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Integrating Literacy Into Physical Education

Common Core – The Future of PE

As times have changed, so too has the role of physical educators. My first physical education teaching job was in a very old and small Catholic private school. The school was virtually on an island surrounded by three streets and a shopping center—and there was no gym.  All I had to work with was a parking lot with a backdrop of a major discount thrift store and a small room with a big pole in the middle of it.  If a soccer ball was kicked too hard, it would wind up in the street.  To say it was ideal is a misnomer.

I had been hired to replace the teacher who founded the physical education course at the school. The teacher was a bit old school. She recommended I do games like push cans with sticks to build fine motor skills. The equipment was severely lacking of anything modern.  My primary focus at the time was to modernize the program and teach sport skills. Fast forward to today and it is no longer just enough to teach sport skills.  It is no longer enough to focus on physical skills alone.  The new expectation, outside of a lifetime fitness-based approach to a physical education program, is the integration of common core subject areas into PE.

These common core subjects are absolutely critical to the development of the whole child, which is why we must take this change of direction seriously.  According to the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), the average reading literacy score for fifteen-year-old U.S. students is 498 (out of 1000 possible points).  That’s enough to make the United States  rank twenty-fourth  out of the sixty-five educational systems ranked in that category.  Not only are students in the U.S. not performing well internationally, but economically disadvantaged students are also struggling with drive, motivation, and engagement, according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Literacy in a Modern World

Literacy used to be defined solely as knowing how to read and write.  According to the National Council of Teachers of English, literacy is defined differently in the 21 st century.  In order to be considered literate, students must be able to:

• Develop proficiency and fluency in the use of technology
• Build intentional cross-cultural connections and relationships with others to pose and solve problems collaboratively and strengthen independent thought
• Design information and share it with global communities to meet a variety of purposes
• Manage, analyze, and synthesize multiple streams of information
• Create, critique, analyze, and evaluate multimedia texts
• Attend to the ethical responsibilities required by these complex environments

In other words, students must be able to think critically, communicate, and reason. This is a major shift from just being able to read and write.

What does this new definition mean for physical educators?

As physical educators it is now our responsibility to integrate components of literacy into our classrooms. This does not mean we become reading teachers—that would be counter-intuitive. This means we take critical elements of the new definition of literacy and seamlessly integrate them into our daily teaching. We do this to not only support the holistic growth of the child, but also to help them obtain the knowledge needed to understand what a healthy life is and how to lead one.

If you think about it for a minute, this makes complete sense. Being able to live a healthy life takes a host of skills and abilities that literacy teaches. Students must first intellectually understand what it means to be healthy – this will take an understanding of both reading and writing. They must be able to obtain the proper help and information from others to live healthier lives – this takes communication. Then, they must be able to have intelligent conversations with others about being healthy – this takes accountable talk and reasoning. It is a process that happens over their K-12 experience, and each teacher plays their role in teaching different aspects of health-related information using literacy components.

How to Take Action

Until now, I have written about the role literacy plays in a child’s development, why it matters in physical education, and what literacy means in today’s modern world. But what are you supposed to do with that information?  How do you break it down into actionable steps to integrate literacy in a physical education classroom?

The short answer is that you are probably already doing some of the things you need to do. If you are doing the turn and talk strategy, exit cards, written assessments, task cards, and other similar activities, you’re on the right path. The long answer is that you’re probably not doing enough. Integrating literacy takes a thorough understanding of the literacy components, including what they are, how to teach them, and what they look like in the physical education classroom. Integrating literacy also means creating year-long lesson plans that seamlessly integrate all components into your physical education program on a daily basis. In some cases, this may mean a complete overhaul of how you’re teaching.

Sound like a lot? It’s not as complicated as it sounds. With the right guidance and proper tools, you can start integrating literacy into your activities in no time. In order to do that, you are going to want to find an easy course you can take on your own time and at your own pace. You want something that gives you a deeper understanding of the true impact integrating literacy has and the consequences if not done correctly. And you probably want a course that lays out the components in digestible bites that eventually guide you through developing your own literacy integration plans.

Online PD Course – Integrating Literacy into Physical Education

The good news is that such a course does exist and it can be found on PE Central, the premier health and physical education website.  The course is called “Integrating Literacy into Physical Education: Why It Matters and How to Do It” .  It is a self-paced course that covers all of the aforementioned information you will need to know in order to find true success in integrating literacy into your physical education classroom. You get 15 continuing education hours for taking the course, and you can even earn college credit. Plus, you have an instructor who is an expert in the field guiding you along the way.

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How and where can we sign up for these courses?

Hi Christine, here is a direct link to this course https://pecentral.teachable.com/p/integrating-literacy-into-physical-education

Very interesting article. I feel a little more confident now, about literacy in the Physical Education setting

I’ve been looking for an article like this for months! Thank you and keep writing!

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Four Favorite Physical Education Instructional Strategies—Recommended by Teachers!

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This week’s “question-of-the-week” is:

What is the single most effective instructional strategy you have used when teaching physical education?

This post “wraps up” a longer series of questions and answers inviting educators from various disciplines to share their “single most effective instructional strategy.”

Five weeks ago, educators shared their recommendations when it came to teaching writing.

Four weeks ago, it was about teaching English-language learners.

Math was the focus three weeks ago.

Posts from two week’s ago were on science .

Last week’s post was on supporting students with learning differences .

Today’s contributors are Michael Gosset, Ed.D, Hunter Burnard , and Claudio Barbieri.

‘Movement Education’

Michael Gosset, Ed.D., is coordinator of physical education for Hostos Community College, CUNY. He has had published several articles and one book on Movement Education and Skill Themes:

If you define strategy as a plan or method, no single strategy can apply at both the kindergarten and 12 th grade levels, as they are so different. Other words to consider when describing how to teach at the various levels include approach and model.

Approaches/models I have used very successfully over decades, for the different levels, are Movement Education (which leads into the Skill Themes approach) for elementary school, and the Sport Education model for secondary school.

Movement Education, when taught using problem-solving methodology, allows children to be creative when “moving.” There is no single correct solution to a problem presented by the teacher such as how can you move on three parts of your body? The solutions are numerous. Movement Education is typically for kindergarten through 2 nd or 3 rd grade.

Once children know “how to move” successfully and understand movement concepts, the Skill Theme approach is a very appropriate approach to use with upper elementary. In the Skill Themes approach, various (sport) skills are repeated throughout the school year, enabling children to practice them more often. This is the opposite of the traditional approach called the Multi-Activity model where several sports are learned and played once yearly. Research has suggested that more students who are taught using the Skill Themes approach toward physical education enjoy it more than the Multi-Activity approach. This can lead to more children being active outside of school. More information on these approaches can be found in books.

The Sport Education model, for secondary students, has been used and researched for over 20 years. Its key for students is its “authenticity”—it makes learning sports fun for students because they not only participate but get to choose a role in its implementation, such as scorekeeper or statistician, just to name a couple. It is authentic because they learn the sport much more in depth than a traditional program of seasonally done sports.

For all levels, I have found teaching by indirect style to be the key to student learning and enjoyment. Another way of stating indirect style is, as previously mentioned, is problem solving. Presenting material in a way that encourages students to think for themselves is enriching and encourages “higher-order thinking skills,” or HOTS. It does indeed require more planning by the instructor, and experience in responding to student inquiries takes time. For example, if a student asks a question such as, “Can we…..,” the answer from the teacher can be, “Does that fit what I asked of you?” rather than “yes.” This is a change of paradigm and thinking for many instructors.

‘Differentiated Instruction’

Hunter Burnard grew up in Binghamton, N.Y. He played college lacrosse at Rutgers University before choosing to pursue a career in education. Hunter, who currently teaches at The Windward School in New York, and his wife are both teachers, and together they share a 1-year-old daughter, Shay:

As physical education teachers, our ultimate goal is to expose students to a variety of sports and game play in order for them to develop the knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity.

Similar to classroom subjects, physical education classes are made up of students with a wide variety of backgrounds and ability levels. On top of this, I teach at a school for students with language-based learning disabilities. Because of this, I believe that the most effective instructional strategy that we employ is differentiated instruction among our students.

One way that we differentiate instruction in our class is through the teaching process, or how the material is presented and learned. For example, when introducing a new skill, I will verbally break down the requirements and strategies required to effectively execute the skill being taught. In addition, I will demonstrate the skill and often use our gymnasium projector to display a short video of what we are learning that day. We may use a video presentation early in the unit to teach a skill such as a wrist shot in hockey or something more conceptual such as route running in football.

In addition, we sometimes use video midway through a unit, prior to game play, to expose students to sports they are likely less familiar with such as European team handball or badminton. Regardless of the unit, by the time the student will need to use a skill in gameplay, they have heard it, seen it, and done it many times on their own or in a small group.

We not only differentiate instruction, but also we differentiate what we ask the students to produce in order to demonstrate understanding. This is critical to challenging students and keeping them engaged. If the goal of a soccer lesson is to introduce passing, I must differentiate my instruction for one student who has never played soccer and another who plays on a competitive travel soccer team. I may require the inexperienced student to simply practice completing 10 passes with a partner from a short distance while using the inside of their foot.

On the other hand, to challenge the more experienced soccer player and to keep them engaged, I would require that student to use their nondominant foot and to pass at a greater distance with accuracy. Ultimately, although we are assessing skill, we are most concerned with effort in our classroom. Therefore, although the students have different ability levels and are demonstrating different difficulty levels of the same skill, I am most concerned with their effort in completing the assignment.

Lastly, we provide opportunities throughout each class for students to raise their hand and volunteer information as another way to demonstrate understanding of the concept or skill being taught that day. This is particularly important for students who understand concepts and strategies required to be successful but struggle to physically complete a task as successfully as they may like because of limited skill or inexperience.

Differentiated instruction undoubtedly requires some additional work while executing a lesson, but I think it is essential to implementing an effective physical education curriculum. The great thing about physical education is that while exposing students to a wide variety of activities, we as educators can learn about students likes, dislikes, skills, and ability levels in a broad range of topics and activities. Differentiating instruction accordingly is the most effective way to maximize the physical education experience for all students.

‘Multisensory’

Claudio Barbieri has been a physical education teacher for nine years, with experience teaching grades 1-12. He currently teaches at The Windward School in New York. He received his bachelor’s degree in physical education from Manhattan College and a master’s degree in health education from Lehman College:

I have been a physical education teacher for nine years in N.Y.C. in both the public and private school settings. There are many strategies we use as educators, but the one I find most effective is a multisensory approach.

This strategy is helpful for all students. The most important thing for me is that students learn the fundamentals of the skill, have fun, and develop confidence throughout the lesson. The multisensory strategy allows students to experience success differently as well. For example, during our basketball unit, one student might feel they were successful if they were able to make one shot using proper form and technique during the unit. However, another student might feel they were successful if they were making their shots more consistently using proper form and technique. In both situations, each student would have the knowledge to go back to the fundamentals they were taught regardless of what kind of learner they are.

The multisensory strategy is a powerful way to teach students in a physical education setting because it covers the needs of all types of learners. This strategy is also a great way for students to develop confidence in volunteering to demonstrate or explain an activity or skill.

Since I use this strategy with all my units and lessons, we have a greater number of students willing to demonstrate or explain an activity or skill as the school year progresses. I would encourage teachers to try this strategy with their classes because everyone learns differently. Lastly, the multisensory strategy will encourage you to become a better educator because you will have to think of all the ways to present your lesson to the class while keeping in mind the variety of ways students learn and retain information.

Thanks to Michael, Hunter, and Claudio for their contributions!

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You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Integrating literacy into physical education,    enroll now for $119 understand and explain literacy understand the importance of literacy to the development and success of a child understand how integrating literacy affects physical education programs and teachers in the school environment understand strategies for implementing literacy in physical education, including speaking and listening, reasoning, accountable talk, and writing and reading understand the components of literacy analyze what proper literacy integration looks like in action create a personalized literacy plan, literacy physical education lesson, and methods of assessment, watch this course intro.

We are excited about your interest in taking this e-course from PE Central. Below you will find a brief course description, the instructor's biography, and course FAQ's. We estimate that this course will take 15 hours to complete. Once you have completed it, you may request the 15 hours towards your teacher licensure recertification. In addition, this course is eligible for CEU credit, details are below.

We know you will find this course valuable and enjoyable. If you have any questions, please email us at [email protected] .

Best of Luck! PE Central and Human Kinetics Professional Development

Course Description

The push to integrate literacy across all content areas is a rapidly growing movement. It is not just best standard teaching practice, but it is proven to help children achieve at higher academic levels. With global competition and other countries surpassing the United States in reading test scores, school districts, administrators, and parents are demanding that children leave high school college-ready. Literacy provides the foundation that ensures this goal will be met. This course will help physical education teachers learn what literacy is, its components, the importance of incorporating it, and practical strategies to integrate literacy into the physical education curriculum. Upon completion of the course, students will develop their own literacy plan and methods of assessment.

Target Audience

This course is suitable for grades K-12 PE teachers. The examples in the course are applicable to all grade levels.

Course Goals

On completion of this course, students will be able to:

• Understand and explain literacy.
• Understand the importance of literacy to the development and success of a child.
• Understand how integrating literacy affects physical education programs and teachers in the school environment.
• Understand the components of literacy.
• Understand strategies for implementing literacy in physical education, including speaking and listening, reasoning, accountable talk, and writing and reading.
• Analyze what proper literacy integration looks like in action.
• Create a personalized literacy plan, Literacy Physical Education Lesson, and methods of assessment.

This course addresses the following standards:

Source: SHAPE America National Standards & Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education (2014)

Standard #3: - The physically literate individual demonstrates the knowledge and skills to achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of physical activity and fitness. Living a health-enhancing life extends beyond physical activity. It involves being able to listen, read, and comprehend material in order to learn what a health-enhancing level of physical activity and fitness is and how to achieve it. In addition, it also involves the ability to clearly identify through reasoning – which is a part of literacy –resources to achieve and maintain goals related to wellness and health. Plus, it involves the ability to articulate ones needs to others through accountable talk and speaking, which are all essential components of literacy. This course will provide physical educators with the knowledge, skills, and creativity to effectively integrate literacy within their classrooms, which will help students achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of physical activity and succeed academically.

Your Instructor

Charles Silberman is a physical education and health teacher with 18 years of teaching experience. He has become a leader and advocates for incoming physical educators by running workshops on integrating literacy into physical education, teaching in limited space, and creating a field day that shines. Charles has advocated on these topics by presenting at staff in-services and conferences, assisting with new teacher orientations, and other initiatives.

Also, Charles teaches 5 other classes for PE Central , has four webinars for PE Central, and regularly contributes to the S&S Worldwide blog . Moreover, he has experience writing curriculum from scratch and writing published information specific to physical education in the state and nationally recognized publications and websites. Charles is also a contributing author to the book, "How to be an Outstanding Physical Education Teacher." Feel free to reach out to Charles with any questions during any of his courses.

CEU Credit Available for this Course!

This course is available for 1.5 CEU credits. If you are interested in receiving these credits through the college, click here for more information.

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Elementary PE Teacher

"I have learned so much from this course! I has given my the boost that I needed to write my goal for the year. In Minnesota we are required to write and execute a professional goal plan for Education Minnesota each year. I will be taking the lessons that I have already done and planning more for my goal for this school year. Delving into the standards has shown me that I can add these tools, charts, writing, reading and must more to help with students learning and studying physical education."

"I am so excited to create more lesson and get started with teaching in this fashion when the school year starts in August. Thank you so much for you guidance and feedback throughout this course!! I am so glad I had the opportunity to take it!! "

"I really enjoyed this course and I’m looking forward to turn keying the information to my colleagues. I’ve already sent my Department Head some of the articles we’ve used, and I’m looking forward to sharing out the year long plan and working as an elementary staff to expand upon it and incorporate in all 5 buildings."

"I teach in a K-12 college prep school, so the more I can do to educate the children, the better off we all are. Prior to this course I knew how to integrate literacy into my high school and middle school classes, but I have always been hesitant with my lower school classes - in part because I was not confident in how to do it, and in part because I did not want to give up any of their “physical” time. I now feel confident to step forward and use my new-found knowledge! "

"This class was very informative and well thought out. I feel like I am ready for a new year with a whole new toolbox that will not only help my team but will also help my students in some much needed areas of improvement."

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126 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Physical education is an important aspect of education that focuses on the development of physical fitness and skills through various physical activities. It helps students understand the importance of leading a healthy and active lifestyle while also promoting teamwork, sportsmanship, and discipline. When it comes to writing essays on physical education, there are a plethora of topics that students can explore. Here are 126 physical education essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started:

• The benefits of physical education in schools
• The role of physical education in promoting mental health
• The impact of physical education on academic performance
• The importance of physical education for children with disabilities
• The history of physical education in schools
• The relationship between physical education and obesity
• The benefits of incorporating technology in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting lifelong fitness
• The importance of physical education for overall well-being
• The benefits of team sports in physical education
• The impact of physical education on social skills development
• The role of physical education in preventing chronic diseases
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s cognitive development
• The importance of physical education for stress management
• The impact of physical education on self-esteem
• The benefits of including dance in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting healthy lifestyle choices
• The importance of physical education for motor skills development
• The benefits of outdoor activities in physical education
• The impact of physical education on physical literacy
• The role of physical education in promoting gender equality in sports
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s emotional well-being
• The importance of physical education for developing leadership skills
• The impact of physical education on academic motivation
• The benefits of incorporating mindfulness in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting cultural diversity
• The importance of physical education for teaching sportsmanship
• The benefits of including yoga in physical education classes
• The impact of physical education on body image
• The role of physical education in promoting inclusivity in sports
• The importance of physical education for teaching teamwork
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s social development
• The impact of physical education on physical fitness levels
• The role of physical education in promoting environmental awareness
• The benefits of including nutrition education in physical education classes
• The importance of physical education for teaching resilience
• The impact of physical education on time management skills
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s creativity
• The role of physical education in promoting healthy competition
• The importance of physical education for teaching conflict resolution skills
• The benefits of including mindfulness in physical education classes
• The impact of physical education on academic achievement
• The role of physical education in promoting emotional intelligence
• The importance of physical education for teaching goal setting
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s self-regulation
• The impact of physical education on self-efficacy
• The role of physical education in promoting teamwork skills
• The importance of physical education for teaching decision-making
• The impact of physical education on self-confidence
• The role of physical education in promoting creativity
• The importance of physical education for developing problem-solving skills
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s resilience
• The impact of physical education on emotional regulation
• The role of physical education in promoting positive body image
• The importance of physical education for teaching conflict resolution
• The impact of physical education on social skills
• The role of physical education in promoting empathy
• The importance of physical education for developing leadership qualities
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s teamwork skills
• The impact of physical education on communication skills
• The role of physical education in promoting problem-solving abilities
• The importance of physical education for developing resilience

In conclusion, physical education is a crucial component of a well-rounded education that promotes physical fitness, mental health, social skills, and overall well-being. By exploring these physical education essay topics and examples, students can gain a deeper understanding of the importance of physical education and its impact on various aspects of their lives. Whether you choose to focus on the benefits of physical education for cognitive development, social skills, or physical fitness, there are endless possibilities for exploring this important subject in your essays.

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Action research: Physical activity and student writing

Leah Carter (Assistant Head of English) and Hugo Engele (Director of Co-Curricula) are undertaking a two-year action research project at St Aloysius College, Kirribilli, to investigate the impact of physical activity on student writing ability. Here, they share the research aims and what has happened so far.

The pressure on schools to achieve academic results is ever increasing. Is there a space for physicality and creativity at the centre of our complex, cut-throat and dynamic educational climate? Can we foster academic achievement whilst also valuing the things that we know will make our students happy and healthy?

Our action research project, ‘Running Writing', investigates the relationship between physical activity and student writing. Through examining the impact that various forms of physical activity can have on cognitive functioning and therefore writing, we are investigating whether there is a place for the direct pairing of physical activity and writing practice within a school learning environment.

What do we know?

Firstly, physical activity has an immediately positive impact on an individual's cognitive functioning both in the short- and long-term (Best, 2010). Further, our experience as secondary school teachers tells us that the elements of brain function that are positively impacted by exercise – including memory, motivation, divergent thinking, fluency and originality – are essential for effective writing to occur both in the imaginative and critical domains. Thirdly, in order to improve student outcomes in a 21st Century educational landscape we believe it is important to teach young people to be ‘good' writers, not just in English, but across all Key Learning Areas.

Put simply, the way we move affects the way we think. Whilst anecdotally people will often comment that exercise helps their focus, engagement, memory and problem solving skills, there is a large body of research that has investigated exactly why this is the case.

The reasons for why exercise appears to have such a positive impact on the way we think are very much grounded in physiology. Joan Gondola (1986) pioneered this area of research by concluding that exercise has a directly positive impact on both an individual's convergent and divergent thinking skills. While other researchers like Adele Diamond and Kathleen Lee (2011) are convinced of the positive impact that physical interventions have on executive functioning in children.

Recent work being completed at the University of Illinois has found a tangible link between the fitness level of an individual and the white matter integrity within their brain. Physical activity increases both the amount and strength of white matter in the brain allowing for faster processing speeds between disparate parts of the brain. Ultimately, what this suggests is that movement can lead to a greater capacity for memory, attention span and cognitive efficiency, (Chaddock-Heyman, Erickson, Holtrop, Voss, Pontifex, Raine, Hillman & Kramer, 2014).

Graham Dodd (2015) is confident in the benefits of sport and physical activity on a students' academic development despite the fact that it has traditionally been ‘undervalued' and pushed to the ‘periphery' in conversations about education. He suggests that we must use as much ‘human motion' as possible for individuals who are learning, particularly for youth in educational institutions. Marily Oppezzo and Daniel Schwartz (2014) have reached comparable conclusions in their experimentation with walking classrooms. Using the Guilford Alternate Uses Test, they found that walking, particularly outdoors, had a tangible and positive impact upon student creative analogising and ideation.

Interestingly, the inverse relationship has also been observed. Mònica Lopez-Vincente and colleagues (2017) found that low levels of physical activity have been linked to a reduction in working memory in adolescence. Earlier research agrees, concluding that high levels of inactivity in young children can actually negatively impact attention span (Syväoja, Tammelin, Ahonen, Kankaanpää, & Kantomaa, 2014).

So, we know that physical activity positively affects cognitive functioning, but can we take it one step further and prove that exercise makes students better writers?

School context

St Aloysius' College is a Jesuit school for boys established in 1879. The school consists of approximately 1200 students from Years 3-12 and from a range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. The school is a member of the Combined Associated Schools of New South Wales and sport is a valued yet compulsory component of a boy's educational experience at St Aloysius' College.

The project is borne of our involvement in a professional learning group that focuses on action research literacy across the curriculum and college. This feeds into a broader strategic approach at St Aloysius', focusing on creating learning opportunities for our students that address student engagement and deeper learning.

Early results from pilot interventions

During Term 1 and 2 of this year we piloted a range of interventions with students in Years 7-12. We have tested the impact that walking classrooms, dance, team sport, high and low intensity gross motor movements and accuracy based fine motor movements have on student writing.

The results have been encouraging. Moderate to high intensity exercise, when undertaken directly before writing, has appeared to positively affect student divergent thinking and ideation and has led to greater student compliance and confidence in the initial stages of the writing process. Quantitative data, collected via the Alternate Uses Test, shows a boost to the fluency and originality of student thinking. Qualitative data, collected by way of surveys, focus groups and teacher observation, suggests that students feel that they are able to achieve ‘flow' more easily and that their stamina while completing extended responses is improved.

Next steps in our research

Over the next 24 months, we will test a range of interventions within the English classroom and investigate the impact that this has on student writing. Using a cohort of Year 11 English advanced students, we will test the effect of dance, yoga, walking classrooms, movable classroom furniture and physical ‘energisers' (running, star jumps, skipping, throwing) upon students' ability to interpret questions, construct thesis statements and plan responses, as well as their stamina and effectiveness in the ‘pen to paper moment'. We will also investigate whether physical activity affects their attitudes towards and self-efficacy about writing.

In our view, we must dismiss the notion that if students move around their ideas will fall out of their heads. The opposite may very well be true and we owe it to the kids in our care to find out.

Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children's executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review , 30(4), 331-351.

Chaddock-Heyman, L., Erickson, K. I., Holtrop, J. L., Voss, M. W., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., ... & Kramer, A. F. (2014). Aerobic fitness is associated with greater white matter integrity in children. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , 8, 584.

Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science , 333(6045), 959-964.

Dodd, G. D. (2015). The unrealised value of human motion–‘moving back to movement!'. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education , 6(2), 191-213.

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Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013)

Chapter: 5 approaches to physical education in schools.

Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

Key Messages

•  Because it is guaranteed to reach virtually all children, physical education is the only sure opportunity for nearly all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities.

•  High-quality physical education programs are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week (30 minutes per day) for children in elementary schools and 225 minutes per week (45 minutes per day) for students in middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.

•  Students are more physically active on days on which they have physical education.

•  Quality physical education has strong support from both parents and child health professional organizations.

•  Several models and examples demonstrate that physical education scheduled during the school day is feasible on a daily basis.

•  Substantial discrepancies exist in state mandates regarding the time allocated for physical education.

•  Nearly half of school administrators (44 percent) reported cutting significant time from physical education and recess to increase time spent in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act.

•  Standardized national-level data on the provision of and participation, performance, and extent of engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity are insufficient to allow assessment of the current status and trends in physical education in the United States.

•  Systematic research is needed on personal, curricular, and policy barriers to successful physical education.

•  The long-term impact of physical education has been understudied and should be a research priority to support the development of evidence-based policies.

P hysical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as “a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.” As a school subject, physical education is focused on teaching school-aged children the science and methods of physically active, healthful living (NASPE, 2012). It is an avenue for engaging in developmentally appropriate physical activities designed for children to develop their fitness, gross motor skills, and health (Sallis et al., 2003; Robinson and Goodway, 2009; Robinson, 2011). This chapter (1) provides a perspective on physical education in the context of schooling; (2) elaborates on the importance of physical education to child development; (3) describes the consensus on the characteristics of quality physical education programs; (4) reviews current national, state, and local education policies that affect the quality of physical education; and (5) examines barriers to quality physical education and solutions for overcoming them.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING

Physical education became a subject matter in schools (in the form of German and Swedish gymnastics) at the beginning of the 19th century (Hackensmith, 1966). Its role in human health was quickly recognized. By the turn of the 20th century, personal hygiene and exercise for bodily health were incorporated in the physical education curriculum as the major learning outcomes for students (Weston, 1962). The exclusive focus on health, however, was criticized by educator Thomas Wood (1913; Wood and Cassidy, 1930) as too narrow and detrimental to the development of the whole child. The education community subsequently adopted Wood’s inclusive approach to physical education whereby fundamental movements and physical skills for games and sports were incorporated as the major instructional content. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle (NASPE, 2004).

Sallis and McKenzie (1991) published a landmark paper stating that physical education is education content using a “comprehensive but physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement” (p. 126). This perspective is also emphasized by Siedentop (2009), who states that physical education is education through the physical. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) stress two main goals of physical education: (1) prepare children and youth for a lifetime of physical activity and (2) engage them in physical activity during physical education. These goals represent the lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physical education that enable children and adolescents to become active adults throughout their lives.

Physical Education as Part of Education

In institutionalized education, the main goal has been developing children’s cognitive capacity in the sense of learning knowledge in academic disciplines. This goal dictates a learning environment in which seated learning behavior is considered appropriate and effective and is rewarded. Physical education as part of education provides the only opportunity for all children to learn about physical movement and engage in physical activity. As noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical movement, including sports and exercise. With a dramatic expansion of content beyond the original Swedish and German gymnastics programs of the 19th century, physical education has evolved to become a content

area with diverse learning goals that facilitate the holistic development of children (NASPE, 2004).

To understand physical education as a component of the education system, it is important to know that the education system in the United States does not operate with a centralized curriculum. Learning standards are developed by national professional organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and/or state education agencies rather than by the federal Department of Education; all curricular decisions are made locally by school districts or individual schools in compliance with state standards. Physical education is influenced by this system, which leads to great diversity in policies and curricula. According to NASPE and the American Heart Association (2010), although most states have begun to mandate physical education for both elementary and secondary schools, the number of states that allow waivers/exemptions from or substitutions for physical education increased from 27 and 18 in 2006 to 32 and 30 in 2010, respectively. These expanded waiver and substitution policies (discussed in greater detail later in the chapter) increase the possibility that students will opt out of physical education for nonmedical reasons.

Curriculum Models

Given that curricula are determined at the local level in the United States, encompassing national standards, state standards, and state-adopted textbooks that meet and are aligned with the standards, physical education is taught in many different forms and structures. Various curriculum models are used in instruction, including movement education, sport education, and fitness education. In terms of engagement in physical activity, two perspectives are apparent. First, programs in which fitness education curricula are adopted are effective at increasing in-class physical activity (Lonsdale et al., 2013). Second, in other curriculum models, physical activity is considered a basis for students’ learning skill or knowledge that the lesson is planned for them to learn. A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum models adopted by their schools.

Movement Education

Movement has been a cornerstone of physical education since the 1800s. Early pioneers (Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, Rudolf von Laban) focused on a child’s ability to use his or her body for self-expression (Abels and Bridges, 2010). Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself (Laban, 1980) and others (e.g., Logsdon et al.,

1984). Over time, however, the approach shifted from concern with the inner attitude of the mover to a focus on the function and application of each movement (Abels and Bridges, 2010). In the 1960s, the intent of movement education was to apply four movement concepts to the three domains of learning (i.e., cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). The four concepts were body (representing the instrument of the action); space (where the body is moving); effort (the quality with which the movement is executed); and relationships (the connections that occur as the body moves—with objects, people, and the environment; Stevens-Smith, 2004). The importance of movement in physical education is evidenced by its inclusion in the first two NASPE standards for K-12 physical education (NASPE, 2004; see Box 5-7 later in this chapter).

These standards emphasize the need for children to know basic movement concepts and be able to perform basic movement patterns. It is imperative for physical educators to foster motor success and to provide children with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, thus allowing them to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities (see also Chapter 3 ).

Sport Education

One prevalent physical education model is the sport education curriculum designed by Daryl Siedentop (Siedentop, 1994; Siedentop et al., 2011). The goal of the model is to “educate students to be players in the fullest sense and to help them develop as competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons” (2011, p. 4, emphasis in original). The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. Students are organized into sport organizations (teams) and play multiple roles as team managers, coaches, captains, players, referees, statisticians, public relations staff, and others to mimic a professional sports organization. A unit is planned in terms of a sports season, including preseason activity/practice, regular-season competition, playoffs and/or tournaments, championship competition, and a culminating event (e.g., an awards ceremony or sport festivity). Depending on the developmental level of students, the games are simplified or modified to encourage maximum participation. In competition, students play the roles noted above in addition to the role of players. A sport education unit thus is much longer than a conventional physical education unit. Siedentop and colleagues (2011) recommend 20 lessons per unit, so that all important curricular components of the model can be implemented.

Findings from research on the sport education model have been reviewed twice. Wallhead and O’Sullivan (2005) report that evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that use of the model results in

students’ developing motor skills and fitness and learning relevant knowledge; some evidence suggests that the model leads to stronger team cohesion, more active engagement in lessons, and increased competence in game play. In a more recent review, Hastie and colleagues (2011) report on emerging evidence suggesting that the model leads to improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness (only one study) and mixed evidence regarding motor skills development, increased feeling of enjoyment in participation in physical education, increased sense of affiliation with the team and physical education, and positive development of fair-play values. The only study on in-class physical activity using the model showed that it contributed to only 36.6 percent activity at the vigorous- or moderate-intensity levels (Parker and Curtner-Smith, 2005). Hastie and colleagues caution, however, that because only 6 of 38 studies reviewed used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, the findings must be interpreted with extreme caution. The model’s merits in developing motor skills, fitness, and desired physical activity behavior have yet to be determined in studies with more rigorous research designs.

Fitness Education

Instead of focusing exclusively on having children move constantly to log activity time, a new curricular approach emphasizes teaching them the science behind why they need to be physically active in their lives. The curriculum is designed so that the children are engaged in physical activities that demonstrate relevant scientific knowledge. The goal is the development and maintenance of individual student fitness. In contrast with the movement education and sport education models, the underlying premise is that physical activity is essential to a healthy lifestyle and that students’ understanding of fitness and behavior change result from engagement in a fitness education program. The conceptual framework for the model is designed around the health-related components of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. A recent meta-analysis (Lonsdale et al., 2013) suggests that physical education curricula that include fitness activities can significantly increase the amount of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Several concept-based fitness education curriculum models exist for both the middle school and senior high school levels. They include Fitness for Life: Middle School (Corbin et al., 2007); Personal Fitness for You (Stokes and Schultz, 2002); Get Active! Get Fit! (Stokes and Schultz, 2009); Personal Fitness: Looking Good, Feeling Good (Williams, 2005); and Foundations of Fitness (Rainey and Murray, 2005). Activities in the curriculum are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical

activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve a health-enhancing level of fitness through regular engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Randomized controlled studies on the impact of a science-based fitness curriculum in 15 elementary schools showed that, although the curriculum allocated substantial lesson time to learning cognitive knowledge, the students were more motivated to engage in physical activities than students in the 15 control schools experiencing traditional physical education (Chen et al., 2008), and they expended the same amount of calories as their counterparts in the control schools (Chen et al., 2007). Longitudinal data from the study reveal continued knowledge growth in the children that strengthened their understanding of the science behind exercise and active living (Sun et al., 2012). What is unclear, however, is whether the enthusiasm and knowledge gained through the curriculum will translate into the children’s lives outside of physical education to help them become physically active at home.

To incorporate standards and benchmarks into a fitness education model, a committee under the auspices of NASPE (2012) developed the Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. It is suggested that through this proposed comprehensive framework, fitness education be incorporated into the existing physical education curriculum and embedded in the content taught in all instructional units. The entire framework, highlighted in Box 5-1 , can be viewed at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Framework-for-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Emergence of Active Gaming in Fitness Education

Today, active gaming and cell phone/computer applications are a part of physical activity for both youth and adults. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known as exergaming. Examples of active gaming programs with accompanying equipment include Konami Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), Nintendo Wii, Gamebikes, Kinect XBOX, Xavix, and Hopsports. These active games have been incorporated into school wellness centers as high-tech methods of increasing student fitness levels to supplement the traditional modes for attaining vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity (Greenberg and Stokes, 2007).

Bailey and McInnis (2011) compared selected active games with treadmill walking and found that each game—DDR, LightSpace (Bug Invasion), Nintendo Wii (Boxing), Cyber Trazer (Goalie Wars), Sportwall, and Xavix (J-Mat)—raised energy expenditure above that measured at rest. Mean metabolic equivalent (MET) values for each game were comparable to or

Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education

Technique: Demonstrate competency in techniques needed to perform a variety of moderate to vigorous physical activities.

•  Technique in developing cardiovascular fitness.

• Technique when developing muscle strength and endurance activities.

• Technique in developing flexibility.

• Safety techniques.

Knowledge: Demonstrate understanding of fitness concepts, principles, strategies, and individual differences needed to participate and maintain a health-enhancing level of fitness.

•  Benefits of physical activity/dangers of physical inactivity.

• Basic anatomy and physiology.

• Physiologic responses to physical activity.

• Components of health-related fitness.

• Training principles (overload, specificity, progression) and workout elements.

• Application of the Frequency Intensity Time Type principle. Factors that influence physical activity choices.

Physical activity: Participate regularly in fitness-enhancing physical activity.

•  Physical activity participation (e.g., aerobic, muscle strength and endurance, bone strength, flexibility, enjoyment/social/personal meaning).

• Create an individualized physical activity plan.

• Self-monitor physical activity and adhere to a physical activity plan.

Health-related fitness: Achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of health-related fitness.

•  Physical fitness assessment (including self-assessment) and analysis.

• Setting goals and create a fitness improvement plan.

• Work to improve fitness components.

• Self-monitor and adjust plan.

• Achieve goals.

Responsible personal and social behaviors: Exhibit responsible personal and social behaviors in physical activity settings.

•  Social interaction/respecting differences.

• Self-management.

• Personal strategies to manage body weight.

• Stress management.

Values and advocates: Value fitness-enhancing physical activity for disease prevention, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, self-efficacy, and/or social interaction and allocate energies toward the production of healthy environments.

•  Value physical activity.

• Advocacy.

• Fitness careers.

• Occupational fitness needs.

Nutrition: Strive to maintain healthy diet through knowledge, planning, and regular monitoring.

•  Basic nutrition and benefits of a healthy diet.

• Healthy diet recommendations.

• Diet assessment.

• Plan and maintain a healthy diet.

Consumerism: Access and evaluate fitness information, facilities, products, and services.

•  Differentiate between fact and fiction regarding fitness products.

• Make good decisions about consumer products.

SOURCE: NASPE, 2012. Reprinted with permission.

higher than those measured for walking on a treadmill at 3 miles per hour. Graf and colleagues (2009), studying boys and girls aged 10-13, found that both Wii boxing and DDR (level 2) elicited energy expenditure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and ventilatory responses that were comparable to or greater than those elicited by moderate-intensity walking on a treadmill. Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii over that expended during all sedentary activities. Staiano and colleagues (2012) explored factors that motivated overweight and obese African American high school students to play Wii during school-based physical activity opportunities. They found greater and more sustained energy expenditure over time and noted that players’ various intrinsic motivations to play also influenced their level of energy expenditure. Mellecker and McManus (2008) determined that energy expenditure and heart rate were greater during times of active play than in seated play. Fawkner and colleagues (2010) studied 20 high school–age girls and found that dance simulation games provided an opportunity for most subjects to achieve a moderate-intensity level of physical activity. The authors conclude that regular use of the games aids in promoting health through physical activity. Haddock and colleagues (2009) conducted ergometer tests with children aged 7-14 and found increased oxygen consumption and energy expenditure above baseline determinations. Maddison and colleagues (2007), studying children aged 10-14, found that active video game playing led to significant increases in energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity counts in comparison with baseline values. They conclude that playing these games for short time periods is comparable to light- to moderate-intensity conventional modes of exercise, including walking, skipping, and jogging. Mhurchu and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is likely to be an effective means of increasing children’s overall level of physical activity. Additionally, Sit and colleagues (2010), studying the effects of active gaming among 10-year-old children in Hong Kong, found the children to be significantly more physically active while playing interactive games compared with screen-based games.

Exergaming appears to increase acute physical activity among users and is being used in school settings because it is appealing to students. Despite active research in the area of exergaming and physical activity, however, exergaming’s utility for increasing acute and habitual physical activity specifically in the physical education setting has yet to be confirmed. Further, results of studies conducted in nonlaboratory and nonschool settings have been mixed (Baranowski et al., 2008). Moreover, any physical activity changes that do occur may not be sufficient to stimulate physiologic changes. For example, White and colleagues (2009) examined the effects

of Nintendo Wii on physiologic changes. Although energy expenditure was raised above resting values during active gaming, the rise was not significant enough to qualify as part of the daily 60 minutes or more of vigorous-or moderate-intensity exercise recommended for children.

While collecting data on the effects of Nintendo Wii on 11-year-olds in New Zealand, White and colleagues (2009) found that active video games generated higher energy expenditure than both resting and inactive screen watching. They determined, however, that active gaming is a “low-intensity” physical activity. Therefore, it may be helpful in reducing the amount of sedentary behavior, but it should not be used as a replacement for more conventional modes of physical activity. Sun (2012) found that active gaming can increase student motivation to engage in physical activity, but the motivation may decrease as a result of prolonged exposure to the same games. This study also found that exergaming lessons provided less physical activity for children than regular conventional physical education. For inactive children, however, the exergaming environment is conducive to more active participation in the game-based physical activities than in conventional physical education (Fogel et al., 2010). Finally, Sheehan and Katz (2012) found that among school-age children the use of active gaming added to postural stability, an important component of motor skills development.

From the research cited above, as well as ongoing research being conducted by the Health Games Research Project funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, active gaming is promising as a means of providing young children an opportunity to become more physically active and helping them meet the recommended 60 or more minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Different types of games may influence energy expenditure differentially, and some may serve solely as motivation. Selected games also appear to hold greater promise for increasing energy expenditure, while others invite youth to be physically active through motivational engagement. The dynamic and evolving field of active gaming is a promising area for future research as more opportunities arise to become physically active throughout the school environment.

Other Innovative Programs

While several evidence-based physical education programs—such as the Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)—are being implemented in schools, many innovative programs also have been implemented nationwide that are motivating and contribute to skills attainment while engaging youth in activities that are fun and fitness oriented. These programs include water sports, involving sailing, kayaking, swimming, canoeing, and paddle boarding; adventure activities such as Project Adventure; winter sports, such as

snow skiing and snowshoeing; and extreme sports, such as in-line skating, skateboarding, and cycling.

Differences Among Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

Instructional opportunities vary within and among school levels as a result of discrepancies in state policy mandates. Although the time to be devoted to physical education (e.g., 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for secondary schools) is commonly included in most state mandates, actual time allocation in school schedules is uncertain and often left to the discretion of local education officials.

With respect to content, in both elementary and secondary schools, physical activity is an assumed rather than an intended outcome except in the fitness education model. The goals of skill development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. Data are lacking, however, to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.

Children in Nontraditional Schools

Research on physical education, physical activity, and sports opportunities in nontraditional school settings (charter schools, home schools, and correctional facilities) is extremely limited. Two intervention studies focused on charter schools addressed issues with Mexican American children. In the first (Johnston et al., 2010), 10- to 14-year-old children were randomly assigned to either an instructor-led intervention or a self-help intervention for 2 years. The instructor-led intervention was a structured daily opportunity for the students to learn about nutrition and to engage in structured physical activities. The results indicate that the children in the instructor-led intervention lost more weight at the end of the intervention than those in the self-help condition. In the second study (Romero, 2012), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. In comparison with data collected prior to the intervention, the children reported greater frequency of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, lower perceived community barriers to physical activity, and stronger self-efficacy for physical activity. Collectively, the results of these two studies suggest that a structured physical activity intervention can be effective in enhancing and enriching physical activity opportunities for Mexican American adolescents in charter schools.

Research on physical activity among home-schooled children is also limited. The only study found was published in 2004 (Welk et al., 2004). It describes differences in physical fitness, psychosocial correlates of physical activity, and physical activity between home-schooled children and their public school counterparts aged 9-16. No significant differences were found between the two groups of children on the measures used, but the researchers did note that the home-schooled children tended to be less physically active.

Research on physical education and physical activity in juvenile correction institutions is equally scarce. Munson and colleagues (1985, 1988) conducted studies on the use of physical activity programs as a behavior mediation intervention strategy and compared its impact on juvenile delinquents’ behavior change with that of other intervention strategies. They found that physical activity did not have a stronger impact than other programs on change in delinquent behavior.

Fitness Assessment

All states except Iowa have adopted state standards for physical education. However, the extent to which students achieve the standards is limited since no accountability is required.

An analysis of motor skills competency, strategic knowledge, physical activity, and physical fitness among 180 4th- and 5th-grade children demonstrated that the physical education standards in force were difficult to attain (Erwin and Castelli, 2008). Among the study participants, fewer than a half (47 percent) were deemed motor competent, 77 percent demonstrated adequate progress in knowledge, only 40 percent were in the Healthy Fitness Zone on all five components of the Fitnessgram fitness assessment, and merely 15 percent engaged in 60 or more minutes of physical activity each day. Clearly most of the children failed to meet benchmark measures of performance for this developmental stage. This evidence highlights the need for additional physical activity opportunities within and beyond physical education to enhance opportunities for students to achieve the standards.

Relationships among these student-learning outcomes were further decomposed in a study of 230 children (Castelli and Valley, 2007). The authors determined that aerobic fitness and the number of fitness test scores in the Healthy Fitness Zone were the best predictors of daily engagement in physical activity relative to factors of gender, age, body mass index (BMI), motor skills competency, and knowledge. However, in-class engagement in physical activity was best predicted by aerobic fitness and motor skills competence, suggesting that knowledge and skills should not be overlooked in a balanced physical education curriculum intended to promote lifelong physical activity.

As an untested area, student assessment in physical education has been conducted on many indicators other than learning outcomes. As reported in a seminal study (Hensley and East, 1989), physical education teachers base learning assessment on participation (96 percent), effort (88 percent), attitude (76 percent), sportsmanship (75 percent), dressing out (72 percent), improvement (68 percent), attendance (58 percent), observation of skills (58 percent), knowledge tests (46 percent), skills tests (45 percent), potential (25 percent), and homework (11 percent). These data, while several years old, show that most learning assessments in physical education fail to target relevant learning objectives such as knowledge, skills, and physical activity behavior. The development of teacher-friendly learning assessments consistent with national and/or state standards is sorely needed.

Fitness assessment in the school environment can serve multiple purposes. On the one hand, it can provide both teacher and student with information about the student’s current fitness level relative to a criterion-referenced standard, yield valid information that can serve as the basis for developing a personal fitness or exercise program based on current fitness levels, motivate students to do better to achieve a minimum standard of health-related fitness where deficiencies exist, and possibly assist in the identification of potential future health problems. On the other hand, an overall analysis of student fitness assessments provides valuable data that can enable teachers to assess learner outcomes in the physical education curriculum and assess the present curriculum to determine whether it includes sufficient fitness education to allow students to make fitness gains throughout the school year. Fitness assessment also provides a unique opportunity for schools to track data on students longitudinally. The ultimate goal of assessing student fitness in the school environment should be to educate students on the importance of maintaining a physically active lifestyle throughout the life span.

When administering fitness assessments in the school setting, caution is essential to ensure confidentiality of the results. The results and their interpretation should be shared with students and parents/guardians to have the greatest impact. To ensure the greatest benefits from fitness assessment, NASPE (2010) developed a position statement on “Appropriate Uses of Fitness Measurement.” Table 5-1 outlines appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing in schools and other educational settings.

When fitness assessment becomes part of a quality physical education program, teaching and learning strategies will guide all students to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain and improve their personal health-related fitness as part of their commitment to lifelong healthy lifestyles. Teachers who incorporate fitness education as a thread throughout all curricula will make the greatest impact in engaging and motivating

TABLE 5-1 Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings

students to participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in order to maintain and/or improve their personal health-related fitness. For example, the development of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program with the use of a criterion-referenced platform provides students with the educational benefits of fitness assessment knowledge (see Box 5-2 ). The emergence of one national fitness assessment, Fitnessgram, along with professional development and recognition protocols, further supports fitness education in the school environment.

Online Physical Education

Online physical education is a growing trend. Fully 59 percent of states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. Only just over half of these states require that the online courses be taught by state-certified physical education teachers. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to meet national standards for learning and physical activity

Presidential Youth Fitness Program

The Presidential Youth Fitness Program, launched in September 2012, is a comprehensive program that provides training and resources to schools for assessing, tracking, and recognizing youth fitness. The program promotes fitness testing as one component of a comprehensive physical education curriculum that emphasizes regular physical activity. The program includes a health-related fitness assessment, professional development, and motivational recognition. A key to the program’s success is helping educators facilitate a quality fitness assessment experience. The Presidential Youth Fitness Program was developed in partnership with the Cooper Institute; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance; and the Amateur Athletic Union.

The implementation of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program aligns with the Institute of Medicine report Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes in Youth, the result of a study whose primary purpose was to evaluate the relationship between fitness components and health and develop recommendations for health-related fitness tests for a national youth survey (IOM, 2012b). The report includes guidance on fitness assessments in the school setting. It confirms that Fitnessgram, used in the Presidential Youth Fitness Program, is a valid, reliable, and feasible tool for use in schools to measure health-related fitness. Use of the Fitnessgram represents a transition from the current test, which focuses on performance rather than health and is based on normative rather than criterion-referenced data, to a criterion-referenced, health-related fitness assessment instrument. Accompanying the assessment, as part of a comprehensive program, are education and training through professional development, awards, and recognition.

SOURCE: Presidential Youth Fitness Program, 2013.

guidelines, and teachers are not concerned about students’ accountability for learning.

Although online courses differ from traditional in-school physical education courses in the delivery of instruction, the standards and benchmarks for these courses must mirror those adopted by each individual state, especially when the course is taken to meet high school graduation requirements.

NASPE (2007a, p. 2) recommends that all physical education programs include “opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction, and student and program assessment.” If an online physical education program meets these standards, it may be just as effective as a face-to-face program. Online physical education can be tailored to each student’s needs, and it helps students learn how to exercise independently. The full NASPE position statement on online physical education can be found at http://www.ncpublic-schools.org/docs/curriculum/healthfulliving/resources/onlinepeguidelines.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013). The physical education policy of one online school, the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3 .

Florida Virtual School’s Physical Education Policy

Sections 1001.11(7) and 1003.453(2) of the Florida Statutes require that every school district have a current version of its Physical Education Policy on the district website. This document satisfies that requirement.

Florida law defines “physical education” to mean:

“the development or maintenance of skills related to strength, agility, flexibility, movement, and stamina, including dance; the development of knowledge and skills regarding teamwork and fair play; the development of knowledge and skills regarding nutrition and physical fitness as part of a healthy lifestyle; and the development of positive attitudes regarding sound nutrition and physical activity as a component of personal well-being.

Florida Virtual School [FLVS] courses are designed to develop overall health and well-being through structured learning experiences, appropriate instruction, and meaningful content. FLVS provides a quality Physical Education program in which students can experience success and develop positive attitudes about physical activity so that they can adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles. Programs are flexible to accommodate individual student interests and activity levels in a learning environment that is developmentally appropriate, safe, and supportive.”

SOURCE: Excerpted from FLVS, 2013.

Online physical education provides another option for helping students meet the standards for physical education if they lack room in their schedule for face-to-face classes, need to make up credit, or are just looking for an alternative to the traditional physical education class. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful mode of instruction for students with poor time management or technology skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012), online learning is changing the education landscape despite the limited empirical research and conflicting results on its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey involving 45 online high school physical education teachers, the authors found that almost three-fourths of the courses they taught failed to meet the national guideline for secondary schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week. Most of the courses required physical activity 3 days per week, while six courses required no physical activity. The teachers expressed support, hesitation, and even opposition toward online physical education.

Scheduling Decisions

Lesson scheduling is commonly at the discretion of school principals in the United States. The amount of time dedicated to each subject is often mandated by federal or state statutes. Local education agencies or school districts have latitude to make local decisions that go beyond these federal or state mandates. Often the way courses are scheduled to fill the school day is determined by the managerial skills of the administrator making the decisions or is based on a computer program that generates individual teacher schedules.

Successful curriculum change requires supportive scheduling (see Kramer and Keller, 2008, for an example of curriculum reform in mathematics). More research is needed on the effects of scheduling of physical education. In one such attempt designed to examine the impact of content and lesson length on calorie expenditure in middle school physical education, Chen and colleagues (2012) found that a lesson lasting 45-60 minutes with sport skills or fitness exercises as the major content would enable middle school students to expend more calories than either shorter (30-40 minutes) or longer (65-90 minutes) lessons. The evidence from such research can be used to guide allocation of the recommended weekly amount of physical education (150 minutes for elementary schools, 225 minutes for secondary schools) to achieve optimal health benefits for youth. Additional discussion of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers to quality physical education.

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As discussed in Chapter 3 , there is a direct correlation between regular participation in physical activity and health in school-age children, suggesting that physical activity provides important benefits directly to the individual child (HHS, 2008). Physical activity during a school day may also be associated with academic benefits ( Chapter 4 ) and children’s social and emotional well-being (HHS, 2008; Chapter 3 ). Physical education, along with other opportunities for physical activity in the school environment (discussed in Chapter 6 ), is important for optimal health and development in school-age children. It may also serve as a preventive measure for adult conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

Little has been learned about the short- and long-term effectiveness of physical education in addressing public health issues (Pate et al., 2011). Because the learning objectives of physical education have not included improvement in health status as a direct measure, indirect measures and correlates have been used as surrogates. However, some promising research, such as that conducted by Morgan and colleagues (2007), has demonstrated that students are more physically active on days when they participate in physical education classes. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. Accordingly, quality physical education contributes to a child’s daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment (NASPE, 2012).

Unlike other physical activity in school (e.g., intramural or extramural sports), physical education represents the only time and place for every child to learn knowledge and skills related to physical activity and to be physically active during the school day. It also is currently the only time and place for all children to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity safely because of the structured and specialist-supervised instructional environment. It is expected that children will use the skills and knowledge learned in physical education in other physical activity opportunities in school, such as active recess, active transportation, and intramural sports. For these reasons, physical education programming has been identified as the foundation on which multicomponent or coordinated approaches incorporating other physical activity opportunities can be designed and promoted.

Coordinated approaches in one form or another have existed since the early 1900s, but it was not until the 21st century that physical education was acknowledged as the foundation for these approaches. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010), the National Association

of State Boards of Education (NASBE; 2012), and NASPE (2004, 2010) all support this view because physical education provides students with the tools needed to establish and maintain a physically active lifestyle throughout their life span. As discussed in Chapter 3 , research on motor skills development has provided evidence linking physical skill proficiency levels to participation in physical activity and fitness (Stodden et al., 2008, 2009). Exercise psychology research also has identified children’s perceived skill competence as a correlate of their motivation for participation in physical activity (Sallis et al., 2000). When school-based multicomponent interventions include physical activities experienced in physical education that are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate, such coordinated efforts are plausible and likely to be effective in producing health benefits (Corbin, 2002). Accordingly, two of the Healthy People 2020 (Healthy People 2020, 2010) objectives for physical activity in youth relate to physical education: “PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation’s public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students ” and “PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.” 1

The importance of physical education to the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of child development has been acknowledged by many federal, state, and local health and education agencies. Many private entities throughout the country likewise have offered their support and recommendations for strengthening physical education. For example, the Institute of Medicine (2012a), in its report Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , points to the need to strengthen physical education to ensure that all children engage in 60 minutes or more of physical activity per school day. Similarly, the National Physical Activity Plan (2010), developed by a group of national organizations at the forefront of public health and physical activity, comprises a comprehensive set of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity in all segments of schools. The plan is intended to create a national culture that supports physically active lifestyles so that its vision that “one day, all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity” can be realized. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics presented in Box 5-4 .

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1 Available online at http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020/pdfs/PhysicalActivity.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Medical professional associations, such as the American Cancer Society (ACS), American Diabetes Association (ADA), and American Heart Association (AHA), have long acknowledged the importance of physical education and have endorsed policies designed to strengthen it. A position statement on physical education from the ACS Cancer Action Network, ADA, and AHA (2012) calls for support for quality physical education and endorses including physical education as an important part of a student’s comprehensive, well-rounded education program because of its positive impact on lifelong health and well-being. Further, physical education policy should make quality the priority while also aiming to increase the amount of time physical education is offered in schools.

Recently, private-sector organizations—such as the NFL through its Play60 program—have been joining efforts to ensure that youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. One such initiative is Nike’s (2012) Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda , a framework for improving access to physical activity for all American children in schools. Although the framework does not focus exclusively on physical education, it does imply the important role of physical education in the action agenda (see Box 5-5 ).

Finally, in response to First Lady Michelle Obama’s Let’s Move initiative, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) launched the Let’s Move In School initiative, which takes a holistic approach to the promotion of physical activity in schools. The purpose of the initiative is to help elementary and secondary schools launch the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP), which is focused on strengthening physical education and promoting all opportunities for physical activity in school. The CSPAP in any given school is intended to accomplish two goals: (1) “provide a variety of school-based physical activity opportunities that enable all students to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day” and (2) “provide coordination among the CSPAP components to maximize understanding, application, and practice of the knowledge and skills learned in physical education so that all students will be fully physically educated and well-equipped for a lifetime of physical activity” (AAHPERD, 2012). The five CSPAP components, considered vital for developing a physically educated and physically active child, are physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community involvement (AAHPERD, 2012). Schools are allowed to implement all or selected components.

An AAHPERD (2011) survey indicated that 16 percent of elementary schools, 13 percent of middle schools, and 6 percent of high schools (from a self-responding nationwide sample, not drawn systematically) had implemented a CSPAP since the program was launched. Although most schools

National Physical Activity Plan: Strategy 2

The National Physical Activity Plan’s Strategy 2 is as follows:

Strategy 2: Develop and implement state and school district policies requiring school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity programs.

1. Advocate for binding requirements for PreK-12 standards-based physical education that address state standards, curriculum time, class size, and employment of certified, highly qualified physical education teachers in accordance with national standards and guidelines, such as those published by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE).

2. Advocate for local, state and national standards that emphasize provision of high levels of physical activity in physical education (e.g., 50 percent of class time in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity).

sampled (90 percent) provided physical education, the percentage declined through middle school and high school, such that only 44 percent of high schools provided physical education to seniors. In most schools (92 percent), classes were taught by teachers certified to teach physical education.

More than 76 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for children, and 31 percent had instituted a policy prohibiting teachers from withholding children from participating in recess for disciplinary reasons. In 56 percent of elementary schools that had implemented a CSPAP, physical activity was encouraged between lessons/classes; in 44 percent it was integrated into academic lessons; and in 43 percent the school day started with physical activity programs.

The percentage of schools that offered intramural sports clubs to at least 25 percent of students declined from 62 percent of middle schools to

3. Enact federal legislation, such as the FIT Kids Act, to require school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity programs.

4. Provide local, state, and national funding to ensure that schools have the resources (e.g., facilities, equipment, appropriately trained staff) to provide high-quality physical education and activity programming. Designate the largest portion of funding for schools that are underresourced. Work with states to identify areas of greatest need.

5. Develop and implement state-level policies that require school districts to report on the quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity programs.

6. Develop and implement a measurement and reporting system to determine the progress of states toward meeting this strategy. Include in this measurement and reporting system data to monitor the benefits and adaptations made or needed for children with disabilities.

7. Require school districts to annually collect, monitor, and track students’ health-related fitness data, including body mass index.

SOURCE: National Physical Activity Plan, 2010.

50 percent of high school for males, and from 53 to 40 percent, respectively, for females. Interscholastic sports were offered in 89 percent of high schools. Among them, approximately 70 percent involved at least 25 percent of the male student population participating and 58 percent involved at least 25 percent of the female student population participating. Sixty-five percent of high schools had “cut” policies, which could limit the enrollment of students in interscholastic sports.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

As noted, a high-quality physical education program can help youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. This increase in physical activity should be bal-

Nike’s Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda

1. Universal access: Design programs that are effective for every child, including those who face the most barriers to participating in physical activity.

2. Age appropriate: Physical activities and tasks that are systematically designed for a child’s physical, social, and emotional development, as well as his or her physical and emotional safety, are a non-negotiable component of good program design.

3. Dosage and duration: Maximum benefit for school-aged children and adolescents comes from group-based activity for at least 60 minutes per day that allows for increased mastery and skill level over time.

4. Fun: Create early positive experiences that keep students coming back for more, and let them have a say in what “fun” actually is.

5. Incentives and motivation: Focus on the “personal best” versus winning or losing.

6. Feedback to kids: Successful programs build group and individual goal setting and feedback into programs.

7. Teaching, coaching, and mentorship: Teachers of physical education, coaches, and mentors can make or break the experience for students. They should be prepared through proper training and included in stakeholder conversations. A well-trained physical activity workforce shares a common commitment and principles that promote physical activity among children. Great leaders create positive experiences and influence all learners.

SOURCE: Excerpted from Nike, 2012.

anced with appropriate attention to skill development and to national education standards for quality physical education (see Box 5-6 ). In a recent literature review, Bassett and colleagues (2013) found that physical education contributes to children achieving an average of 23 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily. However, the time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity could be increased by 6 minutes if the physical education curriculum were to incorporate a standardized curriculum such as SPARK (discussed in detail below) (Bassett et al., 2013). Thus, it is possible for physical education to contribute to youth meeting at least half (30 minutes) of their daily requirement for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. To help children grow holistically, however, physical education needs to achieve other learning goals when children are active. To this end, physical education programs must possess the quality characteristics specified by NASPE (2007b, 2009b,c) (see Box 5-6 ). Designing and implementing a physical education program with these characteristics in mind should ensure that the time and curricular materials of the program enable students to achieve the goals of becoming knowledgeable exercisers and skillful movers who value and adopt a physically active, healthy lifestyle.

Findings from research on effective physical education support these characteristics as the benchmarks for quality programs. In an attempt to understand what effective physical education looks like, Castelli and Rink (2003) conducted a mixed-methods comparison of 62 physical education programs in which a high percentage of students achieved the state physical education learning standards with programs whose students did not achieve the standards. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators (e.g., positive policy, supportive administration) than inhibitors (e.g., marginalized status as a subject matter within the school). Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so. The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior.

Examples of Evidence-Based Physical Education Curricular Programs

Two large-scale intervention studies—SPARK and CATCH—are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes.

NASPE’s Characteristics of a High-Quality Physical Education Program

Opportunity to learn

• All students are required to take physical education.
• Instructional periods total 150 minutes per week (elementary schools) and 225 minutes per week (middle and secondary schools).
• Physical education class size is consistent with that of other subject areas.
• A qualified physical education specialist provides a developmentally appropriate program.
• Equipment and facilities are adequate and safe.

Meaningful content

• A written, sequential curriculum for grades PreK-12 is based on state and/or national standards for physical education.
• Instruction in a variety of motor skills is designed to enhance the physical, mental, and social/emotional development of every child.
• Fitness education and assessment are designed to help children understand, improve, and/or maintain physical well-being.
• Curriculum fosters the development of cognitive concepts about motor skill and fitness.
• Opportunities are provided to improve emerging social and cooperative skills and gain a multicultural perspective.
• Curriculum promotes regular amounts of appropriate physical activity now and throughout life.

The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Each SPARK program “fosters environmental and behavioral change by providing a coordinated package of highly active curriculum, on-site teacher training, extensive follow-up support, and content-matched equipment focused on the development of healthy lifestyles, motor skills and movement knowledge, and social and personal skills” (SPARK, 2013).

Appropriate instruction

• Full inclusion of all students.
• Maximum practice opportunities for class activities.
• Well-designed lessons that facilitate student learning.
• Out-of-school assignments that support learning and practice.
• Physical activity not assigned or withheld as punishment.
• Regular assessment to monitor and reinforce student learning.

Student and program assessment

• Assessment is an ongoing, vital part of the physical education program.
• Formative and summative assessments of student progress are conducted.
• Student assessments are aligned with state/national physical education standards and the written physical education curriculum.
• Assessment of program elements that support quality physical education is conducted.
• Stakeholders periodically evaluate the effectiveness of the total physical education program.

SOURCE: Adapted from NASPE, 2009c.

Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools. The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district (Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012). In one study, researchers found that “the children were positive about this specific curriculum. This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling

in the students toward physical activity” (McKenzie et al., 1994, p. 213). In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition (McKenzie et al., 1998). As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests (Sallis et al., 1997). Finally, System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) classroom observations revealed that students in SPARK classes increased their time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class from 17.8 to up to 40.2 minutes compared with students in non-SPARK classes, who engaged in 17.8 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week (McKenzie et al., 1997; Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012).

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. The goal of CATCH is to impact children’s health behaviors positively, improve the school health environment, and influence and change school health policies and practices in order to reduce and eliminate health risk factors and risk-related behaviors of students (Perry et al., 1990). CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from 1991 to 1994 in four regional sites: Tulane University in New Orleans; the University of California, San Diego; the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis; and the University of Texas in Houston. The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. Upon completion of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children’s behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity (Luepker et al., 1996). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention (Nader et al., 1999).

National Standards

Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it. In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education , NASPE (2004) proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must pos-

sess and display (see Box 5-7 ). These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle.

Certified Physical Education Specialists as the Main Teaching Force

If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education (McKenzie et al., 2001). Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected (Lonsdale et al., 2013). The role of certified physical

Standards for a Physically Educated Person

education specialists in health-enhancing physical education has become increasingly critical (McKenzie, 2007). The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent.

Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess (discussed in detail in Chapter 6 ). Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships. For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program.

It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed. Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers (generalists) to teach physical education (NASPE, 2012). Certification or licensure of middle/junior high school and high school physical education teachers is required in only 82 percent and 90 percent of states (NASPE, 2012), respectively. Only 37 states (72 percent) have a requirement for professional development and continuing education hours/credit for physical education teachers to maintain or renew their certification, with renewal time ranging from 3 to 5 years (NASPE, 2012). Twenty-eight states (55 percent) allow temporary/emergency certificates to teach physical education that are valid for 1 to 3 years (NASPE, 2012). The basic requirements for emergency certification include a bachelor’s degree in teaching or in any area except physical education. Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator (NASPE, 2012).

Preservice Education for Teachers

Teaching physical education to children effectively and safely requires specific knowledge about children and their physical/mental development,

body composition (anatomy) and functions (physiology and biomechanics), and motor skills development and acquisition. In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy—the science and art of teaching. Box 5-8 lists the NASPE standards for beginning physical education teachers who have completed a bachelor’s teacher training program and those who have completed advanced (master’s-level) training.

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics (unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary) developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico). NCATE identified a total of 133 physical education teacher education programs as “nationally recognized.” The committee was unable to determine how many programs nationwide have met the minimum standards (not at the nationally recognized level) or locate reliable information on the total number of physical education teacher education programs. A Web search using the term “physical education” resulted in two different but relatively reliable statistics: 720 (College Board, 2013) and 1,945 (Peterson’s, 2013). But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations (e.g., sports medicine, exercise physiology/fitness). Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed.

The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study (Kulinna et al., 2010), current teacher candidates believe that helping K-12 students become physically active and fit is the first priority of physical education, followed by helping them actualize their own goals, develop motor skills, and become responsible. These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity– and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals (McKenzie, 2007).

In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed. Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year 2008-2009, only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs

National Association for Sport and Physical Education Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers

Initial Standards

1. Scientific and theoretical knowledge: Physical education teacher candidates know and apply discipline-specific scientific and theoretical concepts critical to the development of physically educated individuals.

2. Skill-based and fitness-based competence: Physical education teacher candidates are physically educated individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to demonstrate competent movement performance and health-enhancing fitness as delineated in the NASPE K-12 standards.

3. Planning and implementation: Physical education teacher candidates plan and implement developmentally appropriate learning experiences aligned with local, state, and national standards to address the diverse needs of all students.

4. Instructional delivery and management: Physical education teacher candidates use effective communication and pedagogical skills and strategies to enhance student engagement and learning.

that were training future teacher educators (Boyce and Rikard, 2011a). A total of 140 doctoral students were receiving training offered by 114 professors (including part-time), and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard (2011a) report that in the past 13 years, 479 doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators—36.8 each year on average—89 percent of whom were able to find positions in colleges and universities. During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled (64 percent), with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research (Boyce and Rikard, 2011b). Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators

5. Impact on student learning: Physical education teacher candidates use assessments and reflection to foster student learning and inform decisions about instruction.

6. Professionalism: Physical education teacher candidates demonstrate dispositions essential to becoming effective professionals.

Advanced Standards

1. Professional knowledge: Advanced physical education teacher candidates come to understand disciplinary content knowledge, the application of content knowledge to teaching physical education, and modes of inquiry that form the bases for physical education programs and instruction.

2. Professional practice: Advanced physical education teacher candidates (AC) use content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to design and conduct appropriate learning experiences that facilitate and enhance the growth of learners.

3. Professional leadership: Advanced physical education teacher candidates are continuous, collaborative learners who further their own professional development and use their abilities to contribute to the profession.

SOURCE: Excerpted from NASPE, 2009a.

in higher education institutions. Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear.

Professional Development

In all educational settings, professional development for teachers and administrators is a continuous process of acquiring new knowledge and skills that relate to an educator’s profession or academic subject area, job responsibilities, or work environment. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement (Ball and

Cohen, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2000). Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues (2007) assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure 5-1 , which aligns with the research on effective professional development (Kennedy, 1998; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2000; Garet et al., 2001; Fishman et al., 2003; Guskey and Sparks, 2004), illustrates how (1) professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills, (2) better knowledge and skills improve classroom teaching, and (3) improved teaching raises student achievement.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Whitehurst, 2002), known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers. The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act.

Professional development, according to the No Child Left Behind Act, should be offered to improve teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter they teach, strengthen their classroom management skills, advance their understanding and implementation of effective teaching strategies, and build their capabilities to address disparities in education. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box 5-9 .

Although there is a substantial literature on professional development, only a few high-quality studies relate teachers’ professional development experiences to student outcomes. Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of

FIGURE 5-1 Logic model of the impact of professional development on student achievement.

Characteristics of a High-Quality Professional Development Program

1. It is sustained, intensive, and content-focused to have a positive and lasting impact on classroom instruction and teacher performance.

2. It is aligned with and directly related to state academic content standards, student achievement standards, and assessments.

3. It improves and increases teachers’ knowledge of the subjects they teach.

4. It advances teachers’ understanding of effective instructional strategies founded on scientifically based research.

5. It is regularly evaluated for effects on teacher effectiveness and student achievement. Intensive and focused in-service training.

SOURCE: No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Public Law 107-110, 115 stat. 1425 (2002).

intense, content-focused experiences, as well as opportunities for peer collaboration and structured induction experiences for new teachers. Wiley and Yoon (1995) and Kennedy (1998) suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform.

Kulinna (2012) used Guskey and Sparks’ (2004) Model of Teacher Change to determine whether students’ physical activity and BMI changed after their teacher underwent a 1-year professional development program. Significant increases in students’ physical activity levels were found, but no significant changes in BMI. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues (2008) found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives. These

results lend support to the value of professional development in enhancing teachers’ perceptions of self-efficacy for teaching the curriculum. McCaughtry and colleagues (2006) explored the factors that make teacher professional development successful and what success might mean in terms of teachers’ instructional practices and feelings about change. Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety.

Learning Forward (formerly known as the National Staff Development Council) provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in 2011 and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results (see Box 5-10 ). According to Learning Forward (2012):

• When professional learning is standards based, it has greater potential to change what educators know, are able to do, and believe.

• When educators’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions change, they have a broader repertoire of effective strategies to use in adapting their practices to meet performance expectations and students’ learning needs.

• When educator practices improve, students have a greater likelihood of achieving results.

• When student results improve, the cycle repeats for continuous improvement.

• Professional learning standards provide a foundation on which to design professional learning experiences at the district or school level that will assist educators in acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and tools.

As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards. Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents (IOM, 2012a).

Standards for Professional Learning

Learning communities: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students occurs within learning communities committed to continuous improvement, collective responsibility, and goal alignment.

Leadership: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students requires skillful leaders who develop capacity, advocate, and create support systems for professional learning.

Resources: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students requires prioritizing, monitoring, and coordinating resources for educator learning.

Data: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students uses a variety of sources and types of student, educator, and system data to plan, assess, and evaluate professional learning.

Learning designs: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students integrates theories, research, and models of human learning to achieve its intended outcomes.

Implementation: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students applies research on change and sustains support for implementation of professional learning for long-term change.

Outcomes: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students aligns its outcomes with educator performance and student curriculum standards.

SOURCE: Learning Forward, 2012.

POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states. In comparison with data prior to 2006, more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of 150 and 225 minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively (McCullick et al., 2012), despite the fact that physical education has been considered a cornerstone for developing schoolwide multicomponent interventions to address the issue of physical inactivity in schools. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box 5-11 .

According to Title IX of the No Child Left Behind Act (Part A Sec 9101-11), core academic subjects include “English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, eco-

Obstacles to Implementation of Quality Physical Education

1. Class periods dedicated to physical education are declining at all school levels.

2. Existing discrepancies between policy and implementation with respect to specific time allocation contribute to a reduction in actual instructional time for physical education.

3. There is a potential shortage of physical education specialists to influence the design and maintenance of quality physical education programs.

4. Reductions in active learning time and opportunities in physical education contribute to potential student underachievement on national standards.

5. Disparities may exist in instructional opportunities for children in nontraditional learning settings.

nomics, arts, history, and geography.” If physical education were designated as a core academic subject, it would receive much-needed policy attention that would enhance its overall quality with respect to content offerings, instruction, and accountability. In support of the inclusion of physical education as a core subject, Senator Tom Udall (D-NM) reintroduced the Promoting Health for Youth Skills in Classrooms and Life (PHYSICAL) Act on February 27, 2013, to support and encourage the health and well-being of elementary and secondary school students.

With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance. Yet although several national governmental, nongovernmental, private industry, and public health organizations have recommended specific day and time/minute requirements for physical education, no standardized state policy has emerged.

Analysis of State Statutes and Administrative Codes

In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration. To better understand the status of state statutes, administrative codes, and policies impacting physical education in schools, the committee analyzed NASBE’s State School Health Policy Database (NASBE, 2012; www.nasbe.org/healthy_schools [accessed February 1, 2013]). Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues (2012): “At the state level, the 2 primary official public policy levers referred to as ‘codified law’ used for developing school-based physical education policy are 1) statutory laws (laws enacted by the given State legislature); and 2) administrative laws (rule and regulations by state executive branch agencies, such as the Department of Education)” (p. 1594). A second point to note is that in descriptions of physical education graduation requirements, it is impossible to differentiate among “credit,” “Carnegie unit,” and “course” so as to determine the exact time requirements for graduation.

Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states (88 percent) mandate physical education; 22 states (23 percent) require it

with mandatory minutes, while 25 states (49 percent) have no mandatory minutes and 4 (0.07 percent) leave the required number of minutes up to local decision makers. A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education (see the discussion below). Fitness assessment is required in 15 states (29 percent), and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states (0.07 percent). Twenty-six states (53 percent) require physical education grades to be included in a student’s grade point average. Forty-three states (84 percent) require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0.5 to 3.75 credits. One state (0.02 percent) requires K-12 physical education but does not require 4 years of physical education for high school graduation.

Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education. However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

Policies That Support Physical Education

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In 2004 the U.S. government issued a mandate, under the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, requiring school districts that receive funds under this act to establish local school wellness policies. These policies were to include provisions for physical activity and healthy eating, thus expanding schools’ responsibility for providing physical activity to school-age children. The enactment of this mandates made schools “the central element in a community system that ensures that students participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles” (Pate et al., 2006, p. 1215). Several government agencies and organizations have recommended embedding a specific number of days and minutes of physical education into each school’s or district’s wellness policy. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically.

Policies That Hinder Physical Education

Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics (P.L. No. 107-110, Section 115). Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students. Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make adequate yearly progress in test scores (e.g., each year 5th graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year’s 5th graders). If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

Under the act, physical education, music, and art are considered “nonessential” subjects and are not a main focus of the school learning environment. In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Since the act was passed, 62 percent of elementary schools and 20 percent of middle schools have increased instructional time in reading/language arts and mathematics (Center on Education Policy, 2008). Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects (Center on Education Policy, 2007, 2008) (see Table 5-2 ).

The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day. In developing master schedules, school site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for “nonessential” subjects. The average reduction in instructional time in these “nonessential” subjects has been 145 minutes per week. As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement

TABLE 5-2 Changes in Time Allocation in Elementary Schools Since 2001-2002

SOURCE: Center on Education Policy, 2007, District Survey, item 19 (revised Tables IT-2A, IT-16, and IT-17).

or academic outcomes (CDC, 2010). On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes (e.g., improved on-task classroom behavior, cognitive development, academic performance) have been associated with physical education and physical activity (see Chapter 4 ).

The Center on Education Policy (2007) conducted an analysis of 2006-2007 survey data from 349 school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes. Sixty-two percent of districts reported increasing time in elementary schools in English language arts and/or mathematics since 2001-2002. A higher proportion of urban districts (76 percent) than rural districts (54 percent) reported such increases.

Districts that increased instructional time for English language arts and/or mathematics did so by 43 percent on average. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half (54 percent) did so by 150 minutes or more per week. Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added 150 minutes or more per week.

Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess,

and lunch. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week. For example, more than half (53 percent) of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage (53 percent) cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science (Center on Education Policy, 2007).

Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of 378 minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent 520 minutes per week. The average increase for English language arts was 141 minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act (Center on Education Policy, 2007; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table IT-18A). Table 5-3 shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases.

Districts with at least one school identified as “in need of improvement” under the act were far more likely than districts not in need of improvement to decrease time in certain subjects so as to devote more time to English language arts and mathematics (78 versus 57 percent). For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement (Center on Education Policy, 2007).

TABLE 5-3 Time Cut from Subjects or Periods in Districts Reporting Decreases in Instructional Time

NOTE: * = sample size too small to allow reporting of data on minutes per week; NCLB = No Child Left Behind. SOURCE: Center on Education Policy, 2007, District Survey items 18 and 19 (Table IT-18B).

Exemptions from Physical Education Requirements

The 2012 Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes. Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. The most common substitutions are Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC), inter-scholastic sports, marching band, cheerleading, and community sports. Twenty-eight states allow schools and school districts to grant exemptions/waivers from physical education time or credit requirements. Reasons for exemptions/waivers include health, physical disability, religious belief, and early graduation; six states leave the reasons to the local schools or school districts. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. Research on the impact of exemptions/waivers from physical education is lacking. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

BARRIERS TO QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOLUTIONS

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them.

Morgan and Hanson (2008) classify barriers that hinder schools from implementing quality physical education programs as either institutional (outside the teacher’s control) or teacher related (arising from teacher behavior). Table 5-4 lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors.

Dwyer and colleagues (2003) examined Toronto teachers’ perspectives on why children were not engaged in daily physical education. They identified three categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Jenkinson and Benson (2010) surveyed 270 secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education. The results are shown in Table 5-5 . The institutional

TABLE 5-4 Barriers to the Delivery of Physical Education and Physical Activity Programs to Primary and Secondary School Students

NOTES: PA = physical activity; PE = physical education; sport = sport education. SOURCES: a Barroso et al., 2005; b Boyle et al., 2008; c Dagkas and Stathi, 2007; d DeCorby et al., 2005; e Dwyer et al., 2003; f Dwyer et al., 2006; g Morgan and Bourke, 2005; h Morgan and Hansen, 2008; i Mowling et al., 2004; j Salvy et al., 2009; k Sherar et al., 2009; l Xiang et al., 2002.

TABLE 5-5 Physical Education Teachers’ Ranking of Barriers to Providing Quality Physical Education (PE) in Victorian State Secondary Schools

NOTE: I = institutional barrier; SD = standard deviation. SOURCE: Jenkinson and Benson, 2010.

barriers listed in this table are similar to those identified for U.S. schools in Table 5-4 .

Jenkinson and Benson (2010) also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: institutional, teacher-related, and student-related. The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived. Results are presented in Table 5-6 .

Finally, Gallo and colleagues (2006) found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness.

Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

TABLE 5-6 Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in Victorian State Secondary Schools: Physical Education Teachers’ Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential)

NOTE: a Ranking = based on most frequently ranked as number 1 barrier; b I = institutional barrier, T = teacher-related barrier, S = student-related barrier; c PE = physical education; d PA = physical activity; e Sport = sport education. SOURCE: Jenkinson and Benson, 2010.

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued.

According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs (GAO, 2012), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. Budget cuts have affected schools’ ability to hire physical education teachers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6 ). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school’s ability to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort to large-group games and “throw out the ball” activities. Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 per high school).

Solutions for Overcoming the Barriers

For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with dis-

abilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.

The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling physical education during the classroom teacher’s planning time. In addition, students receive school board–mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters (San Diego State University, 2007), include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs (San Diego State University, 2007), notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included well-

FIGURE 5-2 Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTE: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

ness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understand-

FIGURE 5-3 Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTES: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a combination special education and disabilities (SPED)/Spanish-language elementary class. PE = physical education; S.S. = social studies. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

ing the correlation between physical education and academic achievement (see Chapter 4 ). The report Active Education: Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance by Active Living Research (Trost, 2009) cites evidence that “children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children’s health through physical education.” The findings reported include the following (p. 6):

• “In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.”
• “Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement.”
• “Evidence links higher levels of physical fitness with better school attendance and fewer disciplinary problems.”
• “There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity may improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior.”
• “Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those children who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including black, Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Asian-American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities.”

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults. Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change. The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities.

Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation. Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education.

An analysis of datasets from NASPE, NASBE, and Bridging the Gap reveals that the implementation of supportive physical education policies varies from state to state and from school to school. Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, several studies and reports have identi-

fied a decline in physical education resulting from the shifting of time to academic subjects. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states (74.5 percent) mandate physical education, most policies do not require specific amounts of instructional time, and more than half allow for waivers or exemptions. In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful.

Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Specifically:

• A majority of parents (54-84 percent) believe that physical education is at least as important as other academic subjects (CDC, 2010).
• Ninety-one percent believe that there should be more physical education in schools (Harvard School of Public Health, 2003).
• Seventy-six percent think that more school physical education could help control or prevent childhood obesity (NASPE, 2009a).
• Ninety-five percent believe that regular daily physical activity helps children do better academically and should be a part of the school curriculum for all students in grades K-12 (NASPE, 2003).

Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education. As the largest institution where children spend more than half of their waking hours on school days, schools can play a pivotal role in increasing students’ physical activity levels by providing access for all to quality physical education, along with physical activities throughout the school environment, the subject of Chapter 7 .

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Physical inactivity is a key determinant of health across the lifespan. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression and others diseases. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking. The prevalence and substantial disease risk associated with physical inactivity has been described as a pandemic.

The prevalence, health impact, and evidence of changeability all have resulted in calls for action to increase physical activity across the lifespan. In response to the need to find ways to make physical activity a health priority for youth, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment was formed. Its purpose was to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school, and examine the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short and long term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents.

Educating the Student Body makes recommendations about approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. This report lays out a set of guiding principles to guide its work on these tasks. These included: recognizing the benefits of instilling life-long physical activity habits in children; the value of using systems thinking in improving physical activity and physical education in the school environment; the recognition of current disparities in opportunities and the need to achieve equity in physical activity and physical education; the importance of considering all types of school environments; the need to take into consideration the diversity of students as recommendations are developed.

This report will be of interest to local and national policymakers, school officials, teachers, and the education community, researchers, professional organizations, and parents interested in physical activity, physical education, and health for school-aged children and adolescents.

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To be a good PE teacher it is essential that we can define and clarify our learning objectives to pupils at the start of each lesson. By helping students to clearly know what they should accomplish by lessons end will increase their focus and empower them to take more ownership of the activities and their learning [ 1, 2 ].

• 1. Before deciding on your Lesson Objectives it is important to focus on what needs to be learned in relation to your department’s schemes of work and to take in to account a range of factors about your class (age, class size, gender, additional learning needs, previous experience, duration, facilities and equipment available)[ 3 ].
• 2. Once you’ve gained this information, break down the unit of work objectives in to lesson-sized chunks (or concrete, manageable targets) and decide if the aim is to improve knowledge, understanding, skills or values [1, 2, 4]. Traditionally in PE there has been an over-emphasis on skill development [ 3 ]. It is important to find a balance in our lesson objectives by emphasizing improved skills and knowledge (these are known as behavioral objectives as they can be witnessed), whilst also aiming to develop understanding and personal growth (non-behavioural objectives as they are to some extent invisible) [ 4 ].

Learning Objectives are usually expressed in term of pupils’ learning and consist of four qualities:

A STEM (a prefix)

The most commonly used in PE and schools is: “By the end of the lesson, pupils…”

A MEASURABLE VERB

An action word that relates to the key outcome verbs within Bloom's [6] or the adapted taxonomy [5] (including relevant PE synonyms).

THE CONDITION (or adjective)

How the tasks or behavior will be performed and under what conditions.

THE CONTEXT (or standard)

How well the task or behavior must be performed to meet the standard. [ 1, 2, 4 ]

As a result, your lesson objectives should look like this:

By the end of the lesson,

• To be able to… Verb/ Adjective /Context
• To be able to What/How/Where

Examples of learning objectives

By the end of the lesson, pupils will be able to:

Lower Level Thinking

• Describe how to play man-to-man defense in basketball using your own words
• Perform a forehand groundstroke in tennis consistently in games
• Apply simple tactics when fielding in kickball

Higher Level Thinking

• Analyse a partner's dig shot in volleyball to make suggestions for improvement
• Design your own fitness/exercise program using sets and reps
• Create your own orienteering map using 12 markers
• Leask, M., & Davison “Schemes of Work and Lesson Planning”. In Capel, S., Leask, M., Turner, T. (2001) Learning to Teach in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. London: RoutledgeFalmer pp. 70-71
• Arthur, J., & Capel, S. (2015) “How planning and evaluation support effective learning and teaching” In, Capel, S., & Whitehead, M. (2015) Learning to Teach Physical Education in the Secondary School: A companion to school experience. Routledge: Oxon. Pp.36-38
• Grout, H. & Long, G. (2009) Improving Teaching & Learning in Physical Education. Bershire: Open University Press
• Bailey, R. (2001) Teaching Physical Education: A handbook for Primary and Secondary School Teachers. London: Kogan Page
• Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasain, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.R., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J. and Wittrock, M.C. (eds) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing – A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, complete edition, New York: Addison Wesley Longman
• Bloom, B., Englehart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hil, W.H. and Krathwohl, D.R. (eds) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: D.McKay.

Home — Essay Samples — Education — Studying Process — Physical Education

Essays on Physical Education

Prompt examples for physical education essays, the importance of physical education in schools.

Discuss the significance of including physical education as a part of the school curriculum. How does physical education benefit students' overall development?

Physical Education and Health

Explore the relationship between physical education and students' health. How does regular physical activity in schools contribute to the well-being of students?

The Role of Physical Education Teachers

Examine the responsibilities and impact of physical education teachers. How do they help students develop physical skills and a lifelong love for fitness?

Innovations in Physical Education

Discuss innovative approaches and technologies used in modern physical education programs. How have these innovations improved the learning experience?

Physical Education and Academic Performance

Explore the potential links between physical education and academic success. How does regular physical activity impact students' cognitive abilities and classroom performance?

The Role of Team Sports in Physical Education

Analyze the benefits of incorporating team sports into physical education programs. How do team sports promote cooperation, leadership, and physical fitness?

Physical Education for Special Populations

Discuss the importance of adapting physical education programs for students with special needs. How can inclusive physical education benefit all students?

Challenges and Solutions in Physical Education

Examine the challenges faced by physical education programs, such as limited resources or lack of facilities. What solutions can be implemented to overcome these challenges?

Physical Education and Lifelong Fitness

Explore the role of physical education in promoting lifelong fitness habits. How can physical education programs instill a love for physical activity beyond the school years?

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Physical Education

Discuss methods for assessing the effectiveness of physical education programs. How can schools measure the impact of these programs on students' health and well-being?

The Importance of Being Physically Active

The benefits of physical education: develop skills & confidence, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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The Importance of Physical Education to Maintain a Healthy and Happy Life

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Gender Issues in Physical Education

Different types of play as an important part of young children’s development, game play participation of amotivated students during sport education, using videos in teaching physical education, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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The Importance of Sports for Students

Myers v. peel county board of education, the wingate test: peak power output and anaerobic systems in the college-aged population, social, mental, and physical benefits of sports for young adolescents, physical education in school as a tool for motor development, benefits of physical education in school for body development, the importance of physical education: a comprehensive analysis, the impact of physical education on student grades, importance of physical education in schools, ethics, education, and responsible practices in running, running as a conduit for physical and mental well-being, the sequence of cephalocaudal development, importance of physical education, physical education in schools.

Physical Education is an education which brings improvement in human performance with the help of physical activities.

Physical activities range from simple walking to jogging, running, sprinting, hopping, jumping, climbing, throwing, pushing, pulling, kicking, etc.

Physical education helps students develop physical skills and confidence. It develops fitness and fosters the desire for lifelong participation in physical activity. School curriculum prepares students to become highly proficient in one or more sport and/or fitness activity of their choice.

Relevant topics

• Critical Thinking
• Academic Challenges
• Academic Interests
• Stem Education
• High School
• Middle School
• School Uniform
• Importance of Education
• Studying Abroad

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Physical Education within Elementary Schools Essay (Critical Writing)

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Physical education, benefits of physical education in elementary schools, provision of quality physical education.

Physical education is part of elementary education curriculum that promotes playing or body movement activities of students. It thus involves forms of education on techniques and knowledge on games and general body locomotion. Physical education has been widely applied in primary and secondary school levels across the globe. This paper seeks to discuss the need for quality physical education within elementary schools. The paper will look into the benefits of such quality physical education and how the quality can be achieved.

Physical education entails learning about motions of the body with the aim of developing physical fitness of an individual. Learnt through direct engagement in practicing, physical education has been identified as a tool to nurturing of skills in sports as well as body developments that include social, emotional and intellectual growth of the person who undertakes it. The benefits that are derived from elements of physical education thus induce its importance and the need to provide it in a qualitative nature (Study notes, 2011).

Provision of quality physical education in elementary schools is of considerable importance because of its advantages to students. One of the benefits of the physical education is the level of physical fitness that it induces to the students. In undertaking body movements under physical education, body muscles are kept active under exercise thus making them fit. Under this induced muscular fitness, a person is able to make body responses to the environment.

One of the benefits of such response capacity is in sports where a participant is supposed to make responsive advances towards actions of his or her opponent. A much active body that is developed under the physical education exercises thus helps students to develop their capacity in sports through enhanced body fitness (Study notes, 2011).

Continuous physical activity of the body has also been identified to help in some of the biological processes in the body. One of such benefits is the building and maintaining of “healthy bones, muscles and joints” (CDC, n.d., 1). Bones, muscles and joints in an individual’s body forms the basic mechanism of body movements especially from one place to another. Any malfunctioning of these as experienced in cases of cramps or injuries can limit a person’s movement abilities.

Developed bones, joints and muscles through such physical activities play an important role in reducing their chances of succumbing to injuries and defects. This aspect of physical education thus establishes it as a necessity in the lives of students to help them develop a stronger body. Physical education also helps physical body aspects such as controlling of body weight.

Through exercise activities that are part of physical education, the amount of energy that is consumed by the body helps in consuming excess fats that could be stored in the body. This, besides development of body muscles helps in the well being of the body in terms of reducing risks that are caused by excessive fats in the body.

Thus, in controlling body weight, physical education helps in reducing biological complications that are caused by overweight such as heart and blood pressure complications. Involvement in physical activity has also been identified to help in controlling blood pressure in people who suffer from hypertension. The inclusion of physical education into school’s curriculum therefore induces significant benefits in the lives of students (CDC, n.d.).

Further advantages of physical education are also illustrated through detailed benefits that it induces to the body through major body organs. Major benefits with this respect concentrate on the advantages that physical activity accrues to the heart. The functionality of the heart which, for example, depends on the heart’s muscles derives great benefits from physical education.

Just as it strengthens other muscles, physical activity induces same effect to cardiovascular muscles that has a critical role in the flow of blood through the body system. Functionality of the heart that is derived from the state of its muscles is then transferred to systems such as the circulatory system.

A properly functional heart due to strong muscles is, for example, characterized by features such as “lower heart rate, reduced blood pressure, and increased oxygen carrying capacity” (Ehlt, n.d., p. 1) among other features. Physical education thus benefits all other body processes that depend on the circulatory system for their functionality. Poor or lack of body activity at all thus induces contrary features of body functionality that relates to malfunctioning of the heart.

the direct physical benefits of physical activity, it also induces positive impacts on mental aspects of children. It has for example been established that children and adolescents who exercises regularly develops a higher level of self esteem as compared to those who do not exercise at all. It also results in relaxation of the mind of an individual (Ehlt, n.d.).

Developed physical education at an early age of an individual has also been associated with better state of health of the same person at his or her later life especially if such physical activities are continuously carried out by the individual throughout his or her lifetime.

Since culture is easily instilled in people at earlier stages of life than when they become adults, the introduction of the culture of exercising among children can easily influence them to adopting the same tradition of body exercise throughout their life. This argument thus calls for considerations of sufficiently effecting physical education on children at the elementary schools.

When induced and acculturated by students, physical education which is closely related to sports activities has also proved to keep students engaged in activities thus reducing idleness among the adolescent category who are prone to curiosity of engaging in new activities.

If left idle, these youths occasionally fall to vices such as use of drugs, risky sexual behavior as well as negative peer influence. Physical education in elementary schools together with its influence into active participation in sport activities thus helps in reducing chances of these adolescents acquiring bad behaviors such as those mentioned above.

It is also important to note that not all children and even adolescents are naturally attracted to activities that develop physical fitness such as physical education and sports. Necessary steps are therefore needed to influence these children and youths into physical activities. This thus calls for attention on how physical activities can be made attractive to these age groups as well as how optimum benefits can be derived from these physical activities (Ehlt, n.d.).

Physical education, being an important aspect in the life and development of children and adolescents, should be developed to be part of these age groups so that as they grow up, they develop with the mentality of engaging in physical activities because of the benefits that they will derive from such activities.

The manner in which these students are introduced to physical education and the way that physical education is conducted will thus determine the receptiveness as well as level of acculturation that student will have with respect to physical education.

Measures by teachers and institutions are therefore necessary to be taken to ensure that the entire process of physical education is qualitative enough in its application as well as achieving its objectives. A teacher is for example supposed to promote sessions of physical education and the benefits of the education.

In promoting the sessions, the involvement of students will be improved following the availability of opportunity to participate in physical education. Those who are already interested will be developed in physical activities while the rest could be influenced into developing interest. Promoting the benefits of physical education by teaching students about such benefits also helps in drawing students towards physical education.

Like any other form of education, benefits of developed physical education by schools can only be achieved if a significant level of quality is ensured in the provision of such education.

Physical education teachers must, for example, understand how a child’s skills can be impacted under physical education as well as the appropriate techniques to employ during physical education sessions. The level of competence in these two aspects as demonstrated by physical education teachers will significantly determine the effectiveness of a physical education session.

A teacher can for example not impact a child or an adolescent if the teacher doesn’t understand how to communicate the lessons or even tutor the students. Teachers or trainers who are involved in physical education are thus expected to have a proper understanding of essential body movements as well as activities that can be used to develop such movements. The teachers should as well be well equipped with skill and knowledge that pertains to physical education (study notes, 2011).

Achievements made by teachers in designing appropriate models for particular physical education will also have an impact on the level of achievement of the education session that is undertaken. Equipments that are used for physical education are also determinants of the level of achievements that can be attained by a session.

An understanding of students and their adaptability to different types and variety of equipments is also important in impacting them into physical education as well as in achieving objectives of physical education. The manner in which physical education is conducted is thus instrumental in the achievement its objectives as well as influencing students into developing personal interests in physical activities.

A system of well planned and taught physical education sessions will thus have impacts on students as compared to a system where physical education is taken for granted. It would thus be logical to pay attention to physical education to ensure that quality is involved so as to achieve maximum benefits for the students in the elementary schools as well as the community in which these students will be absorbed into when they grow up (study notes, 2011).

Physical education deals with activities that involve body movements. It is widely integrated in elementary schools to be taught to students for the realization of its benefits. These benefits establish the need to influence students into physical education as well as teaching the students in physical education sessions. Qualitative measures are thus necessary to ensure that physical education is effectively conducted to realize its objectives.

CDC. (n.d). Adolescents and young adults . Web.

Ehlt. (n.d.). The benefits of physical education . Web.

Study notes. (2011). Physical Education. (Class notes sent by customer on MS Word).

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IvyPanda. (2018, October 12). Physical Education within Elementary Schools. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-education-within-elementary-schools/

"Physical Education within Elementary Schools." IvyPanda , 12 Oct. 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/physical-education-within-elementary-schools/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Physical Education within Elementary Schools'. 12 October.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Physical Education within Elementary Schools." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-education-within-elementary-schools/.

1. IvyPanda . "Physical Education within Elementary Schools." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-education-within-elementary-schools/.

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IvyPanda . "Physical Education within Elementary Schools." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-education-within-elementary-schools/.

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Character Descriptions Lesson - Reading, Writing & Grammar Lesson with Activities!

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This resource includes everything you need to teach children grades 3 to 6 how to write fantastic character descriptions. The resource is a PowerPoint presentation lesson complete with:

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Sign up for our free weekly newsletter and receive top education news, lesson ideas, teaching tips and more! No thanks, I don't need to stay current on what works in education! COPYRIGHT 1996-2016 BY EDUCATION WORLD, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. COPYRIGHT 1996 - 2024 BY EDUCATION WORLD, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. SchoolNotes.com The Educator's Network Promotion of Physical Activity and Health in the School Setting © 2024 Antonio García-Hermoso   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1397-7182 0 Navarrabiomed, Hospital Universitario de Navarra, Universidad Pública de Navarra (UPNA), IdiSNA, Pamplona, Spain You can also search for this editor in PubMed   Google Scholar Discusses new approaches to promote physical activity and sports in the school environment Presents activities to help children feel strong and enjoy lifelong physical activity Shows how to plan, implement, evaluate and monitor the promotion of physical activity of school children and adolescents 1346 Accesses 62 Altmetric This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access. Access this book Subscribe and save. Get 10 units per month Download Article/Chapter or eBook 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter Cancel anytime Available as EPUB and PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Durable hardcover edition Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days Free shipping worldwide - see info Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout Other ways to access Licence this eBook for your library Institutional subscriptions About this book This book is the first-known contributed volume focused exclusively on physical activity in the school setting. It describes the importance of regular physical activity for all preschoolers, children and adolescents, which contributes to preventing concerning public health problems such as childhood obesity and physical inactivity.  Children and adolescents spend more time in school than anywhere else other than the home, making schools an excellent setting in which to offer quality physical activity education and possibilities for an active school day. Physical activity is associated with physiological, physical, and mental health benefits. School-based physical activity initiatives can also positively impact learning and classroom behavior.  This book comprehensively reviews the latest research on physical activity and health in the school setting, presenting different perspectives from prestigious international authors representing 12 countries and involving 40 different researchers. It provides an in-depth description on how the school environment can be used to develop, implement, and evaluate strategies that promote physical activity and reduce sedentary behavior among these populations according to the educational stage (i.e., pre-primary, primary and secondary school). It also details how to implement each individual initiative based on successful investigations and how to plan, implement and evaluate a school policy. By implementing these strategies, schools can help create a culture of physical activity that promotes healthy habits and reduces the risk of chronic diseases. The volume's 16 chapters are organized in three parts, providing an overview of current knowledge. The authors discuss advances in theory and research and demonstrate how they are using that evidence to improve professional practice and collaborate with families.  Part I: Movement Guidelines and Recommendations Part II: Monitoring and Evaluation in School Settings Part III: Physical Activity During School Hours Promotion of Physical Activity and Health in the School Setting makes an important contribution to the youth physical activity field for scholars and practitioners. The book is essential reading for advanced students, researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers with an interest in physical activity, youth sport, public health, physical education, or child and adolescent development and education. Physical activity and sports in schools Healthy schools Active school evaluation HIIT (high-intensity interval training programs) at schools Health-related physical fitness assessment in schools Active travel to and from school Multi-component school-based physical activity programs Muscle-strengthening activities at schools Health promotion in the school setting School fitness tests Recess and recreation time Commuting to school Physical activity and health guidelines and recommendations School-aged children and adolescents Motor skill assessment Physical literacy assessment Active classrooms in school curricula Inclusive physical activity for youth with special needs Active school activities and breaks Active learning Table of contents (16 chapters) Front matter, movement guidelines and recommendations, physical activity and sedentary behavior in children and adolescents: recommendations and health impacts. Yang Liu, Danqing Zhang, Youzhi Ke, Yiping Yan, Yangyang Shen, Zhenghan Wang Twenty-Four-Hour Movement Behaviors for School-Aged Children and Adolescents José Francisco López-Gil Assessment and Evaluation of Physical Health and Skills in School Settings Physical literacy assessment: a conceptualization and tools. Andreas Fröberg, Suzanne Lundvall Assessment of Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents Jairo H. Migueles, Patricio Solis-Urra Health-Related Physical Fitness Assessment in School Settings Kai Zhang, Cristina Cadenas-Sanchez, Brooklyn Fraser, Justin J. Lang Motor Skill Assessment in Children and Adolescents Nadia Cristina Valentini Physical Activity During School Hours Physical activity and health through physical education. Adrià Muntaner-Mas Active Travel to and from School Adilson Marques, Tiago Ribeiro, Miguel Peralta Physical Activity Opportunities During School Recess Antonio García-Hermoso Active Classrooms in School Curricula and Active Breaks Abel Ruiz-Hermosa, David Sánchez-Oliva, Mairena Sánchez-López Multicomponent School-Based Physical Activity Programs Collin A. Webster School-Based Before-School Physical Activity Programs Michalis Stylianou, James Woodforde School-Based After-School Physical Activity and Sports Programs Hyungsik Min, Donetta Cothran, Pamela Hodges Kulinna Integrating High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) into the School Setting: Benefits, Criticisms, and Recommendations Angus A. Leahy, Jordan J. Smith, Narelle Eather, Nigel Harris, David R. Lubans How Can Muscle-Strengthening Activities Be Promoted in School Settings? Inclusive physical activity practices for disabled children and adolescents. Thi Nancy Huynh, Justin Haegele, Maeghan E. James, Kelly P. Arbour-Nicitopoulos Editors and Affiliations About the editor. Antonio García-Hermoso, PhD, MSc , is a native of Plasencia, Spain, and a graduate of the University of Extremadura, Spain. Since 2019, Dr. García-Hermoso has been a member of the Navarrabiomed Research Center in Pamplona, Spain, where he serves as the head of the Physical Activity, Children, and Youth Unit. This unit is dedicated to analyzing the impact of exercise and physical activity on the physical and mental health of both ill and apparently healthy young people. Dr. García-Hermoso has contributed to over 300 publications in peer-reviewed and PubMed-listed journals. He is a member of several international professional societies and serves on the editorial boards of Translational Pediatrics journal and The Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports . Bibliographic Information Book Title : Promotion of Physical Activity and Health in the School Setting Editors : Antonio García-Hermoso DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65595-1 Publisher : Springer Cham eBook Packages : Medicine , Medicine (R0) Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-031-65594-4 Published: 25 August 2024 Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-65597-5 Due: 08 September 2025 eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-65595-1 Published: 24 August 2024 Edition Number : 1 Number of Pages : XV, 387 Number of Illustrations : 1 b/w illustrations, 18 illustrations in colour Topics : Health Promotion and Disease Prevention , Sport Education and Didactics , Sport Science , Health Policy , Education, general Publish with us Policies and ethics Find a journal Track your research Marino Bucci, PT, DPT, SCS, CSCS Physical therapist, sports performance specialist, my locations, schedule online, training and education, clinical focus and research, external relationships. 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This statement should be in the form of a signed letter from an Authorized Organizational Representative including the following text: "I confirm on behalf of [insert name or institution] that the U.S.-Romanian collaborative proposal between [insert name of the lead agency PI and institution] and [insert name of the non-lead agency PI and institution] is endorsed and has been submitted by [name of research office]." This letter must be included in the "Supplementary Documents" section. For projects involving human subjects/participants or animals, proposers are expected to adhere to the policies, law, and guidelines concerning research ethics and must have requisite institutional approvals or exemptions in place prior to any potential award. Research funded through this Lead Agency Opportunity is to be conducted in accordance with NSF's Responsible and Ethical Conduct of Research Policies ( https://www.nsf.gov/od/recr.jsp ). Proposers are advised that all documents submitted to NSF as the Lead Agency may be shared securely, via a password-protected SharePoint or extranet site, with UEFISCDI. These documents will be hosted on a site associated with NSF, housed behind firewalls, and using NSF-specific protocols to ensure data protection (personal data protection included). Proposals that request duplicative funding from NSF and/or UEFISCDI may be returned without review. MERIT REVIEW NSF-UEFISCDI collaborative proposals will be reviewed alongside all other unsolicited or standard research grant proposals received in the same funding round or call and will not undergo a special or separate review process. Proposals will be reviewed in accordance with NSF's standard merit review criteria. FUNDING DECISIONS There are no separate NSF funds available for this effort; proposals will compete with all other proposals submitted to participating programs and will be evaluated on the strengths of the proposed intellectual merit, broader impacts, and any program- and/or solicitation-specific review criteria that may apply. NSF, as the lead agency, will use its usual internal procedures to determine whether a proposal will be awarded or declined. Funding decisions may be subject to budget limits. All proposers will be advised whether their proposal has been recommended for funding or will be declined. Proposers will receive copies of the reviewers' unattributed comments and, where applicable, a panel summary. Once a proposer has been notified of a pending award, the Romanian researcher(s) associated with the project must submit a copy of the proposal to the UEFISCDI so that each agency has complete documentation of the overall proposed research project. UEFISCDI will provide further guidance to successful proposers at this stage. For projects recommended for award, NSF and UEFISCDI will coordinate the U.S. and Romanian award timing as much as possible. However, because the participating agencies have different funding cycles, it is possible that some projects will have delayed start dates to wait until funds become available or until all pre-award requirements are met. Wherever possible, both agencies will endeavor to hold standard turnaround times for each participating agency, but in exceptional circumstances outcomes could be delayed. RESUBMISSIONS Should a proposal be declined for funding, proposers should follow these guidelines on resubmission: refer to the resubmission guidelines of both agencies.  submit a new EOI at least 3 months in advance of resubmitting a full proposal. The EOI should clearly indicate that it is a resubmission and what changes have been made. Both agencies reserve the right to reject an EOI that does not meet their resubmission criteria. POST-AWARD CONSIDERATIONS Award recipients will be expected to comply with the award conditions and reporting requirements of the agencies from which they receive funding. Award recipients are to acknowledge both NSF and the UEFISCDI in any reports or publications arising from the grant. Requests for no cost extensions will be considered by NSF and UEFISCDI using standard procedures. Requests for changes to awards will be discussed with other involved funding agencies before a mutual decision is reached. DATA PROTECTION CONSIDERATIONS NSF and UEFISCDI will share relevant information and data—whether in connection with the proposal and award process, or thereafter during the post award process. Data are expected to be shared between NSF and UEFISCDI to enable the secure and efficient processing of full proposals for the NSF- UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity. Data shared may include proposal attachments, anonymized peer reviews, and panel summaries. NSF and UEFISCDI are committed to maintaining data confidentiality, protection, and privacy and intend to fully abide by their own applicable laws and policies concerning the sharing of data in our collaborative activities. PROGRAM CONTACTS For general inquiries about the NSF-UEFISCDI lead agency opportunity, please contact [email protected] . For inquiries pertaining to the specific MPS programs to which an NSF-UEFISCDI may be submitted, please contact the program officers listed on the specific programs' web pages. A list of participating MPS programs can be found at the bottom of NSF's web page on international collaborations with Romania, here: OISE International Collaborations - Romania . Additionally, NSF's Office of International Science and Engineering (OISE) helps to coordinate the overall engagement between NSF and UEFISCDI. The current OISE program manager for Romania is listed at https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/country-list.jsp . Denise Caldwell Acting Assistant Director Mathematical and Physical Sciences 353 IMAGES 55 Excellent Physical Education Writing Prompts This PDF slideshow contains 20 writing assignments This works for a How to Write PHYSICAL EDUCATION in Cursive Calligraphy for beginners Physical Education Essay Physical Education Themed Writing Topics 51 Super Physical Education Writing Prompts » JournalBuddies.com VIDEO if you can do these skills, you can play any sport… ⚽️🎾🏑⛹🏽🥏 KESA GYA EXAM ! PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASS 12 2023-24 😂❤️ Writing Physical Attraction in Your Novel Advocacy Video PE and obesity Most Important Questions of Physical Education Class 12 Physical Education Last 7 Days Strategy & Roadmap COMMENTS Writing Fits in with Phys Ed "I think writing in physical education class should be mandatory, but limited," Knope told Education World. "The role of a physical educator is to get the kids moving, burning calories, increasing heart rate, practicing both skill-related fitness and health-related fitness, and teaching them why that's important.". As instructors get the kids moving, however, Knope knows the kids aren't always ... Integrating Literacy Into Physical Education He has experience writing curriculum from scratch and writing published information specific to physical education in state and nationally recognized publications and websites. Charles has also created a niche as a physical education specialist who fuses technology and primary instructional subjects into physical education lessons. Related. 55 Excellent Physical Education Writing Prompts 15. Tell why physical education classes should be mandatory for all students. 16. Explain why your favorite p.e game is the best. 17. Write about a new skill that you learned in physical education class this week. 18. Draft a letter to a classmate offering tips for doing well in p.e. class. 19. Using Writing to Promote Understanding in Physical Education Practical advice for teaching the writing skills students will need to successfully complete both formal and informal writing assignments is provided. In addition, strategies for creating appropriate and successful writing assignments in a secondary school physical education course are discussed. PDF Integrating the Craft of Writing into Physical Education 2002 Volume IV: The Craft of Writing Integrating the Craft of Writing into Physical Education Curriculum Unit 02.04.05 by Joseph Raffone A colleague at Vincent Mauro School offered this fellowship opportunity to me, and I immediately thought how in the world could I write a Physical Education curriculum that integrated the craft of writing. PDF Write Away: Writing Across the Curriculum and Beyond as Fine Arts and Physical Education). This article shares the importance of writing to learn, with discussion about integrating writing in core subjects at school and beyond the classroom (at home). In order to furt her engage students, insight will be shared on how to teach the major purposes for writing in Four Favorite Physical Education Instructional Strategies—Recommended Claudio Barbieri has been a physical education teacher for nine years, with experience teaching grades 1-12. He currently teaches at The Windward School in New York. He received his bachelor's ... 02.04.05: Integrating the Craft of Writing into Physical Education The focus of my curriculum unit is to integrate various writing styles and themes into Physical Education. However, before any writing or even reading of the material can take place we must familiarize ourselves with students of Vincent E. Mauro Elementary School. The school population contains roughly five hundred highly energetic students. Physical Education Writing Prompts To help celebrate the benefits of physical education, check out these 51 exercise-themed journal prompts. In addition to physical education at school, we love to encourage parents to work out with their children in order to teach them the importance of exercise and physical activity. Fun, engaging choices such as riding bikes, hiking, playing ... Integrating Literacy into Physical Education Enroll Now for $119. Understand and explain literacy. Understand the importance of literacy to the development and success of a child. Understand how integrating literacy affects physical education programs and teachers in the school environment. Understand strategies for implementing literacy in physical education, including speaking and ... PDF Fine Motor Skills, Writing Skills and Physical Education Based Kütahya Dumlupınar University, School of Physical Education and Sports, Kütahya, Turkey. Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of physical education based intervention program, aiming to help the development of writing skills of primary school children, on fine motor skill precision and fine motor skill integration. 126 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples When it comes to writing essays on physical education, there are a plethora of topics that students can explore. Here are 126 physical education essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started: The benefits of physical education in schools. The role of physical education in promoting mental health. Action research: Physical activity and student writing Action research: Physical activity and student writing. Leah Carter (Assistant Head of English) and Hugo Engele (Director of Co-Curricula) are undertaking a two-year action research project at St Aloysius College, Kirribilli, to investigate the impact of physical activity on student writing ability. Here, they share the research aims and what ... Introduction to Literacy in Health and Physical Education Literacy in Health and Physical Education (HPE): relates to the reading, viewing, writing, speaking, and listening practices that students use to access, understand and communicate subject-specific knowledge. Health or physical education literacy, on the other hand, has traditionally been more contextualised to lifestyle and movement and lifestyle. 5 Approaches to Physical Education in Schools Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks.It is defined in Chapter 1 as "a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy ... Lesson Objectives In Physical Education To be a good PE teacher it is essential that we can define and clarify our learning objectives to pupils at the start of each lesson. By helping students to clearly know what they should accomplish by lessons end will increase their focus and empower them to take more ownership of the activities and their learning [1, 2]. 1. Before deciding on ... Importance Of Physical Education: [Essay Example], 521 words In conclusion, physical education is of utmost importance in schools. It not only promotes physical fitness but also contributes to mental well-being and academic performance. Physical education teaches valuable life skills and promotes social interaction and inclusivity. By incorporating physical education into the curriculum, schools can help ... Physical Education in Schools: [Essay Example], 676 words Physical education in schools has long been a topic of debate, with some arguing that it is a vital part of a well-rounded education, while others claim that it is unnecessary and takes away from valuable instructional time. ... Students who find writing to be a difficult task. If you fit this description, you can use our free essay samples to ... National PE Standards-Highly Effective Physical Education The new National Physical Education Standards — released in March 2024 after a multi-year revision process — provide a comprehensive framework for educators to deliver high-quality instruction and makes a positive difference in the health and well-being of every student. I'm excited about the new structure and organization of the revised ... Physical Education Essay: Most Exciting Examples and Topics Ideas 4 pages / 1770 words. The purpose of this essay is to reflect on the concept of physical education and sport methodically in school, and in detail, typically the role it brings about to developmental stages of children. Physical education is the training in the development of the human body;... Physical Education Physical Exercise. Physical Education within Elementary Schools Essay (Critical Writing) Physical education has been widely applied in primary and secondary school levels across the globe. This paper seeks to discuss the need for quality physical education within elementary schools. The paper will look into the benefits of such quality physical education and how the quality can be achieved. Get a custom critical writing on Physical ... PDF Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance (JOPERD), an official publication of the Society of Health and Physical Educators, is a peer-reviewed, four-color, professional journal. Continuously published since 1896, JOPERD serves as an authoritative, professional source for educators in physical education, sport, recreation, and dance in all settings. Character Descriptions Lesson √ Speaking, reading, writing and grammar tasks √ Explanations and examples of how to use each structural and language feature in your own character descriptions √ Differentiated consolidation tasks (3 levels) √ Whole class, paired, group and independent activities √ Feature checklists √ Writing inspiration. Learning Objective: Fit To Be Taught:Writing and Physical Education As kids jump, climb, and get fit, their instructors are using writing to help them focus on the goal of overall fitness. Learn how students can exercise their bodies and their writing skills during National Physical Fitness and Sports Month -- and all year through. Read some recommendations for practical assignments that enhance physical ... Promotion of Physical Activity and Health in the School Setting This book is the first-known book focused exclusively on physical activity in the school setting that comprehensively reviews the latest research ... researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers with an interest in physical activity, youth sport, public health, physical education, or child and adolescent development and education. Keywords. Marino Bucci, PT, DPT, SCS, CSCS Marino Bucci, PT, DPT, SCS, CSCS is a Physical Therapist and a Sports Performance Specialist who sees patients at Duke Orthopaedics of Cary. Skip Navigation Menu . Doctor Profile Menu Accepting New Patients ... Training and Education Residency. Sports Physical Therapy, Ohio State University, 2023 Education. DPT, University of Central Florida ... Grant Writing Workshop: Writing/Designing Winning NSF Proposals The NSF Grant Writing Workshop will be held online on September 18, 2024, from 10:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. ET, (additional sessions held in October, November, and December), hosted by the Grant Training Center. This workshop is ideal for both beginners and experienced grant writers, covering topics such as, reading and interpreting RFA's, understanding the […] Assessment highlights: Physical Education Home; About us. What we do About QCAA's syllabuses, guidelines, assessment and certification services.; Governance Board members, board decisions and legislation.. Decisions; Legislation; Members; Structure and strategic plan Organisational structure and strategic plan.; Corporate policies Conduct, privacy, and right to information policies.. Assessors; Code of conduct ... Dear Colleague Letter: NSF and the Romanian Executive Agency for Higher September 6, 2024. Dear Colleagues: The Mathematical & Physical Sciences Directorate (MPS) of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Romanian Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation Funding (UEFISCDI) are in a partnership to support international collaboration under the NSF-UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity in Mathematical and Physical Sciences. After School PreK Assistant Teacher in New York, NY for Hudson Way The Montessori School of McLean assignment homework phd report resume review speech thesis