and the management of online interactions. The challenge lies in maintaining a balance between projecting an aspirational image and staying true to one’s authentic self in the digital sphere.

In Goffman’s lengthy comparison between actors and audience suggests that anyone could perform, presenting a certain image. However, he points out that if the actor is a known criminal the audience would not be able to accept their performance, knowing it is a fraud. The actor may enjoy success by going on the road, performing to audiences that are not aware of the actor’s criminal past ( Goffman, 1956, p. 223 ). The internet allows the individual with a shady past to bring their show on the road to an unsuspecting audience who can buy their deceitful performance.

Navigating these diverse self-presentation strategies requires individuals to be mindful of the specific social contexts and their underlying goals. Whether it’s in the professional arena or personal relationships, the nuanced art of self-presentation continues to evolve in the digital age, shaping how individuals perceive and position themselves in the world.

Self-Presentation and Emotional Labor

The intersection of self-presentation theory with emotional labor is a topic of significant interest. Emotional labor pertains to the management of one’s emotions to meet the demands of a particular role or job. Individuals often engage in self-presentation to display appropriate emotions in various settings, leading to a convergence between impression management and emotional regulation. One of the key aspects of this intersection is the impact it has on employee well-being.

Research has shown that the need to regulate emotions in the workplace can lead to emotional exhaustion and burnout. Additionally, there are important implications for organizations, as they have a vested interest in understanding and managing the emotional labor of their employees. Effective programs may enhance employee well-being and improve the quality of service provided to customers. Moreover, the intersection of self-presentation and emotional labor can also be examined through the lens of gender and cultural differences. These examination may highlight the complexities and nuances of this phenomenon in diverse contexts. Understanding this intersection is crucial for creating supportive work environments and fostering healthy, sustainable emotional practices.

See Emotional Labor for more on this topic

Implications and Future Directions

Understanding self-presentation theory has widespread implications, spanning from interpersonal relationships to organizational dynamics. By acknowledging the nuanced strategies individuals employ to shape perceptions, psychologists and practitioners can better grasp human behavior in diverse contexts. Future research may delve into the interplay between self-presentation and cultural factors. In addition, further research may cast light on the psychological effects of sustained impression management on individuals’ well-being.

As individuals, we can understand that we, as well as others, use impression management. Before investing significant resources, we would be wise to try to unmask the presenter and make a decision based on reality rather than expertely presented deceptions.

A List of Practical Implications

Understanding the concepts related to self-presentation theory, such as impression management, self-concept, and social identity, has several practical implications in everyday life:

• Enhanced Social Interactions : By being aware of how we present ourselves, we can navigate social situations more effectively, tailoring our behavior to suit different contexts and relationships.
• Improved Professional Relationships : In the workplace, understanding self-presentation can help in managing professional personas, leading to better workplace dynamics and career advancement.
• Personal Development : Recognizing the strategies we use for impression management can lead to greater self-awareness and personal growth, as we align our external presentation with our internal values.
• Conflict Resolution : Awareness of self-presentation strategies can aid in resolving conflicts by understanding the motivations behind others’ behaviors and addressing the underlying issues.
• Mental Health : Understanding the effort involved in emotional labor and impression management can help in identifying when these efforts are leading to stress or burnout, prompting us to seek support or make changes.
• Authentic Relationships : By balancing self-presentation with authenticity, we can foster deeper and more genuine connections with others.
• Cultural Competence : Recognizing the role of social identity in self-presentation can enhance our sensitivity to cultural differences and improve cross-cultural communication.

Overall, these concepts can empower us to be more intentional in our interactions, leading to more fulfilling and effective communication in our personal and professional lives.

Associated Psychological Concepts to Self-Presentation Theory

Self-presentation theory is intricately connected to a variety of psychological concepts that help explain the behaviors and motivations behind how individuals present themselves to others. Here are some related concepts:

• Self-Concept : This refers to how people perceive themselves and their awareness of who they are. Self-presentation is often a reflection of one’s self-concept, as individuals attempt to project an image that aligns with their self-perception.
• Impression Management : This is the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them. It involves a variety of strategies to influence others’ perceptions in a way that is favorable to the individual.
• Social Identity : The part of an individual’s self-concept derived from their membership in social groups. Self-presentation can be used to highlight certain aspects of one’s social identity.
• Cognitive Dissonance : This occurs when there is a discrepancy between one’s beliefs and behaviors. Self-presentation strategies may be employed to reduce cognitive dissonance by aligning one’s outward behavior with internal beliefs.
• Role Theory : Suggests that individuals behave in ways that align with the expectations of the social roles they occupy. Self-presentation can be seen as performing the appropriate role in a given context.
• Self-Es teem : The value one places on oneself. Self-presentation can be a means to enhance or protect one’s self-esteem by controlling how others view them.
• Self-Efficacy : One’s belief in their ability to succeed. Through self-presentation, individuals may seek to project confidence and competence to others, thereby reinforcing their own sense of self-efficacy.

These concepts are interrelated and contribute to the understanding of self-presentation theory as a whole, providing insight into the complex nature of social interactions and the motivations behind individuals’ efforts to influence how they are perceived by others.

A Few Words by Psychology Fanatic

In essence, self-presentation theory captures the multifaceted nature of human interaction, shedding light on the conscious and subconscious processes governing how individuals present themselves in the social arena. By unraveling the intricacies of impression management, researchers continue to unveil the complexities of human behavior and the underlying motivations that propel our interactions with others.

Last Update: April 29, 2024

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References:

Goffman, Erving (1956/ 2021 ). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Anchor

Goleman, Daniel ( 2005 ). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bantam Books . Read on Kindle Books.

Haidt, Jonathan ( 2003 ). The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom. Basic Books ; 1st edition.

Jung, Carl Gustav (1961/ 2011 ). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Vintage ; Reissue edition.

Banaji, Mahzarin R.; Greenwald, Anthony G. ( 2016 ). Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People.  Bantam ; Reprint edition.

Scheff, Thomas J. ( 1997 ). Shame in Social Theory. Editors Lansky, M. R. and Morrison, A. P. In The Widening Scope of Shame. ​ Routledge ; 1st edition.

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Self-Presentation

Self-presentation definition.

Self-presentation refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression. Self-presentation is part of a broader set of behaviors called impression management. Impression management refers to the controlled presentation of information about all sorts of things, including information about other people or events. Self-presentation refers specifically to information about the self.

Self-Presentation History and Modern Usage

Early work on impression management focused on its manipulative, inauthentic uses that might typify a used car salesperson who lies to sell a car, or someone at a job interview who embellishes accomplishments to get a job. However, researchers now think of self-presentation more broadly as a pervasive aspect of life. Although some aspects of self-presentation are deliberate and effortful (and at times deceitful), other aspects are automatic and done with little or no conscious thought. For example, a woman may interact with many people during the day and may make different impressions on each person. When she starts her day at her apartment, she chats with her roommates and cleans up after breakfast, thereby presenting the image of being a good friend and responsible roommate. During classes, she responds to her professor’s questions and carefully takes notes, presenting the image of being a good student. Later that day, she calls her parents and tells them about her classes and other activities (although likely leaving out information about some activities), presenting the image of being a loving and responsible daughter. That night, she might go to a party or dancing with friends, presenting the image of being fun and easygoing. Although some aspects of these self-presentations may be deliberate and conscious, other aspects are not. For example, chatting with her roommates and cleaning up after breakfast may be habitual behaviors that are done with little conscious thought. Likewise, she may automatically hold the door open for an acquaintance or buy a cup of coffee for a friend. These behaviors, although perhaps not done consciously or with self-presentation in mind, nevertheless convey an image of the self to others.

Although people have the ability to present images that are false, self-presentations are often genuine; they reflect an attempt by the person to have others perceive him or her accurately, or at least consistent with how the person perceives himself or herself. Self-presentations can vary as a function of the audience; people present different aspects of themselves to different audiences or under different conditions. A man likely presents different aspects of himself to his close friends than he does to his elderly grandmother, and a woman may present a different image to her spouse than she does to her employer. This is not to say that these different images are false. Rather, they represent different aspects of the self. The self is much like a gem with multiple facets. The gem likely appears differently depending on the angle at which it is viewed. However, the various appearances are all genuine. Even if people present a self-image that they know to be false, they may begin to internalize the self-image and thereby eventually come to believe the self-pres

entation. For example, a man may initially present an image of being a good student without believing it to be genuine, but after attending all his classes for several weeks, visiting the professor during office hours, and asking questions during class, he may come to see himself as truly being a good student. This internalization process is most likely to occur when people make a public commitment to the self-image, when the behavior is at least somewhat consistent with their self-image, and when they receive positive feedback or other rewards for presenting the self-image.

Self-presentation is often directed to external audiences such as friends, lovers, employers, teachers, children, and even strangers. Self-presentation is more likely to be conscious when the presenter depends on the audience for some reward, expects to interact with the audience in the future, wants something from the audience, or values the audience’s approval. Yet self-presentation extends beyond audiences that are physically present to imagined audiences, and these imagined audiences can have distinct effects on behavior. A young man at a party might suddenly think about his parents and change his behavior from rambunctious to reserved. People sometimes even make self-presentations only for themselves. For instance, people want to claim certain identities, such as being fun, intelligent, kind, moral, and they may behave in line with these identities even in private.

Self-Presentation Goals

Self-presentation is inherently goal-directed; people present certain images because they benefit from the images in some way. The most obvious benefits are interpersonal, arising from getting others to do what one wants. A job candidate may convey an image of being hardworking and dependable to get a job; a salesperson may convey an image of being trustworthy and honest to achieve a sale. People may also benefit from their self-presentations by gaining respect, power, liking, or other desirable social rewards. Finally, people make certain impressions on others to maintain a sense of who they are, or their self-concept. For example, a man who wants to think of himself as a voracious reader might join a book club or volunteer at a library, or a woman who wishes to perceive herself as generous may contribute lavishly to a charitable cause. Even when there are few or no obvious benefits of a particular self-presentation, people may simply present an image that is consistent with the way they like to think about themselves, or at least the way they are accustomed to thinking about themselves.

Much of self-presentation is directed toward achieving one of two desirable images. First, people want to appear likeable. People like others who are attractive, interesting, and fun to be with. Thus, a sizable proportion of self-presentation revolves around developing, maintaining, and enhancing appearance and conveying and emphasizing characteristics that others desire, admire, and enjoy. Second, people want to appear competent. People like others who are skilled and able, and thus another sizable proportion of self-presentation revolves around conveying an image of competence. Yet, self-presentation is not so much about presenting desirable images as it is about presenting desired images, and some desired images are not necessarily desirable. For example, schoolyard bullies may present an image of being dangerous or intimidating to gain or maintain power over others. Some people present themselves as weak or infirmed (or exaggerate their weaknesses) to gain help from others. For instance, a member of a group project may display incompetence in the hope that other members will do more of the work, or a child may exaggerate illness to avoid going to school.

Self-Presentation Avenues

People self-present in a variety of ways. Perhaps most obviously, people self-present in what they say. These verbalizations can be direct claims of a particular image, such as when a person claims to be altruistic. They also can be indirect, such as when a person discloses personal behaviors or standards (e.g., “I volunteer at a hospital”). Other verbal presentations emerge when people express attitudes or beliefs. Divulging that one enjoys backpacking through Europe conveys the image that one is a world-traveler. Second, people self-present nonverbally in their physical appearance, body language, and other behavior. Smiling, eye contact, and nods of agreement can convey a wealth of information. Third, people self-present through the props they surround themselves with and through their associations. Driving an expensive car or flying first class conveys an image of having wealth, whereas an array of diplomas and certificates on one’s office walls conveys an image of education and expertise. Likewise, people judge others based on their associations. For example, being in the company of politicians or movie stars conveys an image of importance, and not surprisingly, many people display photographs of themselves with famous people. In a similar vein, high school students concerned with their status are often careful about which classmates they are seen and not seen with publicly. Being seen by others in the company of someone from a member of a disreputable group can raise questions about one’s own social standing.

Self-Presentation Pitfalls

Self-presentation is most successful when the image presented is consistent with what the audience thinks or knows to be true. The more the image presented differs from the image believed or anticipated by the audience, the less willing the audience will be to accept the image. For example, the lower a student’s grade is on the first exam, the more difficulty he or she will have in convincing a professor that he or she will earn an A on the next exam. Self-presentations are constrained by audience knowledge. The more the audience knows about a person, the less freedom the person has in claiming a particular identity. An audience that knows very little about a person will be more accepting of whatever identity the person conveys, whereas an audience that knows a great deal about a person will be less accepting.

People engaging in self-presentation sometimes encounter difficulties that undermine their ability to convey a desired image. First, people occasionally encounter the multiple audience problem, in which they must simultaneously present two conflicting images. For example, a student while walking with friends who know only her rebellious, impetuous side may run into her professor who knows only her serious, conscientious side. The student faces the dilemma of conveying the conflicting images of rebellious friend and serious student. When both audiences are present, the student must try to behave in a way that is consistent with how her friends view her, but also in a way that is consistent with how her professor views her. Second, people occasionally encounter challenges to their self-presentations. The audience may not believe the image the person presents. Challenges are most likely to arise when people are managing impressions through self-descriptions and the self-descriptions are inconsistent with other evidence. For example, a man who claims to be good driver faces a self-presentational dilemma if he is ticketed or gets in an automobile accident. Third, self-presentations can fail when people lack the cognitive resources to present effectively because, for example, they are tired, anxious, or distracted. For instance, a woman may yawn uncontrollably or reflexively check her watch while talking to a boring classmate, unintentionally conveying an image of disinterest.

Some of the most important images for people to convey are also the hardest. As noted earlier, among the most important images people want to communicate are likeability and competence. Perhaps because these images are so important and are often rewarded, audiences may be skeptical of accepting direct claims of likeability and competence from presenters, thinking that the person is seeking personal gain. Thus, people must resort to indirect routes to create these images, and the indirect routes can be misinterpreted. For example, the student who sits in the front row of the class and asks a lot of questions may be trying to project an image of being a competent student but may be perceived negatively as a teacher’s pet by fellow students.

Finally, there is a dark side to self-presentation. In some instances, the priority people place on their appearances or images can threaten their health. People who excessively tan are putting a higher priority on their appearance (e.g., being tan) than on their health (e.g., taking precautions to avoid skin cancer). Similarly, although condoms help protect against sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancy, self-presentational concerns may dissuade partners or potential partners from discussing, carrying, or using condoms. Women may fear that carrying condoms makes them seem promiscuous or easy, whereas men may fear that carrying condoms makes them seem presumptuous, as if they are expecting to have sex. Self-presentational concerns may also influence interactions with health care providers and may lead people to delay or avoid embarrassing medical tests and procedures or treatments for conditions that are embarrassing. For example, people may be reluctant to seek tests or treatment for sexually transmitted diseases, loss of bladder control, mental disorders, mental decline, or other conditions associated with weakness or incompetence. Finally, concerns with social acceptance may prompt young people to engage in risky behaviors such as excessive alcohol consumption, sexual promiscuity, or juvenile delinquency.

References:

• Jones, E. E., Pittman, T. S. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1, pp. 231-260). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Leary, M. R. (1996). Self-presentation: Impression management and interpersonal behavior. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Leary, M. R., Tchividjian, L. R., & Kraxberger, B. E. (1994). Self-presentation can be hazardous to your health: Impression management and health risk. Health Psychology, 13, 461-470.
• Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Self-Presentation Theory: Self-Construction and Audience Pleasing

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• Roy F. Baumeister &
• Debra G. Hutton  

Part of the book series: Springer Series in Social Psychology ((SSSOC))

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Self-presentation is behavior that attempts to convey some information about oneself or some image of oneself to other people. It denotes a class of motivations in human behavior. These motivations are in part stable dispositions of individuals but they depend on situational factors to elicit them. Specifically, self-presentational motivations are activated by the evaluative presence of other people and by others’ (even potential) knowledge of one’s behavior.

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Baumeister, R.F., Hutton, D.G. (1987). Self-Presentation Theory: Self-Construction and Audience Pleasing. In: Mullen, B., Goethals, G.R. (eds) Theories of Group Behavior. Springer Series in Social Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4634-3_4

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Self-Presentation in the Digital World

Do traditional personality theories predict digital behaviour.

Posted August 31, 2021 | Reviewed by Chloe Williams

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• Personality theories can help explain real-world differences in self-presentation behaviours but they may not apply to online behaviours.
• In the real world, women have higher levels of behavioural inhibition tendencies than men and are more likely to avoid displeasing others.
• Based on this assumption, one would expect women to present themselves less on social media, but women tend to use social media more than men.

Digital technology allows people to construct and vary their self-identity more easily than they can in the real world. This novel digital- personality construction may, or may not, be helpful to that person in the long run, but it is certainly more possible than it is in the real world. Yet how this relates to "personality," as described by traditional personality theories, is not really known. Who will tend to manipulate their personality online, and would traditional personality theories predict these effects? A look at what we do know about gender differences in the real and digital worlds suggests that many aspects of digital behaviour may not conform to the expectations of personality theories developed for the real world.

Half a century ago, Goffman suggested that individuals establish social identities by employing self-presentation tactics and impression management . Self-presentational tactics are techniques for constructing or manipulating others’ impressions of the individual and ultimately help to develop that person’s identity in the eyes of the world. The ways other people react are altered by choosing how to present oneself – that is, self-presentation strategies are used for impression management . Others then uphold, shape, or alter that self-image , depending on how they react to the tactics employed. This implies that self-presentation is a form of social communication, by which people establish, maintain, and alter their social identity.

These self-presentational strategies can be " assertive " or "defensive." 1 Assertive strategies are associated with active control of the person’s self-image; and defensive strategies are associated with protecting a desired identity that is under threat. In the real world, the use of self-presentational tactics has been widely studied and has been found to relate to many behaviours and personalities 2 . Yet, despite the enormous amounts of time spent on social media , the types of self-presentational tactics employed on these platforms have not received a huge amount of study. In fact, social media appears to provide an ideal opportunity for the use of self-presentational tactics, especially assertive strategies aimed at creating an identity in the eyes of others.

Seeking to Experience Different Types of Reward

Social media allows individuals to present themselves in ways that are entirely reliant on their own behaviours – and not on factors largely beyond their ability to instantly control, such as their appearance, gender, etc. That is, the impression that the viewer of the social media post receives is dependent, almost entirely, on how or what another person posts 3,4 . Thus, the digital medium does not present the difficulties for individuals who wish to divorce the newly-presented self from the established self. New personalities or "images" may be difficult to establish in real-world interactions, as others may have known the person beforehand, and their established patterns of interaction. Alternatively, others may not let people get away with "out of character" behaviours, or they may react to their stereotype of the person in front of them, not to their actual behaviours. All of which makes real-life identity construction harder.

Engaging in such impression management may stem from motivations to experience different types of reward 5 . In terms of one personality theory, individuals displaying behavioural approach tendencies (the Behavioural Activation System; BAS) and behavioural inhibition tendencies (the Behavioural Inhibition System; BIS) will differ in terms of self-presentation behaviours. Those with strong BAS seek opportunities to receive or experience reward (approach motivation ); whereas, those with strong BIS attempt to avoid punishment (avoidance motivation). People who need to receive a lot of external praise may actively seek out social interactions and develop a lot of social goals in their lives. Those who are more concerned about not incurring other people’s displeasure may seek to defend against this possibility and tend to withdraw from people. Although this is a well-established view of personality in the real world, it has not received strong attention in terms of digital behaviours.

Real-World Personality Theories May Not Apply Online

One test bed for the application of this theory in the digital domain is predicted gender differences in social media behaviour in relation to self-presentation. Both self-presentation 1 , and BAS and BIS 6 , have been noted to show gender differences. In the real world, women have shown higher levels of BIS than men (at least, to this point in time), although levels of BAS are less clearly differentiated between genders. This view would suggest that, in order to avoid disapproval, women will present themselves less often on social media; and, where they do have a presence, adopt defensive self-presentational strategies.

The first of these hypotheses is demonstrably false – where there are any differences in usage (and there are not that many), women tend to use social media more often than men. What we don’t really know, with any certainty, is how women use social media for self-presentation, and whether this differs from men’s usage. In contrast to the BAS/BIS view of personality, developed for the real world, several studies have suggested that selfie posting can be an assertive, or even aggressive, behaviour for females – used in forming a new personality 3 . In contrast, sometimes selfie posting by males is related to less aggressive, and more defensive, aspects of personality 7 . It may be that women take the opportunity to present very different images of themselves online from their real-world personalities. All of this suggests that theories developed for personality in the real world may not apply online – certainly not in terms of putative gender-related behaviours.

We know that social media allows a new personality to be presented easily, which is not usually seen in real-world interactions, and it may be that real-world gender differences are not repeated in digital contexts. Alternatively, it may suggest that these personality theories are now simply hopelessly anachronistic – based on assumptions that no longer apply. If that were the case, it would certainly rule out any suggestion that such personalities are genetically determined – as we know that structure hasn’t changed dramatically in the last 20 years.

1. Lee, S.J., Quigley, B.M., Nesler, M.S., Corbett, A.B., & Tedeschi, J.T. (1999). Development of a self-presentation tactics scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 26(4), 701-722.

2. Laghi, F., Pallini, S., & Baiocco, R. (2015). Autopresentazione efficace, tattiche difensive e assertive e caratteristiche di personalità in Adolescenza. Rassegna di Psicologia, 32(3), 65-82.

3. Chua, T.H.H., & Chang, L. (2016). Follow me and like my beautiful selfies: Singapore teenage girls’ engagement in self-presentation and peer comparison on social media. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 190-197.

4. Fox, J., & Rooney, M.C. (2015). The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men’s use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 161-165.

5. Hermann, A.D., Teutemacher, A.M., & Lehtman, M.J. (2015). Revisiting the unmitigated approach model of narcissism: Replication and extension. Journal of Research in Personality, 55, 41-45.

6. Carver, C.S., & White, T.L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: the BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319.

7. Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Frackowiak, T., Karwowski, M., Rusicka, I., & Oleszkiewicz, A. (2016). Sex differences in online selfie posting behaviors predict histrionic personality scores among men but not women. Computers in Human Behavior, 59, 368-373.

Phil Reed, Ph.D., is a professor of psychology at Swansea University.

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This book is about the ways which human behavior is affected concerns with people may be doing, their public impressions they typically prefer that No matter what else other people perceive them in certain desired ways and not perceive them in other, undesired ways. Put simply, human beings have a pervasive and ongoing concern with their self-presentations. Sometimes they act in ceflain ways just to make a particular impression on someone else mras when a job applicant responds inthat will satisfactorily impress the interviewer. But more often, people 5 concerns with others’ impressions simply constrain their behavioural options. Most of the time inclined to do things that will lead others to see us as incompetent, inwnoral, maladjusted, or otherwise socially undesirable. As a result, our concerns with others’ impressions limit what we are willing to do.Self-presentation almotives underlie and pervade near corner of interpersonal life.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter chapter 1 | 15  pages, introduction, chapter chapter 2 | 35  pages, chapter chapter 3 | 26  pages, the self-presentational motive, chapter chapter 4 | 26  pages, the social context: norms and roles, chapter chapter 5 | 22  pages, the target’s values, chapter chapter 6 | 24  pages, current social image, chapter chapter 7 | 19  pages, instrumental complementarity, chapter chapter 8 | 23  pages, the private self, chapter chapter 9 | 23  pages, worrying about impressions.

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A Quick Guide to the MoSCoW Method Technique

January 12, 2022 - 10 min read

The MoSCoW method is a prioritization technique used by project and campaign managers to work smarter not harder. In this quick guide, we’ll explain exactly what the MoSCoW method is, how it works, and provide some examples you can use to inform your own analysis. Keep reading to better understand the various categories within the MoSCoW method, as well as an alternative prioritization tool for project managers.

What is the MoSCow method?

The MoSCoW method is a technique used by organizations to communicate the importance and priority of the various requirements being met in various projects. This method is also referred to as MoSCoW prioritization and MoSCoW analysis.

The term MoSCoW is an acronym that refers to the first letter of each of the four priority categories. It uses four categories, which are must-have, should-want, could-have, and will not have. While it’s meant to be used at the start of a project when time is on your side, it can also be adapted to work seamlessly for time constraints .

Software developer Dai Clegg originally created the MoScoW method. Since then, many other leading companies have used it to get their team on the same page, properly distribute resources, and achieve project goals. 

How does the MoSCow technique work?

The MoSCoW technique works by allowing teams to include multiple representatives from the organization in their project management discussions. This gives everyone a wider perspective on the organization's operations and where their collective priorities lie. 

Before you begin your MoSCoW method, think about which people can provide valuable context for your team. They can help you identify opportunities and threats, and they can help you make better decisions. Once finalized, the MoSCoW method will also force stakeholders to show evidence before they can submit additional work requests mid-project. 

Critics of MoSCoW often say that it does not include a comprehensive objective scoring system for all initiatives. This is a common mistake that many teams make. A weighted scoring method will more accurately measure the backlog against a set of predefined benefits and costs.

One of the most challenging aspects of the MoSCoW technique is learning which categories their initiatives should go in.  As the manager, you will need to know which of your team's initiatives are “must haves” for their product or which are merely “should haves”. 

You may even need to solicit feedback from a different department in order to get greater perspective on your current project prioritization. For example, a marketing department head may have greater insight into which selling points for your upcoming product launch are resonating more with buyers so that you can work on perfecting those components first. 

Another key idea about how the MoSCoW technique works is that it’s only effective if you follow it. This means that, once an initiative is placed into a category, the entire team needs to stick to that decision. Many beginner MoSCoW teams end up agreeing that an initiative should have been initiated, but they move on to the next step instead because it feels better or more familiar to them. 

Finally, when it comes to making decisions about prioritization, your team will need to have a consistent framework in place before you engage with this technique. A consistent framework for assessing and ranking all initiatives is critical if you want to avoid biases and falling into old patterns. 

Your team’s prioritization strategy helps set expectations across the organization. It lets them know that they have made the right decisions and weigh all the factors that go into making those decisions. Don’t be afraid to make your MoSCoW method results available to the rest of your organization if applicable. 

Understanding MoSCow prioritization categories

Before the MoSCoW analysis can begin, all participants need to agree on which initiatives will be prioritized. It's important to discuss how to resolve disagreements in order to prevent them from holding up progress during this preparation stage. This can help prevent issues from happening in the first place.

Once the framework has been established, it is time to start identifying the appropriate categories for each project. Here are the definitions and explanations of each of the MoSCoW prioritization categories: 

Musts are defined as initiatives that are critical to the success of a project or product. These are usually non-negotiable and can be used to describe specific functionalities or solutions that need to be implemented.

The “must have” category is challenging to define. Before you start, ask yourself if something is truly necessary in this category.

Should have

Although “should have” initiatives are not essential to a product or project, they may add significant value. A “should have” initiative is different from a “must have” initiative, which means it can be scheduled for a future release.

“Could haves” are initiatives that are not necessary to the core of a product. Projects that are placed in the “could have” category are often the first ones to be deprioritized when another project takes longer than expected.

Will not have

The MoSCoW method places several initiatives in a “will not have” category. This method allows you to manage expectations about what will not be included in a release or another timeframe.

Putting initiatives in the “will not have" category can help prevent scope creep . This category shows the team that the project is not a priority at this specific time frame. 

Some initiatives are prioritized in the “will not have” group, while others are likely to happen in the future. Some teams then decide to create a subcategory for these initiatives.

How is the MoSCoW method used in project management?

The concept of MoSCoW allows project managers to prioritize tasks that can be done efficiently even when they have limited time. For example, if the team has a tight budget, it can use MoSCoW to determine which initiatives can be completed within those limitations. 

This is especially useful for managers juggling more than project or leading cross-functional teams. This is because cross-functional teams are sometimes obligated to another company or department’s priorities. While your team is working on a new product release, another project manager may have them on a tight timeline for another client’s goal. 

And, as we all know, things come up throughout the lifespan of a project. Although efficient planning helps teams remain agile, the MoSCoW method can make even the biggest and most unexpected roadblocks more manageable. 

MoSCoW examples

This method can be used for nearly any industry or project type because it has to do more with project decision-making than the subject matter itself. Here are a couple of MoSCoW method examples you can use to get started with your first draft: 

1. National College of Ireland’s website project

In this example from a lecture on the MoSCoW analysis, Professor Eugene O’Loughlin demonstrates how to use this technique when building a website . 

The project goal in this example is to create a platform where users can securely log in and access files. Because of this, the tasks listed under their MoSCoW categories will look different from other standard website creation projects. 

For example, while another project may add “have an eye-catching design” to their should-have section, this particular website has added “password retrieval” because it directly applies to their security-oriented goal. 

Even if this website project could benefit from a great design, the MoSCoW method helps managers and teams laser focus on completing the highest priority activities first. If they have more time later on, they can potentially add a design improvement task to their “could haves” if they determine the ROI is high enough. 

Takeaway: Consider your project holistically when assigning priority. Your goals should be your north star for determining what is or is not truly important, regardless of what conventional wisdom says to do. 

2. Slideteam’s Assessing HR Requirements Template

This is one of the MoSCoW examples that shows how many different types of tasks this technique covers. Here, we see storing employee leave history as a must, leave letter printing a should, notifications for pending leave dates a could, and remote access a won’t. 

In HR, many of their decisions around prioritization will be made by compliance and legal counsel that they must adhere to. Still, it’s important to define these tasks and their MoSCoW label so that employees understand at a glance that it’s less important to set up leave notifications and more important that they update employment histories in their software. 

Takeaway: The MoSCoW method can be used to cover many different aspects of projects including compliance and procedure. 

How to undertake a MoSCoW analysis using Wrike

Wrike is a project management software that allows users to strategize how they prioritize their portfolio of projects as well as the tasks within each individual initiative. Using visual tools such as road maps that show what progress will look like from kickoff to completion, managers can easily see which of their chosen MoSCoW analysis configurations work best for achieving their goals. 

Wrike also allows you to centralize all of your project planning in one central location. You can view potential resource conflicts across projects, individual task progress statuses, and automate tasks from your should or could have categories that you otherwise wouldn’t have time for. 

Ready to get started with the MoSCoW method and Wrike? Sign up for a two-week free trial today. 

Maria Waida

Maria is a freelance content writer who specializes in blogging and other marketing materials for enterprise software businesses.

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Bullet journals are great tools to destress and organize various aspects of project management. In this guide, we’re diving deep into the pros and cons of using this method to organize projects of all kinds. Keep reading to discover what bullet journal project management is and how this practice can boost productivity to new levels.  What is a bullet journal? A bullet journal is a customized space to organize all of your personal projects and goals. It can also be used to track deadlines and prioritize tasks. Bullet journaling became popular thanks to the book Getting Things Done, which is about a project management technique that uses a bullet journal to manage different projects efficiently. Bullet journals are often used to create daily, weekly, and monthly project plans. They can also be home to your to-do lists, inspiration boards, and project notes. They’re relaxing to create and relatively easy to maintain.  If you have multiple projects to manage, then you may want to use more than one notebook. Or you can swap your physical journal for a professional services management software that has plenty of space for storing digital plans.  Software tools are also easy to customize, make collaboration easier, and help with turning the plan into reality through task creation and assignment tools. With Wrike, data from multiple users will automatically sync so that everyone is on the same page with new updates and responsibilities.  If you do use a physical journal, using loose leaf paper in a binder will allow you to add pages as you go. This is useful for keeping track of all the data in one place instead of switching to additional notebooks when you run out of room.  There are many elegant, decorated bullet journal page layouts out there. Many invest time into making them artistic with drawings, decorative tape, and cut-out images. This isn’t necessary for project management, but it may be a fun activity outside of work.  Bullet journals can use several different layouts. The most common is a two-page spread that includes a month-long calendar on one page and a breakdown of goals for that period on the other. The latter will help you keep track of all the dates and commitments that are important to you as you get closer to starting a new project. The two-page spread makes it easy to see where you'll be working most efficiently in the coming weeks. It's ideal for people who manage multiple projects simultaneously. You can also create a view of the next six months within your bullet journal project management layout. This is called a future log. A future log is a calendar that lets you keep track of important events and dates for long-term projects. How do you use a bullet journal in project planning? Projects are essentially collections of notes and tasks that are linked to a common goal. They can be pulled together in a bullet journal for you to easily see all of the work related to that specific project. To start, you’ll need to list out your goals.  Create a list that includes every project goal you or your team can think of. Sort them in order of importance. Ideally, these smaller project goals will align with your organization’s big-picture goals.  Once you know what you’d like to accomplish, you can begin your bullet journal. Start by breaking down your number one goal into a project action plan. This can span days, weeks, or months. Then, break down your project action plan into individual tasks. Determine what the task is, who will be in charge of getting it done, and when it needs to be completed.  After that, you’re ready to use your bullet journal for project planning.  Step 1: List out your sections Number your pages if they aren’t already. At the beginning of the bullet journal, write the name of the page on the left side and the page number on the right.  Step 2: Add your key You may use symbols and abbreviations throughout your project planning. Put these at the beginning of the journal either after or on the same page as your key. Use color coding to signify which symbols belong to each project if you have more than one.  Step 3: Write out your future log A future log is a list of key dates and tasks that aren’t part of your immediate three-to-six month plans but are important to keep in mind. Add this after your key and leave space for other items as they come up.  Step 4: Create your calendar This can be in the form of a traditional calendar page. Some people like to hand draw them. However, you can also print, cut out, and paste a blank monthly calendar page into your journal too.  Step 5: Track tasks Create sections for monthly, weekly, and daily task lists. You can organize these in a few ways. Some project managers prefer to do it by project or by person. You can also create one massive list with everything you’re personally responsible for so you have it all in one place. Or use a combination of any of these for your various projects.  Make sure to check in with your bullet journal weekly and monthly. Note any upcoming or past deadlines. Adjust your task list and schedule for unexpected issues as needed.  The benefits of using a bullet journal for work Project managers often have a hard time keeping track of their work activities without losing track of anything along the way. This is one of the reasons why the bullet journal is so useful. Not only does it give you a roadmap of your next projects, but it’s also good for daily use.  You can keep track of to-do lists, priorities, and daily reflections. You can also journal about your progress and realign with goals all in the same notebook or tool. You can also rapidly log your thoughts for the day to boost your creativity and clear out emotions that no longer serve the project.  Combine your bullet journal for work with your personal goals. It will be easier to prioritize and accurately schedule tasks when you have your entire life laid out in front of you on paper.  Another benefit of using a bullet journal for work is that you can either DIY a notebook or use a planner you already have. It’s not so much what you use but how you use it.  And bonus: bullet journaling only takes five to 15 minutes a day. Whether it’s reviewing tomorrow’s meetings or crossing off today’s tasks, a bullet journal practice is easy to build into your schedule no matter how busy you are.  The disadvantages of using a bullet journal in project management While bullet journaling project management is great for keeping track of key project details, many project managers need a separate system to manage their meetings and reports.  Having more than one journal or calendar to manage at one time can be confusing. Add more than one project to the mix, and it may be counterproductive to use a traditional pen and paper bullet journal to accomplish your goals.  Another disadvantage of using a bullet journal in project management is your lack of ability to collaborate with others. When writing on paper, you have to either show your team the notebook in person or scan the pages and share them online. Either way, it’s not ideal for large, remote, and/or revolving teams.  The other thing to know about bullet journaling before diving in headfirst is that it can be quite time-consuming. If you do a crafty layout with calligraphy and scrapbooking accessories, then it may even take several days to finish.  And once you do have your plans laid out, they can be hard to change. Rewriting, erasing, and making more space for things that come up are essential for project planning. For that reason, we suggest using an 11 inch by 7 inch grid lined notebook to give yourself extra space.  Also, you can outline headlines and calendars with a pen or marker if you like the look. But stick to pencil for any factual information that is subject to change throughout the lifetime of the project. If you don’t do this now, you may end up having to scrap entire pages and start over later on.  Bullet journal alternatives you should consider Bullet journals are fun, unique, and creative. But there are some projects where they just aren’t the best possible option for managing it all. The project may be too complex or too large for a single notebook. There may even be so many updates needed that a physical notebook doesn’t make sense for your project.  If you’re facing any of these issues, you can try any of the following bullet journal alternatives:  Digital calendar and list app combo Bulletin board, sticky notes, and shared files Project management software Project management software is the top choice for bullet journal alternatives. Not only is it flexible, but it can make project planning more productive.  Wrike is the ultimate platform for customizing your own bullet journal project management processes. With over 30 predefined apps you can use to sync all your project data in one place, it's the most versatile platform for managing complex tasks. As a single source of truth for a project, team, and entire organization, project management software offers more advanced features than a simple notebook can. Instead of writing everything down on a few sheets of paper, Wrike acts like a living document. And unlike other digital organization tools, Wrike is specifically built to optimize project performance and success.  Wrike's tools are designed to work seamlessly with any team. Anyone who has permission to access the project can share files and tasks quickly and easily. Once uploaded, collaborators can visually edit and obtain files.  They’ll also have access to reports and tasks that are simple to understand at a glance without losing the details in the process. This allows all managers to gain visibility across departments and groups. Wrike is the ideal solution for teams that want to grow and operate efficiently with the help of cutting edge technology. For example, Wrike’s Work Intelligence helps you get started with the next generation of work, with AI-powered projects and automation. Wrike also features a streamlined UI that lets you customize its features to work seamlessly with your team. Although bullet journaling allows you to customize your project planning, you’ll be able to get and implement feedback from partners faster with a digital project tool.  Here are some other stand out benefits of using a project management software over a physical or digital bullet journal:  It’s interactive. For example, Wrike offers Gantt charts that lets users visualize their plans and progress. It’s efficient. Kanban boards make it easy to work seamlessly with Agile teams by creating and sharing whenever needed.  It’s faster. Wrike's template library is designed to help you quickly create and manage complex projects. It’s customizable. With custom request forms, you can easily gather details for your intake, assign tasks to the right teams, and dynamically route questions and requests. It’s up to date. Wrike’s calendars are ideal for team members who want to keep up with the latest information. It’s repeatable. Most tasks go through the same steps before they are finished. In a project management solution, you build a path for yours that will automatically assign and notify people when it's ready to begin through Wrike’s Automation Engine.  It’s trackable. With timers, approvals, and visual task assignments, you can manage entire teams while streamlining your work. It’s transparent. Get a 360 view across all of your organizations with custom dashboards. It’s syncable. Wrike's 400+ app integrations make it possible to integrate hundreds of apps into one central hub.  It’s safe. A digital project management software can safeguard your data by enforcing rules and encryption key ownership. Ready to upgrade your project planning methods and tools? Check out Wrike’s two-week free trial for some more goal-achieving features. 

What Is The Pomodoro Technique and How Does it Work?

Endless tasks and expectations from colleagues and employers can make getting things done hard. There’s always something else to add to your to-do list and, as that list grows, it starts to feel like there’s never enough time to do it all. Productivity hacks can seem gimmicky and semi-helpful at best. But what if there was a time management strategy that could help you tackle your to-do list, meet others’ expectations, and help you feel more productive and balanced?  That’s where the Pomodoro Technique comes in. This popular time management strategy can help you better plan your workload, overcome distractions, and check tasks off your list. And it doesn’t require working overtime or jamming more work into your day. Instead, it encourages frequent breaks in between stints of work. Perhaps one of the best aspects about it is that it’s easy to use.  We’re here to help you make your workdays better and more productive. In this guide, we’re breaking down the Pomodoro method — how to use it, why it works, and its advantages and disadvantages. And don’t worry, we’ll cover what Pomodoro means while we’re at it. Add reading this guide to your list of to-dos for today, and let’s get started.  What is the Pomodoro Technique? The Pomodoro Technique is a productivity or time management method created in the early 1990s by Francesco Cirillo.  A university student at the time, Cirillo struggled to focus and get his assignments done. Feeling overwhelmed, he realized he needed to try a new way of working and held himself accountable for committing to 10 minutes of focused time while studying. As he committed to the challenge, he found a tomato-shaped timer (you guessed it, Pomodoro is “tomato” in Italian), and the Pomodoro Technique was born. Cirillo wrote an entire book about the Pomodoro Technique, but the gist of it is simple. The method encourages short bursts of manageable chunks of work with breaks built in between. With this method, you work for 25-minutes sessions separated by five-minute breaks. After every four or five Pomodoros (think of these as work sessions), you indulge in a more extended break for 15-20 minutes. With a sense of urgency built into it, the method forces you to think through your to-do list and eliminate distractions while progressing on your tasks for a limited amount of time. And you can eliminate distractions knowing that you have breaks built into your day to look forward to. Let’s start by understanding what exactly the word “Pomodoro” means and where it came from. What does Pomodoro mean? Pomodoro quite literally means “tomato” in Italian. But what does a tomato have to do with time management?  Like we mentioned earlier, Cirillo used a tomato-shaped timer to help him manage his focused work time. He later named his famous technique after the tomato-shaped kitchen timer that helped him do his best work.  When we talk about the Pomodoro Technique, a Pomodoro also refers to one 25-minute focused work session. You’ll use a timer to work for one Pomodoro. Get it? Don’t worry — we’ll walk you through the nitty-gritty of how to use the Pomodoro Technique next.  How to use the Pomodoro Technique One of the best parts of the Pomodoro Technique is that it’s super simple to use without any training. Depending on who you ask, these steps may vary slightly. But that’s one of the best parts about the method — you can customize it.  Here’s how Cirillo’s Pomodoro method works: 1. Make a list of the tasks you need to accomplish To make the best use of your Pomodoro sessions, consider starting your day by creating a to-do list and outlining the tasks you need to accomplish. Don’t panic if your list becomes lengthy! Remember, you’re going to split up your work so that it’s more manageable throughout the day. You just need to make a note of what you need to accomplish today.  Tip: When you make a list of your tasks, think about how much time you need to complete each task. For example, one task might take you a full 25-minute Pomodoro. Or you might have three short tasks that you can group during one Pomodoro. Write down how many minutes each task will take. That way, you can pair up tasks that will take less than 25-minutes to complete. Your estimations don’t have to be perfect, but you want to avoid having gaps of time to fill or going past time during your Pomodoro sessions. 2. Set a timer for 25 minutes You don’t have to mimic Cirillo exactly and use a tomato-shaped kitchen timer, but to live the complete Pomodoro Technique experience, give a real timer a try. It doesn’t matter if you use a virtual or physical timer; any will do. Here are a few options to choose from when selecting a Pomodoro Technique timer: Pomodoro tomato timer Online tomato timer Focus Keeper app Pomodoro Timer Lite app The timer you use doesn’t need to be overly cumbersome or have any fancy capabilities, so don’t get caught up in the details. Keep it simple to make it most effective.  3. Focus on your tasks until the timer goes off This is the tricky part. Once you’ve set your timer, you need to work on the task or tasks you’ve chosen for 25 minutes without any interruptions throwing you off track. Combating distractions is no easy feat, and it may take practice to nail this step.  Tip: If possible, alert those around you when you’re using the Pomodoro method. This can help reduce interruptions and external distractions.  If you find yourself with spare time during a Pomodoro and aren’t sure what to focus on, Cirillo recommends taking advantage of the opportunity for overlearning. Use the time to make improvements and tidy up your work, reflect on the tasks you completed, or make a note of what you’ve learned until the timer goes off. Use the 25 minutes as best you can and avoid starting your break early if possible. 4. Enjoy a short break for five minutes You made it! Time is up and you can enjoy a break for five minutes or so. Consider using this time to use the restroom, grab a snack, or fill up your water bottle. Give your eyes a break and try to limit screen time if you can. Get up and stretch your legs or move your body around. Taking care of your well-being will help you stay motivated throughout the remainder of the day. 5. Repeat steps the first four steps Are you getting the hang of it? Rinse and repeat the above steps. After you’ve completed four Pomodoros, skip step four and jump straight to step six. 6. After every four or five Pomodoros, enjoy a more extended break You’ve earned it! Enjoy a longer, restorative break this time. Take 15-20 minutes to rejuvenate yourself. Maybe it’s time for breakfast or lunch. Or perhaps you want to spend a few minutes outside in the sun. Whatever the case may be, use your break wisely and prepare to jump into more Pomodoros after the break. That’s it. The Pomodoro Technique is an easy-to-use system, which means there isn’t much of a learning curve to start using it to your advantage. Does the Pomodoro Technique work? It sounds simple, right? That means you might be asking yourself whether the Pomodoro method truly works or not.  Reviews of the method spread amongst the internet suggest that many have seen success when using the technique. One person found that the Pomodoro Technique was a great solution for monotonous tasks on the to-do list. Knowing that they only needed to work on a task for 25 minutes encouraged them to get started on those dreaded, tedious to-do’s. Another person found success using the Pomodoro Technique and later adapted the method to fit their specific needs. The Pomodoro Technique helped them define a practice of self-discipline to expand on and boost productivity.  But what is it about the Pomodoro Technique that makes it work? Studies suggest that brief mental breaks help keep you focused. Frequent distractions rob us of productivity at work, but the Pomodoro method helps eliminate distractions for more focus in the workplace.  As with any time management strategy, what works best for some may not work well for others. Give the Pomodoro Technique a try and tailor it to your individual needs to ensure it has the most payoff for you.  The advantages and disadvantages of the Pomodoro method As with any time management strategy, the Pomodoro Technique has both benefits and drawbacks to consider before experimenting with it. Let’s take a look at both, starting with the advantages. Advantages of the Pomodoro Technique Break the habit of multitasking  When you follow the Pomodoro Technique, you’ll break the habit of multitasking. While multitasking might seem like a great way to get more done, it’s distracting and actually hinders your productivity. With the Pomodoro method, your goal is to dedicate your focus to any given task at hand — and save the rest of the items on your to-do list for another Pomodoro.  Reduce or prevent feelings of burnout Looking at your neverending to-do list can feel overwhelming and stressful, and working through that list without a strategic plan in place can cause feelings of burnout. The Pomodoro Technique not only encourages frequent breaks but it builds them directly into your schedule for you. You can reduce or prevent stress and burnout by taking full advantage of your breaks when you have them. Reduce procrastination We all procrastinate now and then, but the Pomodoro Technique ignites a sense of urgency in the day, which reduces or eliminates procrastination. There isn’t any time to scroll through your favorite social media platform, grab another snack, stare out the window, or engage in another distraction when you know you only have 25 minutes to complete a task. (Don’t beat yourself up — we’re all guilty of these things!) Disadvantages of the Pomodoro Technique Some tasks take more than 25 minutes  The Pomodoro method is said to be beneficial for tasks like writing, coding, and studying. It also comes in handy when needing to work through some monotonous to-dos like cleaning out your inbox or digging into some administrative items. But some tasks are bound to take more than 25 minutes to complete, which means the Pomodoro Technique may not always work for every type of project or task. If you’re in the middle of a project and are in a solid flow state, you might want to keep working past the 25-minute timer mark, which will interrupt all subsequent Pomodoro scheduling. You know your work styles and productivity best, so you’ll be in charge of making the judgment call on whether you need to work past the timer’s buzz.  Meetings could interfere with your Pomodoro planning  The Pomodoro method sounds particularly beneficial to those who have full control over their schedules. But many career professionals are bound to be interrupted by planned and unexpected meetings. Your meeting schedule could interfere with how you plan your Pomodoros or could interrupt you in the middle of a Pomodoro session.  Every time management strategy comes with advantages and disadvantages, and no method is guaranteed to be one-size-fits-all. Since the Pomodoro method is easy and comes without cost, consider giving it a try to see if it works for you. Remember, you can always tweak it to suit you best.  How to use Wrike to plan your Pomodoros  To set yourself up for success when using the Pomodoro Technique, you’ll want to have a to-do list prepared. A project management tool like Wrike can help you organize your tasks so that you can dive right into your Pomodoros (without wondering what you should start with).  With Wrike, you can: Manage and prioritize your work Use templates to organize and break your projects down into manageable tasks Track your time to understand how you’re spending it Manage workloads with resource management capabilities  You’re on your way to a more productive workday. Start your free trial of Wrike and begin planning your Pomodoros today.

Moore’s Law and the Productivity Problem

As the year draws to a close, developing strategies for how to be more productive and finish the year off strong is on every team’s mind — regardless of department or industry.  According to a study by California-based management platform Redbooth, the month of the year that we are at our most productive is October, followed by November, then September. The fall provides a feeling of a new start for many businesses, with the desire for shiny new productivity tools and aids bringing us back to our school days. But, while a new pencil case or a multi-colored pen can work wonders, today’s organizations are looking to much more sophisticated tools to boost their productivity. Note-taking apps, instant messaging platforms, virtual to-do lists, calendar tools — our desktops are overflowing with software designed to make us our most productive selves. But, with so many conflicting apps clouding our vision, it can often be difficult to get anything done at all.  So, why are we so inclined to constantly invest in new technology, believing it will exponentially increase our productivity levels? This concept is commonly referred to as Moore’s Law, and it’s important to understand it if you’re concerned about your team’s or your own productivity levels. What is Moore’s Law? Let’s start off with a simple enough question: what is Moore’s Law? The origins of Moore’s Law lie in IT and computer hardware. It is the principle that the speed and efficiency of a computer can be expected to double every two years, while the cost decreases by half. Moore’s Law is named after Gordon E. Moore, the co-founder of Intel, who made this observation of exponential growth in 1965.  You will have no doubt experienced Moore’s Law for yourself over the last decade, as the need to purchase a new phone or laptop normally begins to creep up every two years or so. While the technical capabilities of your gadget will have grown hugely, the price largely remains standard. We then begin to fall into a cycle of purchasing new technology as a habit, stretching our view to include phones, computers, exercise aids, entertainment systems, and, yes, productivity tools. Moore’s Law and endless productivity tools Of course, Moore’s Law has huge benefits for the technologically-driven society that we live in. The standards of the technology that we rely on can even be linked to Moore’s Law. The overarching idea of Moore’s Law — that speed, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of technology is constantly evolving at a rapid pace — could apply to productivity tools and solutions. The need to update and reinvest in the ever-growing ecosystem of productivity tools and software every few years sees many teams losing themselves to too many apps.  In 2015, the average number of cloud applications per company was 73. In 2020, that number had increased to 163. So much so, that 56% of IT executives are now reporting having to use manual spreadsheets to keep track of all their SaaS apps — defeating their productivity goals before they’ve even started. This concept is commonly known as ‘SaaS sprawl,’ a term that refers to the dilemma of an organization’s tech stack being so expansive that it becomes unmanageable and causes visibility problems across departments. $40 billion is estimated to be spent on unused software each year, and the number of apps we are downloading continues to rise.  Many teams believe themselves to be more productive than ever, when really, spending so much time flicking between apps, tools, and software stifles creativity and raises burnout to an all-time high. How your team can effectively invest in productivity If your organization has fallen foul to overindulgence in productivity tools and gadgets, don’t worry. There are plenty of ways to empower your teams and teach them how to be more productive without overwhelming themselves with dozens of productivity platforms.  Consider toxic productivity The concept of toxic productivity relates to an unattainable desire for increased productivity, at the expense of other priorities, such as family or health. Toxic productivity is a real issue for many teams, especially if both our personal and work devices are overrun with technology that is constantly drawing us back to working mode. Consider whether your team could benefit from a digital detox of work-related technology, and set boundaries for after-hours work communication. Turn your attention to other methods of increasing productivity There are plenty of ways to increase productivity and wellbeing at work that have nothing to do with technology. For example, has your organization invested in a flexible work structure, allowing employees to choose where they work best? Could your business go the extra mile and trial a four-day workweek? Could your employee recognition programs use some extra love? These are all areas to consider when brainstorming how to be more productive across the board. Making the most of all-in-one technology like Wrike Of course, technology will always be a cornerstone of a successful business, and continuing to use productivity tools in some way at work is non-negotiable. But which tools should you invest in? What are the most important features of work management software that can actually increase productivity by up to 40%? Workflow automation: With Wrike’s custom request forms and automated task assignment, your team will never miss important tasks and details because of a cluttered workspace. App integration: Using so many apps can be tiresome and inefficient, with details and updates often being missed by team members. Wrike’s work management includes over 400 app integrations, so the constant context switching can stop. Single source of truth: Trawling through emails and messaging apps to find important documents and updates is time-consuming and frustrating for teams. Keeping everything organized in one centralized hub, where users can comment, edit, and give feedback, is a life-saver for teams who wish to be more productive. Collaborative features: Whether your team works in-office, remotely, or under a hybrid model, breakdowns in communication are one of the most common challenges to successful projects. Wrike’s collaborative features, including @mentions, real-time editing, and email and chat app integrations means that your team all have the same view, no matter where they are. Want to know more about how Wrike can boost your team’s productivity? Try out a free two-week trial today.

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MoSCoW Prioritization

What is moscow prioritization.

MoSCoW prioritization, also known as the MoSCoW method or MoSCoW analysis, is a popular prioritization technique for managing requirements. 

  The acronym MoSCoW represents four categories of initiatives: must-have, should-have, could-have, and won’t-have, or will not have right now. Some companies also use the “W” in MoSCoW to mean “wish.”

What is the History of the MoSCoW Method?

Software development expert Dai Clegg created the MoSCoW method while working at Oracle. He designed the framework to help his team prioritize tasks during development work on product releases.

You can find a detailed account of using MoSCoW prioritization in the Dynamic System Development Method (DSDM) handbook . But because MoSCoW can prioritize tasks within any time-boxed project, teams have adapted the method for a broad range of uses.

How Does MoSCoW Prioritization Work?

Before running a MoSCoW analysis, a few things need to happen. First, key stakeholders and the product team need to get aligned on objectives and prioritization factors. Then, all participants must agree on which initiatives to prioritize.

At this point, your team should also discuss how they will settle any disagreements in prioritization. If you can establish how to resolve disputes before they come up, you can help prevent those disagreements from holding up progress.

Finally, you’ll also want to reach a consensus on what percentage of resources you’d like to allocate to each category.

With the groundwork complete, you may begin determining which category is most appropriate for each initiative. But, first, let’s further break down each category in the MoSCoW method.

Start prioritizing your roadmap

Moscow prioritization categories.

1. Must-have initiatives

As the name suggests, this category consists of initiatives that are “musts” for your team. They represent non-negotiable needs for the project, product, or release in question. For example, if you’re releasing a healthcare application, a must-have initiative may be security functionalities that help maintain compliance.

The “must-have” category requires the team to complete a mandatory task. If you’re unsure about whether something belongs in this category, ask yourself the following.

If the product won’t work without an initiative, or the release becomes useless without it, the initiative is most likely a “must-have.”

2. Should-have initiatives

Should-have initiatives are just a step below must-haves. They are essential to the product, project, or release, but they are not vital. If left out, the product or project still functions. However, the initiatives may add significant value.

“Should-have” initiatives are different from “must-have” initiatives in that they can get scheduled for a future release without impacting the current one. For example, performance improvements, minor bug fixes, or new functionality may be “should-have” initiatives. Without them, the product still works.

3. Could-have initiatives

Another way of describing “could-have” initiatives is nice-to-haves. “Could-have” initiatives are not necessary to the core function of the product. However, compared with “should-have” initiatives, they have a much smaller impact on the outcome if left out.

So, initiatives placed in the “could-have” category are often the first to be deprioritized if a project in the “should-have” or “must-have” category ends up larger than expected.

4. Will not have (this time)

One benefit of the MoSCoW method is that it places several initiatives in the “will-not-have” category. The category can manage expectations about what the team will not include in a specific release (or another timeframe you’re prioritizing).

Placing initiatives in the “will-not-have” category is one way to help prevent scope creep . If initiatives are in this category, the team knows they are not a priority for this specific time frame. 

Some initiatives in the “will-not-have” group will be prioritized in the future, while others are not likely to happen. Some teams decide to differentiate between those by creating a subcategory within this group.

How Can Development Teams Use MoSCoW?

  Although Dai Clegg developed the approach to help prioritize tasks around his team’s limited time, the MoSCoW method also works when a development team faces limitations other than time. For example: 

Prioritize based on budgetary constraints.

What if a development team’s limiting factor is not a deadline but a tight budget imposed by the company? Working with the product managers, the team can use MoSCoW first to decide on the initiatives that represent must-haves and the should-haves. Then, using the development department’s budget as the guide, the team can figure out which items they can complete. 

Prioritize based on the team’s skillsets.

A cross-functional product team might also find itself constrained by the experience and expertise of its developers. If the product roadmap calls for functionality the team does not have the skills to build, this limiting factor will play into scoring those items in their MoSCoW analysis.

Prioritize based on competing needs at the company.

Cross-functional teams can also find themselves constrained by other company priorities. The team wants to make progress on a new product release, but the executive staff has created tight deadlines for further releases in the same timeframe. In this case, the team can use MoSCoW to determine which aspects of their desired release represent must-haves and temporarily backlog everything else.

What Are the Drawbacks of MoSCoW Prioritization?

  Although many product and development teams have prioritized MoSCoW, the approach has potential pitfalls. Here are a few examples.

1. An inconsistent scoring process can lead to tasks placed in the wrong categories.

  One common criticism against MoSCoW is that it does not include an objective methodology for ranking initiatives against each other. Your team will need to bring this methodology to your analysis. The MoSCoW approach works only to ensure that your team applies a consistent scoring system for all initiatives.

Pro tip: One proven method is weighted scoring, where your team measures each initiative on your backlog against a standard set of cost and benefit criteria. You can use the weighted scoring approach in ProductPlan’s roadmap app .

2. Not including all relevant stakeholders can lead to items placed in the wrong categories.

To know which of your team’s initiatives represent must-haves for your product and which are merely should-haves, you will need as much context as possible.

For example, you might need someone from your sales team to let you know how important (or unimportant) prospective buyers view a proposed new feature.

One pitfall of the MoSCoW method is that you could make poor decisions about where to slot each initiative unless your team receives input from all relevant stakeholders. 

3. Team bias for (or against) initiatives can undermine MoSCoW’s effectiveness.

Because MoSCoW does not include an objective scoring method, your team members can fall victim to their own opinions about certain initiatives. 

One risk of using MoSCoW prioritization is that a team can mistakenly think MoSCoW itself represents an objective way of measuring the items on their list. They discuss an initiative, agree that it is a “should have,” and move on to the next.

But your team will also need an objective and consistent framework for ranking all initiatives. That is the only way to minimize your team’s biases in favor of items or against them.

When Do You Use the MoSCoW Method for Prioritization?

MoSCoW prioritization is effective for teams that want to include representatives from the whole organization in their process. You can capture a broader perspective by involving participants from various functional departments.

Another reason you may want to use MoSCoW prioritization is it allows your team to determine how much effort goes into each category. Therefore, you can ensure you’re delivering a good variety of initiatives in each release.

What Are Best Practices for Using MoSCoW Prioritization?

If you’re considering giving MoSCoW prioritization a try, here are a few steps to keep in mind. Incorporating these into your process will help your team gain more value from the MoSCoW method.

1. Choose an objective ranking or scoring system.

Remember, MoSCoW helps your team group items into the appropriate buckets—from must-have items down to your longer-term wish list. But MoSCoW itself doesn’t help you determine which item belongs in which category.

You will need a separate ranking methodology. You can choose from many, such as:

• Weighted scoring
• Value vs. complexity
• Buy-a-feature
• Opportunity scoring

For help finding the best scoring methodology for your team, check out ProductPlan’s article: 7 strategies to choose the best features for your product .

2. Seek input from all key stakeholders.

To make sure you’re placing each initiative into the right bucket—must-have, should-have, could-have, or won’t-have—your team needs context. 

At the beginning of your MoSCoW method, your team should consider which stakeholders can provide valuable context and insights. Sales? Customer success? The executive staff? Product managers in another area of your business? Include them in your initiative scoring process if you think they can help you see opportunities or threats your team might miss. 

3. Share your MoSCoW process across your organization.

MoSCoW gives your team a tangible way to show your organization prioritizing initiatives for your products or projects. 

The method can help you build company-wide consensus for your work, or at least help you show stakeholders why you made the decisions you did.

Communicating your team’s prioritization strategy also helps you set expectations across the business. When they see your methodology for choosing one initiative over another, stakeholders in other departments will understand that your team has thought through and weighed all decisions you’ve made. 

If any stakeholders have an issue with one of your decisions, they will understand that they can’t simply complain—they’ll need to present you with evidence to alter your course of action.  

Related Terms

2×2 prioritization matrix / Eisenhower matrix / DACI decision-making framework / ICE scoring model / RICE scoring model

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• Learning About Iron Deficiency Anemia

Managing Iron Deficiency Anemia Solo or With a Doctor’s Help

You’ve got low iron and need to bring your levels up. Depending on why your iron is low and how well your body can take it in, there may be several ways you can bring it up.

If your body is able to absorb iron normally, your doctor might recommend that you change the way you eat to include more iron. If diet alone doesn’t do the trick, you may need an iron supplement. If you have trouble bringing your iron up to a healthy level with these DIY methods, your doctor may prescribe medications or blood transfusions.

Iron you get from food comes in two forms: heme and non-heme. Your body absorbs heme iron two to three times better than non-heme iron.

The best source of heme iron is animal protein. You get that from meat and seafood, including:

• Oysters, clams, mussels
• Beef or chicken liver
• Organ meats
• Canned sardines
• Poultry, such as chicken or turkey
• Canned light tuna

You can get non-heme iron from plant-based foods such as:

• Beans and lentils
• Baked potatoes
• Dark leafy greens like spinach and broccoli
• Breakfast cereals with added iron
• Whole-grain breads with added iron

You can boost your iron intake from plant sources by adding vitamin C to your meals as you eat these foods. Vitamin C helps your body absorb iron. Try adding citrus fruits, bell peppers, tomatoes, or strawberries to your leafy green salad.

Supplements

In addition to a more iron-rich diet, you may need over-the-counter iron supplements to build up iron in your blood. Your doctor will help decide how much you should take. To give your supplements the best shot at working, you’ll need to follow a couple of guidelines:

Take them on an empty stomach. Your gut can best absorb an iron supplement when it’s empty. If this causes you to have an upset stomach, it’s OK to take iron with food or right after a meal.

Don’t combine them with antacids . These medications keep your body from taking in iron, so space your supplement and antacid at least 2 to 4 hours apart.

Add vitamin C. Vitamin C boosts iron absorption, so a glass of orange juice or a vitamin C supplement will pair perfectly with your iron pill.

A note about iron supplements: Sometimes they back you up. Watch out for constipation, and ask your doctor whether you might need to add more fiber to your diet or a stool softener to ease your bowel movements.

You’ll also want to talk to your doctor if you take thyroid medication. Iron supplements can prevent your body from absorbing them.

Medications

If you're taking an iron supplement, eating good amounts of iron, and your levels are still low, your doctor may need to explore more to find out what’s causing your iron deficiency. Depending on the cause, you might need treatment with:

• Oral contraception. If a heavy period is causing your low iron, treatment with contraceptives may regulate it and help you build iron stores back.
• Antibiotics and antacids. Peptic ulcers can cause low iron. A course of antibiotics will treat this condition. 
• IV iron infusions or blood transfusions. If you have severe iron-deficiency anemia, you may need these to get iron and hemoglobin back into your bloodstream quickly.

Risks of Too Much Iron

It’s not common to take in so much iron that it hurts you. Typically, your body self-regulates iron levels and stops absorbing it when you have enough. But it is possible to take in too much. This may happen if you take iron supplements when you don’t need them.

If you get too much iron, you might notice:

• Constipation
• Upset stomach
• Nausea, vomiting
• Abdominal pain

When Your Body Won’t Absorb Iron

Certain conditions, such as celiac disease, pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and chronic kidney disease, can keep you from absorbing iron through your gut. In these cases, you may need iron through an IV to add iron to your body. 

Show Sources

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: “Foods to Fight Iron Deficiency.”

Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health: “Iron.”

Mayo Clinic: “Iron Deficiency Anemia.”

Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences : “Disorders associated with malabsorption of iron: A critical review.”

GI Society: “Iron Deficiency Anemia.

New England Journal of Medicine : “Iron May Reduce Thyroxine Absorption.”

American Family Physician : “Peptic Ulcer Disease.”

Iron and Your Body

The mineral iron does a lot, including helping you feel your best and energized every day. Learn about what it means to have a low iron level and understand exactly what iron’s role is in your body.

Signs to Look Out For

What happens when you have low iron, and how do your doctors diagnose it? Find out what to watch out for.

Risk Factors

What are the risk factors for iron deficiency anemia? Check out how your diet, heavy periods, or even long-distance running can cause low iron in your blood.

When Iron Deficiency Goes Untreated

Untreated iron-deficiency anemia can cause health problems such as fatigue, headache, dizziness, developmental delays, and even heart complications.

How Your GI Tract and Anemia Are Related

A diagnosis of iron-deficiency anemia may signal an underlying GI problem such as celiac disease or ulcerative colitis. Here’s what to look for.

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Symposium Presentations 2024

Monday, august 12, 2024            .

Academic Keynote: Trends and Policies Affecting Energy Markets: What economists know, think they know, or might not tell you.

Brian Wright, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California Berkeley

Discussion will focus on crop yield trends, energy prices, Malthusian projections, biofuels policy and food security, with added comments on the effectiveness of sanctions and supply chain disruptions in times of conflict.

Session I: Economics of Energy and Emissions Markets

Chair: Thomas Lee, US EIA

“Macro and Asset Price Dynamics During the Climate Transition: Evidence from the Oil Sector”

Michael Donadelli (University of Brescia, Italy), Patrick Grüning (Bank of Latvia), and Steffen Hitzemann (University of Houston) Discussant: Diego Garcia, University of Colorado Boulder

“The Impact of Forward Guidance on the Crude Oil Market”

Xiaohan Ma (Texas Tech University), and Xuhui (Nick) Pan (University of Oklahoma).  Discussant:  Thomas Lee, US EIA

“Drilling and DUCs in the Permian Basin ”

Asad Dossani (Colorado State University), and John Elder (Colorado State University). Discussant: Michael Plante, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas

“Drivers of Emissions Prices - Disentangling Fundamental Shocks in the European Emissions Market”

Andreas Maulberger (University of Augsburg, Germany), Andreas Rathgeber (University of Augsburg, Germany).  Discussant: Ian Lange, Colorado School of Mines

Session II: Issues on Agricultural Commodity Markets

Chair: Fred Seamon, CME Group    

“Using Weather-based Crop Yield Forecasts to Estimate Commodity Demand”

Michael J. Roberts (University of Hawaiʻi), and Sisi Zhang (University of Hawaiʻi). Discussant: Haibo Jiang, University of Quebec at Montreal, Canada

“Corn Futures Deliveries: Why? When? So What?”

Vitor M.O. Fernandes (Hedge Point Global), Eugene L. Kunda (U.S. CFTC), Michel A. Robe (University of Richmond). Discussant: Fred Seamon, CME Group

“Real-Time Tracking of Public Announcements in the Limit Order Book”

Mehdi Arzandeh (Lakehead University, Canada), Julieta Frank (University of Manitoba, Canada), and Justin Daniels (University of Manitoba, Canada). Discussant: Hong Miao Colorado State University

“The Determinants of Marginal Convenience Yield in Agricultural Commodity Markets”  

Theodora Bermpei, and Athanasios Triantafyllou (IÉSEG School of Management, France): Discussant:  Asad Dossani, Colorado State University 

Tuesday, August 13, 2024                

Shorter Paper Presentation Session (Issues on Commodity Markets)

Chair: Jian Yang, University of Colorado Denver

“Natural gas and the Macroeconomy: Not All Energy Shocks are Alike”

Piergiorgio Alessandri (Bank of Italy), and Andrea Gazzani (Bank of Italy). 

“Commodity dependence and Optimal Asset allocation”

Vianney Dequiedt (Universit´e Clermont Auvergne, France), Mathieu Gomes (Universit´e Clermont Auvergne, France), Kuntara Pukthuanthong (University of Missouri, Columbia), 

“Spillover Effects in Energy Markets”

Amelie Schischke (University of Augsburg, Germany), and Andreas Rathgeber (University of Augsburg, Germany).

Session III: Mineral and Broader Commodity Markets

Chair: Robert Webb (University of Virginia)

“Models of Gold Options Market and Evidence in Favor of Financialized Gold and Against Disasterization”

Gurdip Bakshi (Temple University), Xiaohui Gao (Temple University), and Zhaowei Zhang (Temple University). Discussant: Hitesh Doshi, University of Houston

“Investing in the Batteries and Vehicles of the Future: A View Through the Stock Market”

Michael Plante (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas). Discussant: Steffen Hitzemann, University of Houston

“Commodity Prices, Discount Rates, and Expected Dividend Growth”

Aoxiang Yang (Peking University, China).  Discussant: Nishad Kapadia, Tulane University

“Expected Skewness, Forecast Combination, and Commodity Futures Returns”

Jun Cai (City University of Hong Kong), Bart Frijns (Open Universiteit of the Netherlands, Netherlands) and Robert Webb (University of Virginia).  Discussant: Andrew Detzel, Baylor University

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• 11 Modules of Hospital Management System and their Benefits

Ever wondered what it is like to manage an entire hospital?  

It definitely sounds difficult.  

Well, if you’ve landed on this article, you know that efficiently running an entire hospital isn’t a walk in the park. Although it is essential, it gets overwhelming at times.  

Time is of the utmost importance when it comes to healthcare. Imagine the severity if there is even a minor delay or fault while sharing the results and diagnosis.  To simplify operations and efficiently manage patient records, leading hospitals use a hospital management system.  Employing hospital management software helps you reap the maximum benefits from your work.  

Before discussing in detail how you can leverage an HMS to the fullest, let us understand what an HMS is and why it is needed. 

What is a Hospital Management System?

A study showed that healthcare providers spend 35% of their time on documenting patient data. While paperwork is unavoidable in a hospital, you can automate the process and reduce the burden on the staff and doctors. Not just this, hundreds of other processes run parallel in a hospital. An HMS is a one-stop solution to manage all hospital processes and data transfer. You can use it to digitize and simplify activities like: 

• Patient record management 
• Tracking and managing appointments 
• Maintaining staff records 
• Billing and insurance claims 

Overall, an HMS helps you improve patient experience and the quality of service provided in the hospital.  At the same time it is also used to minimize operating expenses and improve the revenue cycle.  

In a nutshell, Hospital Management System (HMS) creates a frictionless approach to managing the entire hospital and solving operational complexities.  

However, HMS can be a complex system. For ease of understanding and implementation, it is divided into different modules. These modules are built depending on the needs of a department or a particular process. Let’s look at the 11 HMS modules that are essential for any hospital to improve end-to-end productivity. 

11 Essential Hospital Management System Modules

Below we have discussed the 11 hospital management system modules in the same order that a hospital would need them, according to a patient’s journey. 

1. Appointment Management   

Managing appointments manually is not only tedious but also increases the chances of human errors. Even patients are inclined to choose a hospital with an option to book appointments online. In a recent study, 68% of patient s said they would prefer to schedule, modify, or cancel appointments online.  

This hospital management system module enables you to add a scheduling option to your hospital’s website so that patients can easily schedule an appointment.  

Once your patient has booked an appointment, the HMS software for hospitals will match the patient’s illness to the doctor’s area of expertise. It will then assign them to the next available specialist or the one they prefer. It also updates the available slots in real-time to avoid any confusion at the hospital.    The next step in appointment booking is to collect medical documents. An HMS with a patient portal is used to collect documents and share the patient history with the doctors well in advance. If the patient requires assistance at his/her house, the system will check the doctors’ availability for the remote visit and allocate accordingly. In this way, you can create a smooth and error-free process by digitizing the appointment booking process.

2. Patient Management   

After the patient onboarding is completed, the patient is moved to an IPD or OPD. The patient management module of HMS caters to the needs of the inpatient and outpatient departments. It captures and stores the medical history, treatment required, details of their previous visits, upcoming appointments, reports, insurance details, and more.   

Patient management software also generates unique admissions numbers for each patient to easily manage admissions, discharges, and transfers. It also builds a comprehensive discharge summary to ensure smooth discharge. At the same time, it records and generates related documents, e.g., consent forms for electronic signature. 

When you start collecting and storing details on hospital software systems, by default you also eliminate the need to get these details on every visit. HMS enables doctors and staff to focus more on treatment than administrative work.  

Now, if you wish to automate other activities like patient communication, consider integrating your HMS with marketing automation software such as LeadSquared . It will enable you to automate communication with patients and doctors. You can send appointments and lab test reminders, or follow-ups, and build meaningful long-lasting relationships.  

3. Facility Management    

To provide a smooth experience for your patients, it is essential for your staff to have easy access to necessary hospital records. The facility management module of a healthcare management system helps you to maintain records of bed availability, occupancy status of rooms with specialized care, and more.  

Healthcare management systems collect all such information and make it readily available to your receptionist. 

If you have multiple facilities, then an HMS connects them to provide an overall picture. For example, doctors can access patient data from any hospital using an online hospital management system. Patients can visit any hospital according to their convenience, as all the records are available online. 

4. Staff Management    

The staff management module provides a concrete solution for the HR department. It contains records of your staff, job description, service domain, and other vital details.  

It helps you to know your staff without going through a heavy bundle of files. Additionally, it enables you to plan the hiring process based on the requirements of the hospital.   

5. Supply Management    

A hospital cannot afford to be short of medical supplies. Not having the medicine at the right time or a minor delay in refill can lead to severe results. The supply management component of the HMS tracks the availability of medical stocks. It helps you calibrate the minimum quantity of supplies required without any hassle. It records the purchase date, quantity consumed, and supplier details. This way, you can calculate or predict the next purchase and reorder before the stock falls short.  It also provides the details of the medicine available so that doctors can prescribe the ones in stock.   

6. Financial Management   

The financial management component of an HMS deals with the financial affairs of your hospital. It calculates, stores, and presents the billing information to the patients.   

Additionally, it also records the expenses incurred by the hospital, revenue data, and other financial details of the hospital.   

This consolidation saves you the trouble of analyzing a colossal pile of record books.

7. Insurance Management   

An HMS’ insurance management component records and stores patients’ insurance details. On requirement, it presents the policy number, insurance company, and other associated information.   

The hospital management software makes it easy to fetch these details, making insurance validation easier. 

8. Laboratory Management    

The laboratory management feature of hospital management software shows the details of various lab tests patients take. It furnishes reports when needed and maintains all records collectively.  The doctors can easily access it. It also notifies the doctor and the patients when the results are ready.

9. Report Management    

Report Management module, records and stores all the reports generated by the hospital.   

In the case of financial reports, it analyzes performance metrics to check the business profitability. It also provides a comparison between performance reports for different years. An authorized person can access these hospital management system reports whenever required. 

Furthermore, you can use healthcare dashboards to present these reports in an easy-to-read format. 

10. Vaccination Management  

A vaccination model of hospital management software keeps track of all the completed or upcoming vaccinations. It updates you about upcoming vaccinations and books a slot with the doctor. It also sends timely reminders to parents to ensure they don’t miss the slot. 

11. Support Management

Patient satisfaction is of utmost importance for any hospital. This segment records data like inquiries, complaints, requests, and feedback from patients. It also ensures that you handle these requests and problems appropriately and at the soonest. You can automate the feedback collection process to reduce the staff’s workload, and everyone could fill out the feedback form. 

If you are still thinking of whether or not to implement an HSM. To answer this let’s discuss the benefits you will observe after implementing an HMS. 

Benefits of a Hospital Management System

1. enhanced communication between the patient and the hospital.

59% of millennials are willing to switch doctors for better online access. An HMS will improve communication between patients and hospitals by allowing patients to access their medical records, book appointments, receive reminders, and communicate online with their doctors and nurses. You will have improved patient engagement, a reduction in waiting times, and increased patient satisfaction.   

2. Secured hospital data

Hospital management software must help you keep hospital data safe and secure. You can limit the access to authorized personnel only. Make sure to look for HIPAA Compliant software for PHI security.   

3. Improved access to patient data

You can have easy entry to all patient-related data on a system using an HMS. You can also access data such as patient history, doctors engaged, test results, billing information, and many more with just a few clicks.   

4. Reduced turnaround time

Streamline your hospital workflows by automating routine tasks like appointment or inventory management . This reduces the time and effort required to perform these tasks and the turnaround time. It also allows hospital staff to focus on more critical patient care areas.   

5. Cost-effectiveness

Implementing hospital management software can lead to significant cost savings for hospitals. It helps by reducing administrative overheads, improving resource allocation, and minimizing the wastage of medical supplies. An HMS can also optimize revenue streams by ensuring timely billing and reducing claim denials.    

6. Intelligent analytics with automatically generated reports  

An HMS can provide valuable insights regarding operations by generating real-time reports on various metrics, such as patient flow, occupancy rates, and revenue generation. This enables you to make data-driven decisions, improve processes, and optimize resources.    

7. Centralized administrative control

An HMS helps build a centralized platform for managing operations, allowing hospitals to streamline their administrative processes. It ensures consistency across departments. This can improve efficiency, reduce errors, and better overall patient care.   

8. Reduced medical errors

An HMS can help reduce medical errors by providing doctors and nurses with up-to-date patient information. It minimizes the risk of misdiagnosis, incorrect treatment, or adverse drug interactions.   

9. Reduced readmissions and rehospitalization rates  

An HMS can also reduce readmissions and rehospitalization rates by ensuring timely follow-ups. This improves patient outcomes and reduces the risk of complications.   

To get to know how effective a Hospital Management System can be for hospitals, let us have a look at the example of how Manipal Hospital benefited from it. 

How LeadSquared Helped Manipal Hospitals to Improve Reporting and Lead Management  

Manipal Hospitals is one of India’s largest healthcare providers, with over 27 multispecialty hospitals. They have multiple teams working together to enable a smooth patient experience.  

With a high patient volume and each team working on a different platform, keeping track of each patient’s journey and managing appointments became increasingly hard for Manipal Hospitals. They needed to centralize leads across India while securely managing patient information. LeadSquared provided an all-in-one solution integrated with their existing HIS. 

Key Results: 

• Zero Lead Leakage 
• 360° View Across Teams 
• Better Patient Management 

LeadSquared’s APIs and connectors help us collect detailed patient data and integrate it with our core HIS system. The dashboards and reports enable us to work with this data and derive great insights from it. Both these features help streamline processes, save time, and in turn boost team productivity. Kiran Ramakrishna, Assistant Manager, Manipal Hospitals

[Also read: Manipal Hospital Improves Reporting and Lead Management to know the complete story.]

Conclusion  

Hospital Management System (HMS) is essential to the delivery of modern healthcare. It can boost patient outcomes, lower medical errors, and improve the overall quality of care. It enables hospitals with a centralized platform to manage their operations, automate mundane processes, and enhance communication.   

Moreover, Healthcare CRM , when integrated with the Hospital Management System, helps you combine professional medical care with quality patient service.    

To experience the benefits of an integrated HMS and Healthcare CRM system, get in touch with our team today!  

Also read:   

• What is Healthcare CRM?    
• EHR integration with healthcare CRM software    
• Patient satisfaction survey questions   
• Healthcare CRM – A 61-question checklist to help you make the right decision  

There are generally two types of HMS, cloud-based and on-premises. A cloud-based or web-based hospital management software is hosted on the provider’s server. In contrast, on-premises hospital management software is hosted on the hospital’s private server and data centers.  A cloud-based hospital management system is more popular as it is cost-effective, and the provider can handle it remotely.

While implementing an HMS, you may face the following challenges:  1. Cybersecurity  2. Lack of technical team support  3. Complex interface  4. Higher initial implementation cost  To overcome these challenges, you need the right provider. They will ensure data security and support the implementation and staff training.  

An off-the-shelf CRM is popular as it is cost-effective and quick to implement. It is a great option for small to medium sized organizations looking for basic and essential features. Whereas a custom-built HMS provides more control over the usage and features.  

Awantika is a healthcare marketer with LeadSquared. She has been a part of the content and product marketing game for almost 3 years. You can connect with her on LinkedIn or write to her at [email protected].

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MoSCoW: A SMART Way To Prioritize Your Tasks For Effective Project Management

Management today is all about prioritization- be a strategy- which some define as the art of prioritization, business analytics- deciding what is important to analyze, project management – to ensure most important areas get the right focus in the right sequence, marketing- to pick the right customer, right channels, etc or software development- to build the most important features first. Prioritization indeed is central to work, ensuring focus and achieving results.

But as teams diversify, and more stakeholders become involved in the process, so do the complexities surrounding tasks and deliverables for a project or company. As such, methods such as MoSCoW Prioritization can allow managers to prioritize certain products and deadlines in their workflows.

In this blog, we will talk about

What is MoSCoW Prioritization?

What is MoSCoW Prioritization Technique?

• How To Use the MoSCoW Prioritization Method?

SlideUpLift Templates for Presenting MoSCoW Prioritization Technique

MoSCoW method is a prioritization technique for managing requirements and deadlines within a project. While it is defined in the context of project management , the ideas can apply to any discipline of management. 

It is a functional tool that allows management to reach an understanding with the various stakeholders on the importance placed on various requirements and their delivery. The degree of importance identifies its placement on the prioritization list, with high importance requirements being prioritized over low importance requirements. 

MoSCoW method was originally developed in 1994 by Dai Clegg specifically for its use in Rapid Application Development . The initial scope of the technique was its use for timeboxed projects. With fixed deadlines to work with, MoSCoW gave Clegg a way to prioritize the tasks that were essential for the project, and sideline those that weren’t, in order to deliver the requirements on time. However, it soon evolved to become a key part of the latest management and prioritization thinking across disciplines.

The MoSCoW Prioritization technique consists of four categories. These categories signify the importance of the task or deliverable to the overall success of the project, as well as those that are essential for its running. 

These four categories are- 

Each requirement that is labeled “Must Have” are non-negotiable requirements that are critical to the success of the final product or project objectives. Notably, if any requirement is noted as “must-haves”, the failure in its delivery results in the total failure of the whole project. As such, each requirement within this category needs to be delivered within its given timeframe for success. 

Should Have

Requirements labeled “Should Have” are important but ultimately not necessary for the success of the project. The absence of this product or requirement will be to the detriment of the overall project, but the final result will still be viable. As such, while these requirements need to be added if possible, they can be prioritized lower than must-haves in situations of time or resource crunch. 

“Could Have” requirements are essentially those that are desirable and should be included if time and resources permit, but their absence will not significantly impact the final product or the success of the project. They are usually additions that contribute to a user’s experience or satisfaction but do not actively contribute to a product’s overall success and can be dropped in the case of approaching deadlines and a shortage of time.

Each requirement labeled “Wont-Have” would have been struck off by the team and the stakeholders as unnecessary, least-critical, and lowest payback items. Or these could be things that are just not appropriate for the time frame. These are requirements that are dropped for the entirety of the project, or shelved for later consideration should time and resources permit and all other items have been delivered. 

How to Use the MoSCoW Prioritization Method?

Usually, the MoSCoW Prioritization Method is used early in the life cycle of a project. The final list is a collaborative effort by the team, project heads, department heads, upper management, and stakeholders. Everyone that has a vested interest in the project is expected to participate in the process of delineating the different items into different categories. This ensures smooth functioning of the project, where everyone is aware of and aligned to the project’s and stakeholders’ priorities and objectives. 

Thus, MoSCoW method allows projects to work with a broader perspective, and reach a consensus on the different tasks enabling effective decision making .

In order to achieve maximum effectiveness in using the MoSCoW Prioritization Method, there are certain things to keep in mind. 

Balancing the Priorities

When deciding on the Must Have priorities, it becomes important to understand exactly what those are. A method to gauge Must Haves is by defining a product’s minimum usable subset. This is an articulation of the minimum requirements of a project for it to be viable, functional and by all accounts, considered a success. 

And other priorities, therefore, automatically become a contingency wherein beyond the must-haves, there is no outright effect on the functionality or success of a project. 

Balancing all the categories of prioritizations becomes key in successfully managing a project using MoSCoW. Having more must-haves than possible or viable for a team is a one-way ticket to disaster. A good rule of thumb is to have a maximum of 60% of your tasks and team effort be for must-haves. This leaves room for the team to build confidence in their work and their ability to deliver on time. 

Defining Prioritization Categories

Must-haves are generally easy to identify when discussing priorities within a group of people. However, the difference between Should Have and Could Have priorities is subjective and can be a point of contention if there are drastically warring views on the same.

Therefore, it is always a good idea to be extremely clear about the definitions and scope of the categories in question with an upfront discussion about the same with each stakeholder. 

When to Prioritize

This primarily refers to any new requirements that come up during the process of working on the project. New requirements will need to be categorized under the MoSCoW technique, but they cannot be too disruptive to the process that is already underway. Most importantly, they should not interfere with the previously agreed-upon limit of 60% of work being under must-haves, as that can be an instant demoralizing element for the team. 

Knowing when to prioritize any new requirements is key to the smooth functioning of a project.

Reviewing Priorities

At the end of each deliverable or project increment, all priorities need to be re-examined and discussed with the stakeholders. The working process often highlights misplaced and missing priorities, and those need to be included for the next deliverable. It is also important to review all priorities as a low-priority task may now have greater importance in the project. 

SlideUpLift offers a vast collection of pre-made presentation templates that can be used to present your MoSCoW Prioritization Technique to all stakeholders and team members, becoming an effective tool for business and professional communication. These presentation templates are visually engaging and creatively built to showcase your MoSCoW method effectively. Each PowerPoint template is fully editable and uses visual elements such as graphics, colors, and shapes to present information in a professional way, saving you the time and effort that goes into creating beautiful and complex project management presentations . 

MoSCow Method

Source: MoSCow Prioritization by SlideUpLift

MoSCow Matrix

Source: MoSCow Matrix by SlideUpLift

Find out more MoSCow Prioritization PowerPoint templates.

MoSCoW method is a great tool for prioritization, especially for projects that are time-sensitive and need a system that allows them to prioritize tasks for delivery. While there are watch-outs and things to be mindful of as mentioned earlier, this technique can save you tons of time and help define and achieve success on your next project.

Happy MoSCoWing!!!

Now you don’t have to scour the web to find out the right templates. Download our PowerPoint Templates from within PowerPoint. See how ?

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