what is discourse analysis research

What (Exactly) Is Discourse Analysis? A Plain-Language Explanation & Definition (With Examples)

By: Jenna Crosley (PhD). Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2021

Discourse analysis is one of the most popular qualitative analysis techniques we encounter at Grad Coach. If you’ve landed on this post, you’re probably interested in discourse analysis, but you’re not sure whether it’s the right fit for your project, or you don’t know where to start. If so, you’ve come to the right place.

Overview: Discourse Analysis Basics

In this post, we’ll explain in plain, straightforward language :

• What discourse analysis is
• When to use discourse analysis
• The main approaches to discourse analysis
• How to conduct discourse analysis

What is discourse analysis?

Let’s start with the word “discourse”.

In its simplest form, discourse is verbal or written communication between people that goes beyond a single sentence . Importantly, discourse is more than just language. The term “language” can include all forms of linguistic and symbolic units (even things such as road signs), and language studies can focus on the individual meanings of words. Discourse goes beyond this and looks at the overall meanings conveyed by language in context .  “Context” here refers to the social, cultural, political, and historical background of the discourse, and it is important to take this into account to understand underlying meanings expressed through language.

A popular way of viewing discourse is as language used in specific social contexts, and as such language serves as a means of prompting some form of social change or meeting some form of goal.

Now that we’ve defined discourse, let’s look at discourse analysis .

Discourse analysis uses the language presented in a corpus or body of data to draw meaning . This body of data could include a set of interviews or focus group discussion transcripts. While some forms of discourse analysis center in on the specifics of language (such as sounds or grammar), other forms focus on how this language is used to achieve its aims. We’ll dig deeper into these two above-mentioned approaches later.

As Wodak and Krzyżanowski (2008) put it: “discourse analysis provides a general framework to problem-oriented social research”. Basically, discourse analysis is used to conduct research on the use of language in context in a wide variety of social problems (i.e., issues in society that affect individuals negatively).

For example, discourse analysis could be used to assess how language is used to express differing viewpoints on financial inequality and would look at how the topic should or shouldn’t be addressed or resolved, and whether this so-called inequality is perceived as such by participants.

What makes discourse analysis unique is that it posits that social reality is socially constructed , or that our experience of the world is understood from a subjective standpoint. Discourse analysis goes beyond the literal meaning of words and languages

For example, people in countries that make use of a lot of censorship will likely have their knowledge, and thus views, limited by this, and will thus have a different subjective reality to those within countries with more lax laws on censorship.

When should you use discourse analysis?

There are many ways to analyze qualitative data (such as content analysis , narrative analysis , and thematic analysis ), so why should you choose discourse analysis? Well, as with all analysis methods, the nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions (i.e. the purpose of your research) will heavily influence the right choice of analysis method.

The purpose of discourse analysis is to investigate the functions of language (i.e., what language is used for) and how meaning is constructed in different contexts, which, to recap, include the social, cultural, political, and historical backgrounds of the discourse.

For example, if you were to study a politician’s speeches, you would need to situate these speeches in their context, which would involve looking at the politician’s background and views, the reasons for presenting the speech, the history or context of the audience, and the country’s social and political history (just to name a few – there are always multiple contextual factors).

Discourse analysis can also tell you a lot about power and power imbalances , including how this is developed and maintained, how this plays out in real life (for example, inequalities because of this power), and how language can be used to maintain it. For example, you could look at the way that someone with more power (for example, a CEO) speaks to someone with less power (for example, a lower-level employee).

Therefore, you may consider discourse analysis if you are researching:

• Some form of power or inequality (for example, how affluent individuals interact with those who are less wealthy
• How people communicate in a specific context (such as in a social situation with colleagues versus a board meeting)
• Ideology and how ideas (such as values and beliefs) are shared using language (like in political speeches)
• How communication is used to achieve social goals (such as maintaining a friendship or navigating conflict)

As you can see, discourse analysis can be a powerful tool for assessing social issues , as well as power and power imbalances . So, if your research aims and objectives are oriented around these types of issues, discourse analysis could be a good fit for you.

Discourse Analysis: The main approaches

There are two main approaches to discourse analysis. These are the language-in-use (also referred to as socially situated text and talk ) approaches and the socio-political approaches (most commonly Critical Discourse Analysis ). Let’s take a look at each of these.

Approach #1: Language-in-use

Language-in-use approaches focus on the finer details of language used within discourse, such as sentence structures (grammar) and phonology (sounds). This approach is very descriptive and is seldom seen outside of studies focusing on literature and/or linguistics.

Because of its formalist roots, language-in-use pays attention to different rules of communication, such as grammaticality (i.e., when something “sounds okay” to a native speaker of a language). Analyzing discourse through a language-in-use framework involves identifying key technicalities of language used in discourse and investigating how the features are used within a particular social context.

For example, English makes use of affixes (for example, “un” in “unbelievable”) and suffixes (“able” in “unbelievable”) but doesn’t typically make use of infixes (units that can be placed within other words to alter their meaning). However, an English speaker may say something along the lines of, “that’s un-flipping-believable”. From a language-in-use perspective, the infix “flipping” could be investigated by assessing how rare the phenomenon is in English, and then answering questions such as, “What role does the infix play?” or “What is the goal of using such an infix?”

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Approach #2: Socio-political

Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis look beyond the technicalities of language and instead focus on the influence that language has in social context , and vice versa. One of the main socio-political approaches is Critical Discourse Analysis , which focuses on power structures (for example, the power dynamic between a teacher and a student) and how discourse is influenced by society and culture. Critical Discourse Analysis is born out of Michel Foucault’s early work on power, which focuses on power structures through the analysis of normalized power .

Normalized power is ingrained and relatively allusive. It’s what makes us exist within society (and within the underlying norms of society, as accepted in a specific social context) and do the things that we need to do. Contrasted to this, a more obvious form of power is repressive power , which is power that is actively asserted.

Sounds a bit fluffy? Let’s look at an example.

Consider a situation where a teacher threatens a student with detention if they don’t stop speaking in class. This would be an example of repressive power (i.e. it was actively asserted).

Normalized power, on the other hand, is what makes us not want to talk in class . It’s the subtle clues we’re given from our environment that tell us how to behave, and this form of power is so normal to us that we don’t even realize that our beliefs, desires, and decisions are being shaped by it.

In the view of Critical Discourse Analysis, language is power and, if we want to understand power dynamics and structures in society, we must look to language for answers. In other words, analyzing the use of language can help us understand the social context, especially the power dynamics.

While the above-mentioned approaches are the two most popular approaches to discourse analysis, other forms of analysis exist. For example, ethnography-based discourse analysis and multimodal analysis. Ethnography-based discourse analysis aims to gain an insider understanding of culture , customs, and habits through participant observation (i.e. directly observing participants, rather than focusing on pre-existing texts).

On the other hand, multimodal analysis focuses on a variety of texts that are both verbal and nonverbal (such as a combination of political speeches and written press releases). So, if you’re considering using discourse analysis, familiarize yourself with the various approaches available so that you can make a well-informed decision.

How to “do” discourse analysis

As every study is different, it’s challenging to outline exactly what steps need to be taken to complete your research. However, the following steps can be used as a guideline if you choose to adopt discourse analysis for your research.

Step 1: Decide on your discourse analysis approach

The first step of the process is to decide on which approach you will take in terms. For example, the language in use approach or a socio-political approach such as critical discourse analysis. To do this, you need to consider your research aims, objectives and research questions . Of course, this means that you need to have these components clearly defined. If you’re still a bit uncertain about these, check out our video post covering topic development here.

While discourse analysis can be exploratory (as in, used to find out about a topic that hasn’t really been touched on yet), it is still vital to have a set of clearly defined research questions to guide your analysis. Without these, you may find that you lack direction when you get to your analysis. Since discourse analysis places such a focus on context, it is also vital that your research questions are linked to studying language within context.

Based on your research aims, objectives and research questions, you need to assess which discourse analysis would best suit your needs. Importantly, you  need to adopt an approach that aligns with your study’s purpose . So, think carefully about what you are investigating and what you want to achieve, and then consider the various options available within discourse analysis.

It’s vital to determine your discourse analysis approach from the get-go , so that you don’t waste time randomly analyzing your data without any specific plan.

Step 2: Design your collection method and gather your data

Once you’ve got determined your overarching approach, you can start looking at how to collect your data. Data in discourse analysis is drawn from different forms of “talk” and “text” , which means that it can consist of interviews , ethnographies, discussions, case studies, blog posts.  

The type of data you collect will largely depend on your research questions (and broader research aims and objectives). So, when you’re gathering your data, make sure that you keep in mind the “what”, “who” and “why” of your study, so that you don’t end up with a corpus full of irrelevant data. Discourse analysis can be very time-consuming, so you want to ensure that you’re not wasting time on information that doesn’t directly pertain to your research questions.

When considering potential collection methods, you should also consider the practicalities . What type of data can you access in reality? How many participants do you have access to and how much time do you have available to collect data and make sense of it? These are important factors, as you’ll run into problems if your chosen methods are impractical in light of your constraints.

Once you’ve determined your data collection method, you can get to work with the collection.

Step 3: Investigate the context

A key part of discourse analysis is context and understanding meaning in context. For this reason, it is vital that you thoroughly and systematically investigate the context of your discourse. Make sure that you can answer (at least the majority) of the following questions:

• What is the discourse?
• Why does the discourse exist? What is the purpose and what are the aims of the discourse?
• When did the discourse take place?
• Where did it happen?
• Who participated in the discourse? Who created it and who consumed it?
• What does the discourse say about society in general?
• How is meaning being conveyed in the context of the discourse?

Make sure that you include all aspects of the discourse context in your analysis to eliminate any confounding factors. For example, are there any social, political, or historical reasons as to why the discourse would exist as it does? What other factors could contribute to the existence of the discourse? Discourse can be influenced by many factors, so it is vital that you take as many of them into account as possible.

Once you’ve investigated the context of your data, you’ll have a much better idea of what you’re working with, and you’ll be far more familiar with your content. It’s then time to begin your analysis.

Step 4: Analyze your data

When performing a discourse analysis, you’ll need to look for themes and patterns .  To do this, you’ll start by looking at codes , which are specific topics within your data. You can find more information about the qualitative data coding process here.

Next, you’ll take these codes and identify themes. Themes are patterns of language (such as specific words or sentences) that pop up repeatedly in your data, and that can tell you something about the discourse. For example, if you’re wanting to know about women’s perspectives of living in a certain area, potential themes may be “safety” or “convenience”.

In discourse analysis, it is important to reach what is called data saturation . This refers to when you’ve investigated your topic and analyzed your data to the point where no new information can be found. To achieve this, you need to work your way through your data set multiple times, developing greater depth and insight each time. This can be quite time consuming and even a bit boring at times, but it’s essential.

Once you’ve reached the point of saturation, you should have an almost-complete analysis and you’re ready to move onto the next step – final review.

Step 5: Review your work

Hey, you’re nearly there. Good job! Now it’s time to review your work.

This final step requires you to return to your research questions and compile your answers to them, based on the analysis. Make sure that you can answer your research questions thoroughly, and also substantiate your responses with evidence from your data.

Usually, discourse analysis studies make use of appendices, which are referenced within your thesis or dissertation. This makes it easier for reviewers or markers to jump between your analysis (and findings) and your corpus (your evidence) so that it’s easier for them to assess your work.

When answering your research questions, make you should also revisit your research aims and objectives , and assess your answers against these. This process will help you zoom out a little and give you a bigger picture view. With your newfound insights from the analysis, you may find, for example, that it makes sense to expand the research question set a little to achieve a more comprehensive view of the topic.

Let’s recap…

In this article, we’ve covered quite a bit of ground. The key takeaways are:

• Discourse analysis is a qualitative analysis method used to draw meaning from language in context.
• You should consider using discourse analysis when you wish to analyze the functions and underlying meanings of language in context.
• The two overarching approaches to discourse analysis are language-in-use and socio-political approaches .
• The main steps involved in undertaking discourse analysis are deciding on your analysis approach (based on your research questions), choosing a data collection method, collecting your data, investigating the context of your data, analyzing your data, and reviewing your work.

If you have any questions about discourse analysis, feel free to leave a comment below. If you’d like 1-on-1 help with your analysis, book an initial consultation with a friendly Grad Coach to see how we can help.

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33 Comments

This was really helpful to me

I would like to know the importance of discourse analysis analysis to academic writing

In academic writing coherence and cohesion are very important. DA will assist us to decide cohesiveness of the continuum of discourse that are used in it. We can judge it well.

Thank you so much for this piece, can you please direct how I can use Discourse Analysis to investigate politics of ethnicity in a particular society

Fantastically helpful! Could you write on how discourse analysis can be done using computer aided technique? Many thanks

I would like to know if I can use discourse analysis to research on electoral integrity deviation and when election are considered free & fair

I also to know the importance of discourse analysis and it’s purpose and characteristics

This is helpful. It is highly informative. Thank you. Is it possible to use more one analysis technique? I would to book for personal assistance. I am doing my Methodology chapter for a PhD Thesis.

Thanks, we are doing discourse analysis as a subject this year and this helped a lot!

Please can you help explain and answer this question? With illustrations,Hymes’ Acronym SPEAKING, as a feature of Discourse Analysis.

What are the three objectives of discourse analysis especially on the topic how people communicate between doctor and patient

Very useful Thank you for your work and information

thank you so much , I wanna know more about discourse analysis tools , such as , latent analysis , active powers analysis, proof paths analysis, image analysis, rhetorical analysis, propositions analysis, and so on, I wish I can get references about it , thanks in advance

Its beyond my expectations. It made me clear everything which I was struggling since last 4 months. 👏 👏 👏 👏

Thank you so much … It is clear and helpful

Thanks for sharing this material. My question is related to the online newspaper articles on COVID -19 pandemic the way this new normal is constructed as a social reality. How discourse analysis is an appropriate approach to examine theese articles?

This very helpful and interesting information

This was incredible! And massively helpful.

I’m seeking further assistance if you don’t mind.

Found it worth consuming!

What are the four types of discourse analysis?

very helpful. And I’d like to know more about Ethnography-based discourse analysis as I’m studying arts and humanities, I’d like to know how can I use it in my study.

Amazing info. Very happy to read this helpful piece of documentation. Thank you.

is discourse analysis can take data from medias like TV, Radio…?

I need to know what is general discourse analysis

Direct to the point, simple and deep explanation. this is helpful indeed.

Thank you so much was really helpful

really impressive

Thank you very much, for the clear explanations and examples.

It is really awesome. Anybody within just in 5 minutes understand this critical topic so easily. Thank you so much.

Thank you for enriching my knowledge on Discourse Analysis . Very helpful thanks again

This was extremely helpful. I feel less anxious now. Thank you so much.

Extremely helpful, I am going to be working on CDA about animal rights, particularly stray dogs using social media content, and I was so lost, thank you for clearly illustrating how the research should go forward, thank you

This is helpful. It is highly informative. Thank you. Is it possible to use more than one analysis technique in a single study? I would like to book for personal assistance. I am doing my Methodology chapter for a PhD Thesis.

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Methodology

• Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples

Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on August 23, 2019 by Amy Luo . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Critical discourse analysis (or discourse analysis) is a research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations.

When you conduct discourse analysis, you might focus on:

• The purposes and effects of different types of language
• Cultural rules and conventions in communication
• How values, beliefs and assumptions are communicated
• How language use relates to its social, political and historical context

Discourse analysis is a common qualitative research method in many humanities and social science disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, anthropology, psychology and cultural studies.  

Table of contents

What is discourse analysis used for, how is discourse analysis different from other methods, how to conduct discourse analysis, other interesting articles.

Conducting discourse analysis means examining how language functions and how meaning is created in different social contexts. It can be applied to any instance of written or oral language, as well as non-verbal aspects of communication such as tone and gestures.

Materials that are suitable for discourse analysis include:

• Books, newspapers and periodicals
• Marketing material, such as brochures and advertisements
• Business and government documents
• Websites, forums, social media posts and comments
• Interviews and conversations

By analyzing these types of discourse, researchers aim to gain an understanding of social groups and how they communicate.

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Unlike linguistic approaches that focus only on the rules of language use, discourse analysis emphasizes the contextual meaning of language.

It focuses on the social aspects of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific effects (e.g. to build trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).

Instead of focusing on smaller units of language, such as sounds, words or phrases, discourse analysis is used to study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations, texts, or collections of texts. The selected sources can be analyzed on multiple levels.

Discourse analysis is a qualitative and interpretive method of analyzing texts (in contrast to more systematic methods like content analysis ). You make interpretations based on both the details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge.

There are many different approaches and techniques you can use to conduct discourse analysis, but the steps below outline the basic structure you need to follow. Following these steps can help you avoid pitfalls of confirmation bias that can cloud your analysis.

Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis

To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question . Once you have developed your question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Discourse analysis is a method that can be applied both to large volumes of material and to smaller samples, depending on the aims and timescale of your research.

Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

Next, you must establish the social and historical context in which the material was produced and intended to be received. Gather factual details of when and where the content was created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was disseminated to.

As well as understanding the real-life context of the discourse, you can also conduct a literature review on the topic and construct a theoretical framework to guide your analysis.

Step 3: Analyze the content for themes and patterns

This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as words, sentences, paragraphs, and overall structure – and relating them to attributes, themes, and patterns relevant to your research question.

Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions

Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on your results to examine the function and meaning of the language used. Here, you will consider your analysis in relation to the broader context that you established earlier to draw conclusions that answer your research question.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

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Discourse Analysis – A Definitive Guide With Steps & Types

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 14th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

What is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse analysis is an essential aspect of studying a language and its uses in day-to-day life.

It aims to gain in-depth knowledge about the language and identify its association with society, culture, and people’s perception.

It is used in various social science and humanities disciplines, such as linguistic, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics.

Aims of Discourse Analysis

It focuses on

• The clear, in-depth meaning of the language.
• The uses of language and its effects.
• The association of the language with cultures, interpersonal relationships, and communication.
• Various components of the language like vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, tone of voice, fonts, and written form.

Uses of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is

• Used to study the language and its applications in texts and contexts.
• It focuses on the entire conversation and real text instead of constructed or artificial text.
• It helps linguists to know the role of language in improving the understanding of people.
• It enables teachers to learn many language strategies to teach students writing/speaking skills better.

Materials Used in Discourse Analysis

The material includes

Types of Discourse

What to Analyse?

Does your Research Methodology Have the Following?

• Great Research/Sources
• Perfect Language
• Accurate Sources

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How to Conduct Discourse Analysis?

While conducting discourse analysis, you need to focus on the following points.

• Purpose of the writer
• The context of the speech/passage
• Type of the language used.
• The organisation of the text

You need to interpret the meaning and context of the discourse based on the available material and resources. There are various methods to conduct discourse analysis, but we are discussing the most basic method below.

Step1: Develop a Research Question

Like any other research in discourse analysis, it’s essential to have a  research question  to proceed with your study.  After selecting your research question, you need to find out the relevant resources to find the answer to it. Discourse analysis can be applied to smaller or larger samples depending on your research’s aims and requirements.

Example : If you want to find out the impact of plagiarism on the credibility of the authors. You can examine the relevant materials available on the topic from the internet, newspapers, and books published during the past 5-10 years.

Step 2: Collect Information and Establish the Context

After formulating a research question, you can  review the literature and find out the details about the source material, such as:

• Who is the author?
• What is the year and date of publication?
• What’s the name of the publication?
• What country and place is it from?
• What language is used?
• How and where did you find it?
• How can others get access to the same source?
• What kind of impact did it make on its audience?
• What’s the association between discourse material and real life?

These questions enable you to construct a strong evidence-based theory about your study.

Example: While investigating the history and origin of a particular religion. You also have to research the political events, culture, language of the people, and their association with society.

Generally, details about the publication and production of the material are available in the  about section on their online websites. If you don’t find the relevant information online, don’t hesitate to contact the editor or publication via email, phone calls, etc. 

Step 3: Analyse the Content

In this step, you should analyse various aspects of the materials such as:

• Sentence structure
• Inter-relationship between the text
• Layout and Page quality (if you are using offline materials)
• Links, comments, technical excellence, readability, multimedia content (if you are using online material)
• The genre of the source (a news item, political speech, a report, interview, biography, commentary, etc.)

The analysis of these elements gives you a clear understanding, and you can present your findings more accurately.  Once you have analysed the above features, you should analyse the following aspects:

• The structure of the argument
• The role of the introduction and conclusion of the material
• The context of the material
• Patterns and themes
• Discursive statements (arguments, perspective, thoughts of the writer/speaker
• Grammatical features (use of pronouns, adjectives, phrases, active or passive voice, and their meaning)
• Literary figures (idioms, similes, metaphors, allegories, proverbs)

Step 4: Interpret the Data

Now you have all the information, but the question that arises here is: 

What does it all mean?

To answer this question,  compile all your findings  to explain the meaning and context of the discourse.

Step 5: Present your Findings

It’s time to present your results. Throughout the process, you gathered detailed notes of the discourse, building a strong presentation or thesis. You can use the references of other relevant sources as evidence to support your discussion. Always try to make your paper interesting to grab the attention of the reader.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Discourse Analysis

• It provides a way of thinking and analysing the problem.
• It enables us to understand the context and perception of the speaker.
• It can be applied at any given time, place, and people.
• It helps to learn any language its origin and association with society and culture.

Disadvantages

• There are many options available as each tradition has its own concepts, procedures, and a specific understanding of discourse and its analysis.
• Discourse analysis doesn’t help to find out the answer to scientific problems.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to describe the discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis examines language use in context. It studies how communication shapes and reflects social meaning, power dynamics, and cultural norms. By analyzing spoken, written, or visual language, it unveils hidden ideologies, identities, and social structures within various contexts.

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What is Discourse Analysis? Explained

• by Discourse Analyzer
• March 31, 2024 May 2, 2024

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In the exploration of language as more than just a communication tool, “Discourse Analysis: Explained” delves into how language constructs and influences societal structures . This article offers a comprehensive overview of discourse analysis, an interdisciplinary field that extends beyond the literal interpretation of words to include their social, cultural, and political contexts . It highlights the key aspects of how language operates in various settings and the implications this has on identity , power , and ideology . Furthermore, it outlines the practical applications of discourse analysis across multiple disciplines such as linguistics , media studies , and sociology , illustrating its significance in understanding and shaping human communication. By examining the historical development and the pivotal theories and theorists in the field, the article provides readers with a deeper understanding of how discourse analysis has evolved and its importance in analyzing the intricate relationship between language and society.

1) Key Aspects of Discourse Analysis

2) applications of discourse analysis, 1) early foundations, 2) emergence of discourse analysis, 3) expansion and diversification, 4) recent developments.

• 1) Structuralism and Post-Structuralism
• 2) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
• 3) Ethnography of Communication
• 4) Conversation Analysis (CA)
• 5) Discourse Psychology
• 6) Multimodal Discourse Analysis

4. Importance of Discourse Analysis

• 1) Education
• 2) Healthcare
• 3) Media and Journalism
• 4) Politics and Policy Making
• 5) Business and Marketing
• 6) Legal Studies
• 7) Sociolinguistics

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what is discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis is a broad and complex field of study that focuses on the ways in which language is used in texts and contexts. It involves analyzing written, spoken, or signed language to understand how meaning is created and communicated. The scope of discourse analysis can range from the study of language use in a small conversation to the examination of global communication practices across cultures.

• Language in Use:  It examines how language functions in various contexts, considering factors like social, political, and cultural backgrounds.
• Meaning Beyond Words :  Discourse analysis looks at more than just the literal meaning of words. It considers the implied meanings , assumptions, and messages conveyed through language choices.
• Social Interaction :  It explores how language constructs and is constructed by social identities and relationships.
• Power and Ideology:  Discourse analysis often investigates how language reflects, reinforces, or challenges power dynamics and ideologies within society.
• Linguistics:  To understand the nuances of language structure and its use in communication.
• Sociology and Anthropology :  To explore how language shapes and is shaped by social practices and cultural norms .
• Media Studies:  To analyze how language is used in various media forms to convey messages and influence audiences.
• Political Science :  To examine how political discourse constructs identities, shapes public opinion, and influences policy making .

Discourse analysis is interdisciplinary, drawing methods and theories from fields such as linguistics, sociology, psychology , and cultural studies. Its versatility makes it a valuable tool for understanding the complexities of communication in our increasingly interconnected world.

2. Historical Development of Discourse Analysis (DA)

Discourse Analysis (DA) has evolved through various stages and has been influenced by multiple disciplines. Its historical development can be broadly categorized into several key phases:

• Structuralism :  In the early 20th century, structuralism laid the groundwork for analyzing language beyond mere sentences. Ferdinand de Saussure’s ideas on linguistic structures emphasized the importance of understanding the underlying systems that govern language use.
• Pragmatics and Speech Act Theory :  The mid-20th century saw the emergence of pragmatics and speech act theory, with scholars like J.L. Austin and John Searle examining how context influences the meaning of language and how utterances perform actions.
• The 1960s and 1970s:  This period marked the formal emergence of DA as a field. Michel Foucault’s work on the relationship between power and knowledge and how discourse shapes society was particularly influential. Similarly, the ethnography of communication , developed by Dell Hymes , highlighted the cultural aspects of discourse.
• Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):  In the late 20th century, scholars like Norman Fairclough and Teun A. van Dijk developed CDA, focusing on the role of discourse in maintaining and challenging power relations .
• Cognitive Approaches :  The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the integration of cognitive perspectives into DA, with researchers exploring how mental processes and structures influence discourse comprehension and production.
• Multimodal Discourse Analysis :  With the turn of the century, the focus expanded beyond text to include other modes of communication , such as images, gestures, and spatial arrangements, recognizing the multimodal nature of contemporary discourse.
• Digital Discourse Analysis :  The proliferation of digital communication platforms has led to new areas of study, including the analysis of online interactions, social media discourse, and the impact of digital technologies on communication patterns.
• Integration of Big Data and Computational Methods:  Advances in technology have enabled the analysis of large datasets, allowing for more nuanced and comprehensive studies of discourse patterns across various contexts.

Throughout its development, DA has continually adapted to changing linguistic, social, and technological landscapes, reflecting its interdisciplinary nature and its relevance to understanding human communication.

3. Key Theories and Theorists of Discourse Analysis

1)  structuralism and post-structuralism.

• Ferdinand de Saussure : A Swiss linguist considered one of the founding figures of structuralism. He emphasized the arbitrary nature of the sign (i.e., the relationship between the signifier and the signified) and introduced the concept of language as a system of differences without positive terms.
• Michel Foucault : A French philosopher associated with post-structuralism , Foucault’s work on discourse is seminal. He explored how power and knowledge are constructed through discursive practices and how discourses shape societal norms , behaviors, and identities.

2)  Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

• Norman Fairclough : An influential figure in CDA, Fairclough views language as a form of social practice that shapes and is shaped by power dynamics. His approach emphasizes the analysis of texts in their social contexts to uncover ideologies and power relations.
• Teun A. van Dijk : Van Dijk focuses on how societal power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context .

3)  Ethnography of Communication

• Dell Hymes : Hymes developed the ethnography of communication as an approach to analyzing the ways in which language functions in cultural contexts . He introduced the SPEAKING model to help analyze communicative events considering components like Setting, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms, and Genre.

4)  Conversation Analysis (CA)

• Harvey Sacks , Emanuel Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson : These researchers are foundational to CA, which focuses on the detailed analysis of talk in interaction. They studied the organization of conversation and how participants understand and respond to each other in turn-taking, repair mechanisms, and the construction of actions through talk.

5)  Discourse Psychology

• Jonathan Potter and Margaret Wetherell : They are key figures in the development of discourse psychology , which examines how psychological processes, identities, and relationships are constructed in discourse. Their work emphasizes the performative function of language and how discourses shape and are shaped by social practices.

6)  Multimodal Discourse Analysis

• Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen : These theorists focus on how meaning is made through multiple modes of communication beyond language, such as images, gestures, and spatial arrangement. Their work on multimodal discourse analysis highlights the significance of visual literacy in understanding contemporary communication.

These theories and theorists provide diverse perspectives and methodologies for analyzing discourse, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of Discourse Analysis. Each contributes to understanding how language functions in social contexts, constructs realities , and mediates power relations.

Discourse Analysis (DA) is a research approach that examines the ways in which language is used in texts and contexts. It is important for several reasons:

• Understanding Communication : DA helps in understanding how communication works beyond the level of sentences . It examines how choices in language contribute to the way ideas, identities, relationships, and ideologies are constructed and understood in various contexts.
• Social Contexts and Power Relations : It reveals the relationship between language and power in society. By analyzing discourse, researchers can identify how language is used to maintain or challenge power structures within various social contexts.
• Cultural Insights : Through the examination of discourse, insights into cultural norms, values, and beliefs can be gained. It allows for a deeper understanding of how culture influences the way language is used and interpreted.
• Improving Communication Skills : Learning about discourse analysis can enhance one’s communication skills. By understanding the nuances of language use and the effects of different discursive strategies, individuals can become more effective communicators.
• Language Teaching : In the field of language teaching, DA provides valuable insights into how language functions in real-life contexts. This can inform teaching methodologies and help learners develop pragmatic competence.
• Policy and Legislation : Discourse analysis can play a critical role in shaping policies and legislation. By analyzing political discourse, for example, researchers can uncover underlying ideologies and assumptions that may influence decision-making processes.
• Media Studies : DA is crucial for analyzing media texts, including news articles, advertisements, and social media posts. It helps in understanding how media shapes public opinion and constructs societal norms.

In summary, Discourse Analysis is a powerful tool for exploring the intricate relationship between language, society, and culture. It offers a comprehensive approach to understanding how meaning is constructed and negotiated in various discursive practices.

5. Applications of Discourse Analysis in real-world scenarios

Discourse Analysis (DA) is a versatile and powerful tool that can be applied in various real-world scenarios to understand, interpret, and improve communication. Below are some key applications of Discourse Analysis across different sectors:

1)  Education

• Curriculum Development : Analyzing educational materials to ensure they are culturally sensitive and appropriate for diverse student populations.
• Classroom Interaction : Studying the teacher-student and student-student interactions to enhance teaching methods and learning experiences.

2)  Healthcare

• Patient-Provider Communication : Examining conversations between patients and healthcare providers to improve communication effectiveness and patient care.
• Public Health Campaigns : Analyzing the discourse of public health campaigns to assess their impact and effectiveness in changing health behaviors.

3)  Media and Journalism

• News Reporting : Investigating how news outlets frame stories and the potential impact on public opinion.
• Social Media Analysis : Understanding the discourse on social media platforms to gauge public sentiment and trends.

4)  Politics and Policy Making

• Political Speeches and Debates : Analyzing the rhetoric and discourse of politicians to understand their strategies and influence on public opinion.
• Policy Documents : Examining the language and discourse used in policy documents to uncover underlying ideologies and assumptions.

5)  Business and Marketing

• Brand Communication : Studying how companies communicate with their audience to shape brand identity and consumer perceptions.
• Workplace Communication : Analyzing internal communication within organizations to improve efficiency, culture, and employee satisfaction.

6)  Legal Studies

• Courtroom Discourse : Investigating the language used in legal settings to understand its impact on judicial outcomes.
• Legislation and Legal Documents : Analyzing the discourse of legal texts to interpret laws and their implications.

7)  Sociolinguistics

• Language and Identity : Exploring how language use reflects and constructs social identities and group memberships.
• Language in Social Movements : Examining the discourse of social movements to understand how they mobilize support and frame their causes.

Discourse Analysis (DA) stands as a pivotal instrument in dissecting and enhancing communication across a spectrum of fields, highlighting its significance in not only understanding but also shaping societal discourse. The application of DA spans from education , where it aids in the development of inclusive curricula and the optimization of classroom dynamics, to healthcare, improving patient-provider dialogues and the efficacy of public health initiatives. In the realm of media and journalism, DA provides insights into news framing and the vast currents of social media, offering a deeper comprehension of public sentiment and the construction of narratives.

The political landscape, too, benefits from DA’s sharp analysis, offering a lens through which the rhetoric of politicians and the language of policy can be critically examined, revealing underlying ideologies and the mechanics of public persuasion. The corporate world utilizes DA to sculpt brand identities and foster healthier workplace communications, emphasizing the role of discourse in consumer and employee engagement. The legal domain sees DA as a tool for unraveling the complexities of courtroom language and legislation, ensuring justice and clarity in legal proceedings.

Moreover, in sociolinguistics , DA serves as a bridge to understanding the intricate relationship between language, identity, and societal movements, showcasing how discourse acts as a vehicle for social change and cohesion. Through these varied applications, Discourse Analysis not only uncovers the nuanced ways in which language operates within and across communities but also presents opportunities for more effective, inclusive, and empowering communication strategies. As such, DA is invaluable in its ability to illuminate the intricate tapestry of human interaction, fostering a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the world around us.

Discourse Analysis is a field that studies how language is used in texts and contexts. It involves examining written, spoken, or signed language to uncover how meaning is created and communicated across different social interactions.

– Language in Use : DA explores language function across various contexts, considering social, political, and cultural backgrounds. – Meaning Beyond Words : It delves into implied meanings, assumptions, and messages beyond the literal meaning of words. – Social Interaction : DA examines how language shapes and is shaped by social identities and relationships. – Power and Ideology : It investigates how language reflects, reinforces, or challenges societal power dynamics and ideologies.

DA is applied across various sectors, including education, healthcare, media and journalism, politics and policy-making, business and marketing, legal studies, and sociolinguistics, to understand and improve communication strategies, uncover underlying ideologies, and enhance societal discourse.

DA has evolved through phases, from early structuralism and pragmatics to the emergence of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and multimodal approaches. It has adapted to digital communication platforms and integrated big data and computational methods, reflecting its interdisciplinary nature and relevance to contemporary communication challenges.

Notable theorists include Ferdinand de Saussure (structuralism), Michel Foucault (post-structuralism), Norman Fairclough and Teun A. van Dijk (CDA), Dell Hymes (ethnography of communication), and Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen (multimodal discourse analysis), among others.

DA is crucial for understanding communication beyond the sentence level, revealing the relationship between language and power, providing cultural insights, improving communication skills, informing language teaching, influencing policy and legislation, and analyzing media texts.

Yes, DA has expanded to include digital discourse analysis, focusing on online interactions, social media discourse, and the impact of digital technologies on communication patterns. This reflects the field’s adaptability to changing linguistic and technological landscapes.

DA faces challenges related to the subjectivity in interpreting texts, ethical considerations in representing voices, and the complexity of navigating power dynamics in discourse. Researchers address these challenges through rigorous, ethical, and reflexive approaches to analysis.

DA examines the discourse of social movements to understand how they construct social identities, mobilize support, and frame their causes. It highlights the role of language as a tool for social change and cohesion.

As communication continues to evolve, DA may further integrate technological advancements, explore new forms of digital discourse, and address global communication challenges. Its interdisciplinary nature and adaptability suggest a broad potential for future research and application.

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 2: Handling Qualitative Data

• Handling qualitative data
• Transcripts
• Field notes
• Survey data and responses
• Visual and audio data
• Data organization
• Data coding
• Coding frame
• Auto and smart coding
• Organizing codes
• Qualitative data analysis
• Content analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Thematic analysis vs. content analysis
• Narrative research
• Phenomenological research
• Introduction

What is discourse analysis?

Forms of discourse analysis, how to conduct discourse analysis.

• Grounded theory
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
• Qualitative data interpretation
• Qualitative data analysis software

Discourse analysis

The way that people speak, write, and otherwise communicate with others has a profound effect on the meaning being conveyed.

We expect a recipe in a cookbook to have a particular format. A job interview has a certain structure that is different from a friendly conversation. People speak to their boss in a way that is different from how they speak to their parents.

Discourse analysis focuses on these types of texts, be they in written or spoken language, or other modes of meaning-making. Discourse analysis is a crucial methodological approach in qualitative research that examines both the content of communication and the way in which it is conducted, including the social context and cultural context surrounding the use of language. Those who conduct discourse analysis on a given text analyze both their linguistic content and language use.

Discourse analysis aims to examine language in its social context. It examines how social realities are constructed and understood through language, going beyond just the words spoken or written. It aims to reveal the cultural, political, and sociological dimensions within a communication, whether it's an informal chat, a novel, a business meeting, or a social media post .

In discourse analysis, language is not just a neutral means of conveying information. Instead, it plays an active role in shaping our understanding of the world and social relations. By studying the nuances of language, such as its structure, style, and context, we can reveal more about societal structures, power dynamics, and ideologies.

What is an example of discourse analysis?

Let's consider an example to illustrate this concept. Suppose a team in a corporate setting conducts a series of meetings to discuss a potential project. In these meetings, the language used, the topics discussed, the dynamics of the conversation, and the hierarchy of speaking will all form part of the discourse.

A discourse analyst studying this scenario would not only focus on the words spoken but also on how they are said, who says them, in what order, and with what intent. They may explore patterns such as whether junior team members speak less frequently or if certain ideas are immediately dismissed. Such patterns could reveal underlying power dynamics or ideological bias within the team.

Real-world applications of discourse analysis

Discourse analysis is widely applicable across various fields due to its interdisciplinary nature. In sociology, it helps reveal societal norms and values. In politics, it can help researchers decode political speeches to understand underlying messages and strategies. In marketing, it enables the comprehension of consumer attitudes and perceptions.

One real-world application of discourse analysis is in the field of media studies. Discourse analysis can help with deconstructing the news, identifying biases and highlighting how language is used to shape public opinion. Another application could be in the field of healthcare, where it can assist in understanding patient-doctor communication, thereby contributing to improved care.

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Discourse analysis is a common qualitative research method . Researchers use discourse analysis for various purposes. As such, there are several different forms of discourse analysis, each focusing on different aspects of language and its use in context. Some of these forms are explained below.

Narrative analysis

Narrative analysis is an approach within discourse analysis that centers on the study of stories. These stories, or narratives, can be drawn from a variety of sources, such as interviews , observations , or written texts.

This form of analysis looks at how individuals structure their experiences and make sense of the world through storytelling. It acknowledges that the way people narrate their experiences is not merely a reflection of those experiences but a constructive process that provides meaningful insight into their social and psychological realities.

There are several elements that a narrative analysis might focus on, such as the structure of the narrative, the characters involved, and the sequencing of events. For instance, an analyst might look at how a person positions themselves within their story, whether as a protagonist, a victim, or a bystander. These roles can reveal a lot about an individual’s self-perception and worldview.

Likewise, the way in which events are sequenced can provide insights into how the individual sequences and assigns significance to different events. Narrative analysis, therefore, serves as a powerful tool to understand individual perceptions, social roles, and cultural norms.

Rhetorical analysis

Rhetorical analysis is another specialized form of discourse analysis that scrutinizes the methods and strategies of persuasion employed in a piece of text or speech. This method acknowledges that language is not just a passive conveyor of ideas but an active tool designed to influence and persuade audiences.

In this analysis, an analyst might look at a variety of elements, such as the use of figurative language (metaphors, similes, analogies), the logical structure of arguments, and the use of emotional appeals.

For instance, a rhetorical analysis of a political speech might examine how a politician uses specific metaphors or analogies to frame issues in a way that resonates with their audience's values and beliefs. It might also analyze how the speaker structures their argument, considering whether they employ logical reasoning, emotional appeals, or ethical arguments to persuade their audience.

This approach is often used in fields like politics, advertising, and literature, where understanding the art of persuasion is crucial. However, it can also be useful in everyday contexts, enabling individuals to engage critically with the persuasive messages they encounter daily.

Conversation analysis

Conversation analysis (CA) is another common branch of discourse analysis that primarily focuses on the study of talk-in-interaction. It emphasizes understanding the structure and processes of social interaction that happen in everyday conversation.

Other forms of discourse analysis may look at larger social or cultural issues. However, CA focuses more closely on how people talk to each other in real-life situations, and it typically involves close analysis of each individual turn, including intonation.

Conversation analysts often work with recordings of natural conversation to examine in fine-grained detail the mechanisms and patterns of social interaction. They consider the order of turns in conversation, the length of pauses, the use of different speech acts, and non-verbal cues.

Each of these components plays a critical role in how a conversation unfolds and how meaning is made. For example, discourse analysts may investigate how questions and answers are structured in a conversation, who initiates a particular topic and who gets to speak more often, or how interruptions are managed.

The study of these patterns can offer insights into social roles, norms, and expectations that govern conversations.

Critical discourse analysis

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a form of discourse analysis that critically examines the relationship between language and power . It posits that language is not neutral but intimately connected with social power dynamics and ideologies.

According to CDA, discourses – everyday conversations, media reports, or political speeches – can subtly reproduce and reinforce societal power structures and ideologies. In this case, conducting critical discourse analysis is about the changes that the discourse effects, which researchers can study in addition to the actual meaning conveyed.

When conducting a critical discourse analysis, an analyst will look at a variety of factors. For instance, they might examine who has the authority to speak, who remains silent, and what topics are considered legitimate or illegitimate. They might also look at the use of specific words or phrases and consider how these language choices reflect and reinforce certain ideologies.

For example, a CDA of a news report might uncover biases in the way the report frames certain issues, highlighting how these biases serve to uphold certain power structures. Similarly, a CDA of a company's internal communications might reveal how the company's language practices reinforce certain hierarchical relations or marginalize certain groups.

By revealing these hidden power dynamics of discourse, CDA serves as a useful tool for promoting social justice and equity. A critical discourse analysis of qualitative data has the potential to challenge the assumptions of knowledge conveyed through analysis of power relations and point to how such a power imbalance can be remedied through language use.

Conducting discourse studies is an iterative and multifaceted process that requires careful planning, execution, and interpretation . The general process, however, can be divided into several sequential steps:

Define your research questions

The first and most crucial step in discourse analysis is formulating clear and concise research questions . What are you hoping to uncover from the discourse? Are you interested in understanding power dynamics , revealing social norms, exploring the construction of identities, or analyzing the mechanisms of persuasion? The answers to these questions will guide your choice of data, your method of analysis, and the conclusions you draw.

Choose an analysis strategy

The research question determines the most appropriate unit of analysis for your study. If you are studying a classroom context, for example, you might look specifically at a teacher's questions and the responses by students. This might involve dividing your transcripts into episodes and analyzing each episode for the type of question posed and the responses elicited for the purpose of identifying what is being taught and learned.

In another example, imagine analyzing discourse involving speakers who are in the process of learning a language. You might consider identifying instances in a discourse where speakers struggle with the language while communicating (e.g., searching for the right word, resorting to another language) to examine their extent of success in navigating the challenges of communication. You may also choose to analyze how their interlocutors respond when they navigate those challenges (e.g., are they belittled or treated with patience?).

Whatever strategy you employ, it's important to reduce the data to a coherent set of analytical units that are relevant to the research question you are seeking to address.

Analyze the discourse

The heart of discourse analysis lies in the detailed examination of your material, as is the case with all qualitative methodologies . The specific focus of your analysis will depend on your research questions and the type of discourse analysis you are conducting.

For instance, if you are conducting a narrative analysis , you might analyze the structure of the narratives, the roles of different characters, and the sequencing of events. A thematic approach to discourse might examine the patterns and recurring themes inherent to a particular interaction. If you're analyzing rhetoric, you'll focus on methods of persuasion, such as the use of figurative language and emotional appeals.

In a CA approach, you'll concentrate on the mechanisms of social interaction, such as the order of turns and the use of different speech acts. If you are using video data , you can also analyze body language in conjunction with spoken utterances and other non-verbal cues accompanying word choice.

While conducting your analysis , it's essential to continually link your findings back to your research questions, and you may reshape your research question as you engage in data collection and analysis since qualitative research often supports adapting the study to emerging findings. Also, consider how your findings relate to the broader social and cultural context of the discourse.

Develop and refine interpretations

As you conduct your detailed analysis, you also begin interpreting your findings . What do they reveal about your research questions? How do they help you understand the broader context you're interested in? In your interpretations, strive to balance the specific details of your material with the broader conceptual or theoretical frameworks you may be using in your discourse analysis.

The process of discourse analysis is rarely linear. As you delve into your material, new insights may emerge that prompt you to revisit your research questions, your material, or your analysis.

Don't be afraid to refine your analysis in light of these new insights. The final review of findings is never truly final until answers to your research questions have been sufficiently developed.

You can also apply your findings to new data to confirm what you have learned from previous discourse analyses to further refine your understanding of the specific context you are examining.

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Discourse Analysis

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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What is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method used to study written and spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real-life situations.

It goes beyond analyzing just the words and sentences to establish a deeper understanding of how language is used.

Instead, it examines the linguistic content (what is being said) and the way language is used in a given text to convey meaning in different social settings.

Instead of simply focusing on the literal meanings of words and sentences, discourse analysis explores the deeper meaning behind how language is used in specific social contexts.

This method of research analyzes the intended meaning behind the words and phrases within a specific context, rather than just their definition, frequency, or surface-level themes.

It helps researchers understand the underlying values, assumptions, and intentions embedded in language.

Language helps people share thoughts and ideas, build relationships, establish culture, influence others, and create meaning.

Discourse analysis, therefore, provides a lens through which researchers can view the many functions of language, including shaping power structures, constructing societal narratives, and molding opinions

Researchers use discourse analysis to study:

• How language creates and maintains social identities: Researchers can analyze how linguistic choices contribute to identity formation and expression by scrutinizing language use in diverse settings.
• How language creates and maintains power relations: This involves analyzing how language is used to reinforce or challenge power structures and reveal unspoken assumptions and biases related to social hierarchies. For instance, analyzing how politicians use language to construct social divisions.
• How language is shaped by and reflects social and cultural values: Discourse analysis recognizing that meaning is shaped by social and cultural factors. It explores how language use reflects cultural values and how those values, in turn, influence language interpretation.
• How language constructs and maintains social reality: Discourse analysis recognizes that language does not merely reflect reality but actively constructs and maintains it. It investigates how individuals utilize shared linguistic resources to create specific versions of social phenomena and realities.
• How language can be used to persuade, inform, or entertain: Discourse analysts recognize that language is inherently action-oriented, meaning people use it to accomplish particular interactional goals, which can include persuading, informing, or entertaining. For example, studying how politicians use persuasive language in political discourse to win elections.

Key Concepts

The social, cultural, and historical factors that influence communication play a crucial role in discourse analysis. The context of a conversation shapes the meaning of the language used, even if the words themselves are the same. For instance, a chat with a police officer differs significantly from a casual conversation with a close friend, highlighting the importance of context in shaping language use.

2. Structure

Discourse analysis examines how language is organized and structured to convey meaning. This involves studying elements such as:

• Turn-taking in conversations.
• The overall organization of interactions.
• How sequences of language are organized.

3. Statements

By dissecting individual statements within a text, discourse analysis seeks to understand how specific language choices contribute to the overall meaning. Researchers employ various “lenses” or “tools” to examine these statements, such as those outlined by Gee, which help uncover the ways in which language communicates, persuades, and constructs meaning.

4. Shape Reality

One of the key insights of discourse analysis is that language is not neutral; instead, it actively shapes our understanding of the world and influences social reality. Through language, we construct our identities, relationships, and knowledge systems. Discourse analysis helps researchers understand how this process works in different contexts.

5. Power Dynamics

Discourse analysis is often used to uncover how language can reflect and perpetuate power imbalances in society. For example, critical discourse analysis (CDA) examines how language can be used to assert dominance, control narratives, and marginalize certain groups.

CDA aims to deconstruct these power dynamics and challenge social inequality by bringing them to light.

Types of Discourse Analysis

There are two primary approaches to discourse analysis: language-in-use and socio-political.

The language-in-use approach focuses on the technical aspects of language, such as how grammar, syntax, and phonology are used to create meaning. The socio-political approach examines how language reflects normalized or repressive power dynamics.

1. Language-in-use Approaches to Discourse Analysis

Language-in-use approaches to discourse analysis concentrate on the linguistic features of language , including:

The aim is to understand how these aspects of language are used and manipulated in social contexts. This approach recognizes that language does not merely reflect a pre-existing social reality but actively constructs it.

For example, how conversational markers (e.g., turn-taking, overlap, exhalation, disagreement) are used to negotiate meaning and build knowledge within conversations.

“Language-in-use” is sometimes used synonymously with “ pragmatics ,” which refers to the study of how context influences the meaning of language .

This includes analyzing how listeners interpret the meaning of words and phrases based on the social context.

Analyzing language in use involves two key tasks:

• Utterance-type meaning: Studying the typical communicative functions of language forms (e.g., how a specific grammatical structure is generally used).
• Utterance-token/Situated meaning: Examining how the meaning of language forms varies depending on the specific context in which they are used.

However, the terms “discourse analysis” and “pragmatics” are not always used in the same way.

Sometimes, “discourse analysis” is reserved for analyzing how sentences in a spoken or written text work together to create meaning and define different genres (e.g., dialogues, narratives, reports).

This distinction emphasizes the role of language in shaping and being shaped by social situations.

When analyzing discourse, it’s important to consider the interplay of various linguistic elements, cultural influences, and social dynamics.

Researchers use a systematic approach, carefully examining spoken conversations, written texts, and visual media to understand how language functions within a particular context.

This involves going beyond literal meanings to uncover the hidden dimensions and power dynamics embedded in communication.

Key Concepts Related to Language-in-use:

• Context of Situation: The specific circumstances surrounding language use, including the relationships among participants, communicative purposes, and the mode of communication (spoken or written).
• Register: The variety of language used in a particular context of situation, reflecting the field (social activity), tenor (relationships between interactants), and mode (role of language).
• Genre: A recognizable and recurring communicative event characterized by its purpose, structure, and typical linguistic features (e.g., research articles, political speeches). Genres can be analyzed as a specific form of discourse analysis, focusing on recurring language use patterns.
• Intertextuality: The way in which one text incorporates, references, or alludes to other texts, either directly or indirectly. This highlights the interconnectedness of texts and how meaning is constructed through these connections.

Example Methods

• Conversation analysis : Focuses on the structure and patterns of spoken interaction. For example, this approach can be used to study how people manage turn-taking and negotiate roles during conversations. Conversation analysis often uses transcripts of conversations to examine how conversational markers, such as pauses or specific phrases, contribute to the conversation’s flow and meaning.
• Narrative analysis : Looks at how individuals construct their identities and experiences through storytelling. Researchers using this approach might analyze personal accounts of homelessness to understand how individuals integrate their experiences with societal narratives.

2. Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis

Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis are more philosophical and mainly concerned with how language constructs and sustains power dynamics in society. Although politics is a central focus, these approaches apply more broadly.

These approaches move beyond analyzing just the linguistic elements to consider the social and political implications of language use:

Critical discourse analysis

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) examines how language is used to create, maintain, and challenge power relations in society. CDA is particularly concerned with issues of social justice, inequality, and oppression.

CDA is inspired by philosopher Michel Foucault, who argued that language reflects how power is used in society.

Critical discourse analysis researchers believe that language isn’t neutral; it reflects power dynamics in society.

It aims to uncover the hidden agendas and biases that are present in everyday conversations and official communications.

Assumptions

• CDA recognizes that language isn’t just about communication; it shapes our understanding of the world and how we see reality.
• It explores how language can both reinforce and challenge the power of those in dominant positions.
• CDA often focuses on institutional discourse—the language used in settings like schools, courts, and the media—because these institutions often reflect and perpetuate broader social power dynamics.
• CDA examines the language used in media, like news coverage, to see how those in power might be misusing their position or how inequality, dominance, and pushback are portrayed in discussions of social and political topics.

For example

• CDA might be used to study how politicians use language to divide people in a campaign speech.
• It could also be used to examine how medical language can reinforce the authority of doctors over patients.

CDA researchers pay close attention to who has control over communication :

• They look at who gets to decide the time and place of a conversation, who is allowed to speak, and what topics are considered acceptable.
• They also study how grammatical choices and the structure of conversations can reflect and reinforce power dynamics. For example, in some situations, people in less powerful positions may have to speak differently than those in positions of authority.

CDA argues that understanding these subtle ways that language shapes our perceptions of power is crucial for challenging social inequality.

Discourse analysis offers a powerful lens for critically examining the intricate relationship between language, meaning, and social life.

Other examples of critial discourse analysis

• Feminist discourse analysis : Focuses specifically on how language constructs and perpetuates gender norms and ideologies. Researchers utilizing this approach might study how beauty advertisements reinforce specific beauty standards and how consumers engage with or resist these representations.
• Foucauldian discourse analysis : Inspired by the work of philosopher Michel Foucault, examines how discourse shapes knowledge, power, and social practices. This approach emphasizes the relationship between language and power, exploring how discourse constructs our understanding of the world and influences our actions.
• Ethnography of communication : Rooted in anthropology, studies communication within cultural contexts, examining the rules and norms that govern interactions within specific communities. This approach involves immersing oneself in a particular social group to understand their communication patterns, often using participant observation and interviews to collect data.

Steps for Conducting Discourse Analysis

Step 1: define the research question and select the content of analysis.

Begin with a clearly defined research question and then select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Examples of clearly defined research questions

• How does media coverage of immigration policies reinforce or challenge prevailing stereotypes and power dynamics in shaping public perceptions?
• How do beauty advertisements construct and perpetuate gender norms and ideologies of beauty, and how do consumers negotiate or resist these representations?
• How do participants in family dinner conversations use language to negotiate roles, relationships, and decision-making processes?
• How do linguistic features, visual elements, and interaction patterns in online political discussions on social media platforms contribute to the polarization of political opinions?

Select the content of analysis

After developing a research question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Discourse analysis can be applied to both large volumes of material and smaller samples, depending on the research aims and timescale.

To illustrate, consider a research project exploring how a country’s transition from a dictatorship to a democracy affected the public relations rhetoric of businesses in that country.

The researcher might decide to analyze the mission statements and marketing material from the 10 largest companies within 5 years of the regime change

Step 2: Collect information about the material production and its presentation medium

When engaging in discourse analysis, gathering information about the material production and presentation is essential for putting data into context and gaining a complete nuanced understanding.

What does “Material Production” mean?

Material production refers to the origin and creation of the text or content you are analyzing. This means finding out:

• When and where the content was created
• Who the author is
• Who published the material
• Who the intended audience is
• The historical context in which the content was created

What does “Presentation Medium” mean?

“Presentation Medium” refers to how the material is presented. This could include things like:

• The type of media used (e.g. book, newspaper, website, social media post, interview, political speech, advertisement, government document).
• The specific publication or platform where the material appeared (e.g. The New York Times, Facebook, Twitter).
• The format of the material (e.g. article, blog post, video, speech).

Example: Analyzing a speech

Let’s say you’re analyzing a speech about climate change. To understand the speech properly, you would need to know:

• Material Production:  Who wrote the speech? Is the speaker a scientist, a politician, or an activist? What is their background? When and where was the speech given?
• Presentation Medium:  Where was the speech delivered? Was it a public address, a speech to a specific group, or a presentation at a conference? Was it live-streamed or recorded?

By considering these factors, you can better understand the speaker’s perspective and motivations, as well as the potential impact of the speech.

Step 4: Identify the text producer(s) and their position(s) in discourse analysis

Identifying the text producer(s) and their position(s) is often carried out in conjunction with understanding the material production of a text (step 3).

This step involves figuring out who created the text and what perspectives and biases they might have . It’s like trying to understand where someone is coming from when they’re talking to you.

Identifying the text producer(s) and their positions is an important step towards critically analyzing a text and uncovering the hidden meanings and assumptions embedded within it.

To determine the text producer’s position, you need to examine:

• Their background, profession, and area of expertise.
• Their role in the social context of the text.
• Their relationship to other participants in the discourse.

By considering these factors, you can gain insights into the author’s perspective and potential biases.

For example, in an academic study analyzing interviews with teenagers from working-class and upper-middle-class families, the researchers considered the social and economic backgrounds of the teenagers and their interviewers.

They also acknowledged the power dynamics inherent in the interviewer-interviewee relationship, recognizing that teenagers might adapt their language based on the perceived identity of the interviewer as a “school-based” or “college-based” person.

Similarly, when analyzing workplace interactions, researchers might look at the power dynamics between managers and employees or between colleagues at different levels of seniority.

Understanding these dynamics can shed light on how language is used to negotiate power, status, and identity within specific social contexts.

Step 5: Examine the structure of the text

After figuring out the context of your data, you should analyze how the author organized their ideas and arguments to form the “structure” of the text, which provides further context.

• Locate key sections and their relationship: Look for important sections where the main ideas are presented and see how they connect to each other.
• Analyze argument presentation: Pay attention to how the author presents their arguments, using elements like headings, formatting, introductions, and conclusions.
• Identify key arguments and support: Figure out the main points the author is making and how they are backing up those points with evidence or explanations.
• Identify viewpoints and negotiation: See if the text presents different perspectives and how the author navigates between those viewpoints.

By understanding the structure, you can better grasp the author’s goals and what they are trying to say. This understanding also makes your qualitative analysis and results stronger.

Helpful tips for examining the text structure:

• Read Carefully and Take Notes: Pay close attention to the author’s main ideas and how they are organized while reading. Jot down notes on the important parts of the text and how those parts relate to one another.
• Words like “first,” “second,” and “third” might suggest a chronological order.
• Words like “however,” “on the other hand,” and “in contrast” might point to a compare/contrast structure.
• Use Graphic Organizers: Graphic organizers can be useful tools to visualize the structure of a text. Some common options include flow charts, co-occurrence matrices, Venn diagrams, and mind maps.

At the base of the pyramid lies the context . Every interview, document, or text is situated within some context, be it cultural or otherwise.

Moving up a level, we encounter the structure of these interviews, documents, or texts. While they consist of discursive statements, these statements are part of a larger rhetorical structure that’s important to understand.

At the apex of the pyramid are the statements themselves. Statements form the core of texts, and discourse analysis offers various lenses that delve deeply into these statements.

Step 6: Analyze the discursive statements within the text

Identify statements within the text that reveal underlying values, assumptions, and how the text constructs social reality.

Discursive statements are the fundamental units of meaning within a discourse.

They’re essentially the sentences or phrases that convey ideas and arguments within a text. Analyzing these statements involves dissecting them to uncover their underlying meaning and how they contribute to the overall message of the text.

To analyze discursive statements effectively, you can use different “lenses” or analytical tools. These lenses help you examine the statement from multiple perspectives and uncover hidden layers of meaning.

Here are a few examples of these lenses:

• Frame Lens : After analyzing the discursive statements, go back to the context surrounding the text. Consider if there’s any additional information that might change your initial analysis. This lens encourages you to think critically about how the context shapes the meaning of the statements.
• “Doing and Not Just Saying” Lens: Look beyond the literal meaning of the statement and consider what the speaker or writer is trying to achieve with their words. This lens helps you understand the intention behind the statement, recognizing that communication involves both explicit and implicit messages. For example, a politician might use vague language to hide contradictions between their actions and their public image.
• Stanza Lens: This lens focuses on the organization and structure of the text. Examine how sentences and paragraphs are grouped to form distinct sections or “stanzas.” Understanding this structure helps you understand how the author guides the reader’s understanding and emphasizes certain points.
• Activities Building Lens : Consider how the statements within the text contribute to specific social activities or practices. This lens encourages you to think about the broader social implications of the language used. For example, even a car’s user manual has a specific structure and uses language in a way that promotes certain activities.

Analyzing discursive statements is like peeling back the layers of an onion. Each layer reveals new insights into how language shapes meaning and understanding.

By using different analytical lenses, you can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of language and its role in constructing social realities.

It’s important to start by practicing the analysis of discursive statements in different types of texts, like news articles or speeches. This practice will help you refine your analytical skills and better understand how discourse operates in various contexts.

Remember, the goal is to move beyond simply describing what the text says to understanding how it constructs meaning and shapes our understanding of the world.

Step 7: Interpreting data and explaining discourse

Connect your findings to explain the essence and functionality of the discourse.

Interpreting the data requires connecting the findings from the previous steps of discourse analysis to explain the main point and purpose of the discourse.

This means taking everything learned about the discourse’s background, author, and social impact and putting it all together into a clear and organized written report.

The goal is to go beyond merely describing what the text says to understanding how it constructs meaning. This involves moving back and forth between the context and the language used.

For example, if analyzing a speech, consider the speaker’s background and their relationship to the audience.

Think about the social and historical events happening when the speech was given, and what the speaker hoped to achieve with their words.

By connecting these contextual factors to the specific language used in the speech, one can start to interpret the data and explain the speech’s essence and function.

It is important to remember that discourse analysis is about formulating hypotheses and gaining confidence in them by looking at data. Always be open to finding evidence that might contradict any hypotheses.

Step 8: Present your findings

You need to convey the results of your discourse analysis in an organized way. This may involve:

• Writing a research paper.
• Giving a presentation.
• Creating a multimedia product.

When presenting your findings, you should:

• Emphasize the relevance of your findings.
• Present a compelling case supported by evidence from your analysis.
• Consider who your audience will be and whether they are familiar with discourse analysis.
• Focus on what is new about your findings if your audience already uses discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis researchers typically disseminate research findings through:

• Conference presentations
• Journal articles
• Book chapters

It is accepted practice in discourse research to include extracts of data to demonstrate how the analysis is linked to the data. This allows readers to assess the analysis for themselves.

When presenting data in published form, it might be necessary to simplify the transcription system to make it easier for a reader to understand. One example is to provide a series of images, like a filmstrip, next to the corresponding talk.

Interpretations can also be presented by referencing line numbers. Providing readers with access to the raw data, in addition to the analysis, strengthens the plausibility of your interpretations.

Challenges of Discourse Analysis

• Complexity: Discourse analysis can be intricate because it requires a deep understanding of linguistic and social theories. This complexity may discourage some researchers from using it.
• Subjectivity: Interpretation is a significant part of discourse analysis, so different analysts may reach different conclusions when examining the same text. Subjectivity is inherent in qualitative analysis, so steps should be taken to validate results, such as peer debriefing, reflexivity, or using a mixed-method study.
• Time-Intensive: Comprehensive discourse analysis can be time-consuming, especially for newcomers. Discourse analysis involves meticulous interpretation of texts, which can be demanding for longer or more extensive materials.
• Identifying the Focus of Activity: When studying discourse in an environment where people are moving between locations, it can be difficult to determine the focus of the activity.
• Lack of Contextual Dynamism: A weakness of discourse analysis is that corpus-based methods focus on the text as a product and cannot account for the linguistic and contextual factors of discourse. Also, the lack of non-verbal aspects of communication accompanying spoken corpora is a weakness.
• Misinterpretations due to Cultural Differences:  When speakers have different native languages, they may use or interpret communicative cues differently. Researchers should be cautious of automatically treating any difference in terms of culture.
• Delimiting Discourse: It is crucial to establish boundaries for discourse analysis by defining a manageable range of sources and timeframes, but problems with delimitation are inevitable. The choices made regarding delimitation must be defended.
• Accounting for All Discourses: A challenge is that a given discourse cannot be entirely separated from all other discourses. Discourses are ordered and scaled in relation to one another.

Validating Results in Discourse Analysis

To ensure trustworthiness and rigor in discourse analysis, researchers employ various strategies like reflexivity and transparency.

• Reflexivity involves acknowledging the researcher’s inherent subjectivity and how personal experiences and perspectives can influence data interpretation.
• Transparency emphasizes documenting the research process, including rationale for coding, theme development, and any modifications to the analytical approach. This transparency enables others to comprehend the analysis and evaluate its credibility.

Here are some practical strategies to incorporate reflexivity and transparency in thematic analysis:

• Reflexive Journal: Researchers maintain a journal to record their thoughts, assumptions, and potential biases. This journal acts as a log of the researcher’s evolving understanding of the data and assists in recognizing potential blind spots.
• Team-Based Analysis: Collaboration involving multiple researchers can enhance reflexivity through diverse perspectives and interpretations of data. Discussing coding and theme development as a team allows researchers to challenge assumptions, ensuring a comprehensive analysis.
• Articulating the Analytical Process: When presenting thematic analysis findings, researchers should thoroughly detail their methods, including the reasoning behind coding, theme development, and challenges during analysis. This transparency helps readers understand the steps taken to ensure rigor and trustworthiness.

Researchers should document all decisions made during the research process and demonstrate how the analysis is linked to the collected data.

The analysis should offer a plausible account of the data, be coherent in explaining occurrences, and produce fruitful outcomes that contribute to knowledge.

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• Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples

Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Amy Luo . Revised on 5 December 2022.

Discourse analysis is a research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real-life situations.

When you do discourse analysis, you might focus on:

• The purposes and effects of different types of language
• Cultural rules and conventions in communication
• How values, beliefs, and assumptions are communicated
• How language use relates to its social, political, and historical context

Discourse analysis is a common qualitative research method in many humanities and social science disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It is also called critical discourse analysis.

Table of contents

What is discourse analysis used for, how is discourse analysis different from other methods, how to conduct discourse analysis.

Conducting discourse analysis means examining how language functions and how meaning is created in different social contexts. It can be applied to any instance of written or oral language, as well as non-verbal aspects of communication, such as tone and gestures.

Materials that are suitable for discourse analysis include:

• Books, newspapers, and periodicals
• Marketing material, such as brochures and advertisements
• Business and government documents
• Websites, forums, social media posts, and comments
• Interviews and conversations

By analysing these types of discourse, researchers aim to gain an understanding of social groups and how they communicate.

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Unlike linguistic approaches that focus only on the rules of language use, discourse analysis emphasises the contextual meaning of language.

It focuses on the social aspects of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific effects (e.g., to build trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).

Instead of focusing on smaller units of language, such as sounds, words, or phrases, discourse analysis is used to study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations, texts, or collections of texts. The selected sources can be analysed on multiple levels.

Discourse analysis is a qualitative and interpretive method of analysing texts (in contrast to more systematic methods like content analysis ). You make interpretations based on both the details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge.

There are many different approaches and techniques you can use to conduct discourse analysis, but the steps below outline the basic structure you need to follow.

Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis

To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question . Once you have developed your question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Discourse analysis is a method that can be applied both to large volumes of material and to smaller samples, depending on the aims and timescale of your research.

Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

Next, you must establish the social and historical context in which the material was produced and intended to be received. Gather factual details of when and where the content was created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was disseminated to.

As well as understanding the real-life context of the discourse, you can also conduct a literature review on the topic and construct a theoretical framework to guide your analysis.

Step 3: Analyse the content for themes and patterns

This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as words, sentences, paragraphs, and overall structure – and relating them to attributes, themes, and patterns relevant to your research question.

Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions

Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on your results to examine the function and meaning of the language used. Here, you will consider your analysis in relation to the broader context that you established earlier to draw conclusions that answer your research question.

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Definition of discourse analysis, where does discourse analysis fit, some prominent thinkers in discourse analysis, applications of discourse analysis, what can discourse analysis contribute to research.

The  Oxford English Dictionary  defines discourse analysis as:

"Linguistics, a method of analysing the structure of texts or utterances longer than one sentence, taking into account both their linguistic content and their sociolinguistic context; analysis performed using this method."

There is a problem, however, not with the wording of this definition, but with the concept itself, which implies that language can have a fixed meaning as the very ethos of discourse analysis is that language and discourse (in the sense of a speech communication) is not a fixed, immutable reality, but one that is moulded by a social context, and can in turn build up a picture of the world which is unique to the author of the discourse.

Discourse analysis as a research technique involves the analysis of language with the above framework in mind, and has become increasingly popular in recent years in the social and management sciences.

More definitions of discourse analysis

According to Snape and Spencer (2003, p. 200), discourse analysis originates from the discipline of sociology and is about:

"Examining the way knowledge is produced within different discourses and the performances, linguistic styles and rhetorical devices used in particular accounts."

According to Jankowicz (2005, p.229), discourse analysis is of particular relevance when listening to people's own narratives of a situation – the biographical approach.

"Discourse analysis ... [focuses] on the way in which your respondents draw on differing interpretive repertoires depending on their interpretation of the context in which your interview takes place. The technique focuses on the way in which language is used in given settings, and in a discourse analysis, your task is to identify the context; the various interpretive repertoires; and attempt a matching of one to the other, to arrive at an understanding of the function, from the point of view of your respondent, of the different stories being told."

In a guest editorial from the  Journal of Organizational Change Management  which looked at the contribution of discourse analysis to an understanding of organisational change, Grant  et al . (2005) quote Fairclough and Wodak (1997, p. 277):

"Discourse is not produced without context and cannot be understood without taking context into consideration ... Discourses are always connected to other discourses which were produced earlier, as well as those which are produced synchronically and subsequently."

In other words, language does not have a fixed, objective meaning, but is coloured by a whole range of situational factors: the author's belief system, the surrounding political, economic and social context, any professional community to which the person belongs – which will have its own jargon (as in medical or legal) – as well as the immediate situation in which the words were uttered.

Herasymovych and Nørreklit (2006) provide a case study of ideological assumptions of Ukrainian managers, in which they use discourse analysis to reveal how attitudes change as a result of the transformation from communism to market liberalism.

The authors found several discourses of:

• anti communism ("From Soviet times, there is a common psychology: the best job is the one with the higher salary and doing nothing");
• the influence of religion, which is very strong in the Ukraine. Thus although the managers wanted to distance themselves from religion, they still used a discourse of pastoral authority – the image of the good shepherd – to describe their management style;
• liberalism, of a certain kind: motivation of the individual to succeed, but based not on desire to do one's best, but fear of the consequences of failure.

Discourse analysis is an analytic technique rather than a theory, and its popularity has arisen from the growing interest, starting late in the last century, in qualitative research and ways of analysing the data it produces. There are a number of similar methods, for example,

• content analysis, which analyses content according to key variables,
• narrative analysis, which looks at the patterns people find in their lives and situations, and
• conversational analysis, which looks at the structure of dialogue (for more information, see  How to ... analyse qualitative data: some specific techniques ).

Discourse analysis has multiple disciplinary origins – sociology, socio-psychology, anthropology, linguistics and philosophy, communications studies, and literature (Grant  et al ., 2005). It thus brings a multidisciplinary perspective.

Its regard for context sets it slightly apart from ethnographic methods, which, according to Lee and Roth (2006) tend to approach participants' talk and actions at face value. Participant observation often involves the researcher having a relatively "invisible" role, as an observer. In the collection of data for discourse analysis, however, the researcher has a more active role and may "co-construct" the interview process.

It can also be contrasted with behaviourist and cognitivist approaches: discourse is not just a product of a person's cognitive and mental state. Thinking makes use of concepts, and concepts are by definition in the public domain, influenced by a broad range of social and intellectual factors. discourse analysis is also influenced by social constructionism: people and their doings are not "natural observable facts", but are constantly shaped by the society around them.

Many writers have contributed to the field of discourse analysis, but two of the most prominent are  Norman Fairclough  and  Michel Foucault .

Norman Fairclough is the father of critical discourse analysis. He comes to discourse analysis from a linguistics and language perspective; he is emeritus professor in the Department of Linguistics and English Language at the University of Lancaster, UK.

Fairclough sees discourse as:

"a social practice which constructs social identities, social relations and the knowledge and meaning systems of the social world ... [which] both reflects and produces the ideas and assumptions relating to the ways in which personal identities, social relations, and knowledge systems are constituted through social practice" (Nielson and Nørreklit, 2009; p. 204).

In other words, critical discourse analysis sees the language of discourse as a kind of two-way mirror: it both reflects and contributes to the social world, its knowledge systems and its social relationships.

There are two dimensions to critical discourse analysis: the "communicative event", or the specific incident of language use, and that which Fairclough terms "discourse order", which is the "discourse practices" or the way language is used within a particular social institution (for example, the particular vocabulary used within an organisation) or domain area (for example, linguistics, sociology, or medicine).

Critical discourse analysis uses three levels of analysis (Nielson and Nørreklit, 2009; p. 205):

• The text of the communicative event itself, with reference to its vocabulary, its use of metaphor and rhetorical forms, its grammar and the relationship between sentences, the types of argument used.
• The discourse practice – i.e. how the particular communicative event changes or copies existing practice within that particular discourse.
• The wider social practice of which the communicative event forms part.

Critical discourse analysis combines an "internal" study of language with "external" study of its context – how the text is affected by social practices and relations (Cheng, 2009). The term "intertextuality" is often used – which means the need for one text to be read in the light of its allusions to and differences from the content or structure of other texts. Critical discourse analysis can often be used to reveal power relationships, and how certain groups can be marginalised.

Figure 1. Model of critical discourse analysis as applied to management coaching

The approach of Michel Foucault, the French philosopher, sociologist and historian, is more abstract and less linguistically based than that of Fairclough. Although he acknowledged the role of language in the creation and formation of knowledge, he was not concerned with the analysis of spoken and written language and texts. He was more interested in the rules that determine which statements are accepted as meaningful, and the links between power and knowledge: expert knowledge in a particular domain can act as a system of control, and knowledge is institutionally contingent (Haider and Bawden, 2007).

Discourse analysis is used in a wide range of fields. A search [October 2009] of Emerald's journal database content (all fields excluding fulltext) for the phrase "discourse analysis" over the last ten years produced results with the following distribution:

• Organisational change and organisational studies – 10.
• Corporate social responsibility – 5.
• Employee development and human resource development – 7.
• Education – 3.
• Entrepreneurship – 3.
• Accountancy – 9.
• Library and information management – 6.
• Gender issues and diversity – 7.
• Political economy – 2.
• Hospitality – 2.
• Marketing, market research, and corporate communications – 7.
• Sociology and social work – 4.
• Miscellaneous (gaming, law, supervenience, quality, nutrition, psychopathology, virtual communities, health care) – 8.

It is interesting that there are in this sample almost as many accountancy papers as there are ones on organisational change. Several of the top journals in their fields are represented –  Journal of Organizational Change Management  (6),  Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal  (6),  Journal of Documentation  (4),  European Journal of Marketing  (1).

Methods of collecting the data included document analysis, interviews, group discussion, case studies, and ethnography; the data are drawn from a variety of different types of "talk" and "text".

"Talk" examples

• Interviews, often described as "semi-structured" or "in-depth", are the most common method of soliciting talk. Examples include: research on consumers' shopping experiences (Sitz, 2008), and a case study of new-start entrepreneurs in New Zealand (Mills and Pawson, 2006).
• Longitudinal case studies with repeat interviews of primary school co-principals were carried out by Court (2004).
• Ethnographic research: e.g. interview in a social context to understand workplace practice (Lee and Roth, 2006); shadowing managers and observing them interacting with their work colleagues (Rigg, 2005); observation of training and training-related events, in conjunction with interviews (Chio, 2008); reflective journals (in conjunction with interviews) used to study workplace learning (Jurasaite-Harbison, 2009).
• Discussion in a documentary programme, e.g. one on a model of sustainability for Australia (Clulow, 2005).
• Netnography – an ethnographic research method used to observe behaviour in an online environment, e.g. a web-based discussion forum on fantasy sport (Smith  et al ., 2006), using net chat to research the sensitive topic of cosmetic surgery (Langer and Beckman, 2005); chat on health care (Misra  et al ., 2008).
• Focus groups: e.g. used as a method to study managers in a small-to-medium enterprise (O'Shea, 2007); institutionalisation in community organisations (O'Shea, 2007).

"Text" examples

• Business documents, e.g. corporate social responsibility reports, documents relating to a takeover (Ferguson, 2007), corporate annual reports, brochures, diversity documents.
• The media: for example, Jensen (2008) analyses the Mohammed cartoon controversy by reference to Danish newspaper articles on the subject; Krefting (2002) analyses the  Wall Street Journal' s portrayal of women executives.
• Scholarly journal articles, e.g. Haider and Bawden (2007) look at the concept of "information poverty" in 35 English language articles.
• Textbooks, government policy documents, etc., e.g. Iarskaia-Smirnova and Romanov (2008) analyse Russian textbooks on social care.
• Poetry: Robinson and Lynch (2007) explore hospitality breakdown by means of an Ogden Nash poem.
• Websites: e.g. Pollach (2005) analyses the "About us" sections of 20 well-known corporate websites.

The above lists are not exhaustive, but are meant to show the versatility of discourse analysis, which can be applied to almost any situation in which language is used (and indeed, to images as well, as these are often intended to convey a particular meaning, as in cartoons or newspaper advertisements).

Neither the methods nor the data sources are used exclusively: observation is often combined with interviews, interviews with document analysis, for example. Discourse analysis is often not used on its own, but in combination with other analytic methods, such as content analysis, critical sense making, rhetorical analysis, or quantitative linguistic analysis.

The big advantage of discourse analysis is that it challenges "the taken-for-granted nature of language" (Sitz, 2008). Thus it can probe the way in which organisational language displays subtle shifts in values and priorities, disclose how documents may appear to present a positive agenda to the reader, but in fact have a much darker purpose, and encourage a more qualitative, interpretative perspective on an area such as company reports, which have previously only been subjected to quantitative approaches.

Discourse analysis as a way of describing organisational change

Grant  et al . (2005) provide a guest editorial to an issue of the  Journal of Organizational Change Management  (Vol. 18 No. 1) which looks at the contribution of discourse analysis to the area. They cite a number of benefits of the method:

• it enables researchers to analyse the key discourses which formulate change;
• it shows how particular discourses can be used to shape behaviour, by way of development of a dominant meaning;
• it shows the importance of the overall context;
• it affords the advantage of a multidisciplinary perspective;
• all these advantages mean that discourse analysis can generate fresh insights.

Tsoukas (2005), in an afterword to the same issue, confirms the value of discourse analysis in understanding the complexity of organisational change.

Language is very subtle: new meanings can be created or subtly subverted to put a positive gloss on something, while the same events can be described in radically different ways. Some years ago, a large publishing conglomerate decided to pull all its academic journals out of one company and exchange them for another company's small division of distance learning materials. The managers described this as "portfolio realignment"; a disgruntled worker, disillusioned at the loss of a cash cow in return for a problem child, referred to the exchange as "leprosy".

Reading between the lines: analysing policy texts

Policy documents are often in fact public relations documents. In a democracy, policy has to be sold; you cannot enforce it. And policy, too, may be dictated by complex factors – free market capitalism, for example – which it may not be politic to disclose too clearly.

Discourse analysis can disentangle the different agendas of policy documents. Ocler (2009) describes how in France, corporate social responsibility became a legal requirement – but firms needed to present their corporate social responsibility policies in a positive light for the benefit of their policy holders.

Cheng (2009) discusses the introduction of the voucher scheme for pre-primary education in Hong Kong. She shows how while the policy text highlighted issues of choice, efficiency and equity, the reality is in fact more complex:

" ... notions of choice and efficiency have an obvious attraction, but the language presented masks a much more complex situation in which choice and efficiency are to be secured through the application of market principles and given this development it is by no means certain that these objectives will be secured. For example, different producers and consumers become privileged in this market context, and it is by no means certain that all will have choice. More likely, is that choice will be restricted to the more affluent, whilst efficiency may be effected by a failure to create any level playing field between not for profit and private providers" (Cheng, 2009; p. 364).

All policy documents should be read within their context, in this case, marketisation, and in that referred to above, legislation. This is what Fairclough means by "discourse practice".

Providing greater depth to qualitative accounting research

Accountancy is an area which has recently seen a greater interest in qualitative methods; in fact, a journal was recently launched devoted to this approach ( Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management ). According to Ferguson (2007), the study of text can be limited if it does not look at the circumstances surrounding its production and interpretation.

Motivation is also part of the surrounding context, and Yusoff  et al ., (2006) use discourse analysis to probe the corporate motivation for environmental activities.

Information synthesis

Various uses have been made of discourse analysis in the field of library and information science, but Haider and Bawden (2007) make an interesting contribution when they point out that one of the key concepts of the field, information poverty, is in fact a product of information synthesis: two concepts, both with strong resonances, are put together with explosive political effect.

The above are just a few of many examples which could be cited of the insights which discourse analysis can bring to research. It is a versatile technique which brings insights from many disciplines, and which uses the richness and ambiguity of language to go beyond the text into the many worlds that influence it.

Cheng, A.Y.N. (2009), " Analysing complex policy change in Hong Kong: what role for critical discourse analysis? ",  International Journal of Education Management , Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 360-366.

Chio, V. (2008), " Transfers, training and inscriptions: The production of modern market citizens in Malaysia ",  critical perspectives on international business , Vol. 4 No. 2/3, pp. 166-183.

Clulow, V. (2005), " Futures dilemmas for marketers: can stakeholder analysis add value? ",  European Journal of Marketing , Vol. 39 No. 9/10, pp. 978-997.

Court, M. (2004), " Advancing women's careers: what can we learn from co-principals' stories? ",  Equal Opportunities International , Vol. 23 No. 7/8, pp. 39-61.

Ferguson, J. (2007), " Analysing accounting discourse: avoiding the 'fallacy of internalism'" ,  Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal , Vol. 20 No. 6, pp. 912-934.

Grant, D., Michelson, G., Oswick, C. and Wailes, N. (2005),  Guest editorial: discourse and organizational change, Journal of Organizational Change Management ,  Journal of Organizational Change Management , Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 6-15.

Haider, J. and Bawden, D. (2007), " Conceptions of 'information poverty' in LIS: a discourse analysis ",  Journal of Documentation , Vol. 63 No. 4, pp. 534-557.

Herasymovych, A. and Nørreklit, H. (2006), " Management discourse in the transition from communism to market economy: the case of Ukraine ",  Society and Business Review , Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 158-170.

Jankowicz, A.D. (2005),  Business Research Projects , 4th ed., Thomson Learning, London.

Jensen, H.R. (2008), " The Mohammed cartoons controversy and the boycott of Danish products in the Middle East ",  European Business Review , Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 275-289.

Jurasaite-Harbison, E. (2009), " Teachers' workplace learning within informal contexts of school cultures in the United States and Lithuania ",  Journal of Workplace Learning , Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 299-321.

Krefting, L.A. (2002), " Re-presenting women executives: valorization and devalorization in US business press ",  Women in Management Review,  Vol. 17 No. 3/4, pp. 104-119.

Langer, R. and Beckman, S.C. (2005), " Sensitive research topics: netnography revisited ",  Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal , Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 189-203.

Iarskaia-Smirnova, E. and Romanov, P. (2008), " Gendering social work in Russia: towards anti-discriminatory practices ",  Equal Opportunities International , Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 64-76.

Lee, Y-J. and Roth, W-M. (2006), " Learning about workplace learning and expertise from Jack: a discourse analytical study ",  Journal of Workplace Learning , Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 205-219.

Mills, C.E. and Pawson, K. (2006), " Enterprising talk: a case of self construction ",  International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research , Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 238-344.

Misra, R., Mukherjee, A. and Peterson, R. (2008), " Value creation in virtual communities: the case of a healthcare web site ",  International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Marketing , Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 321-337.

Nielson, A.E. and Nørreklit, H. (2009), " A discourse analysis of the disciplinary power of management coaching ",  Society and Business Review , Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 202-214.

Ocler, R. (2009), " Discourse analysis and corporate social responsibility: a qualitative approach ",  Society and Business Review , Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 175-186.

O'Shea, P. (2007), " A discursive study of institutionalization in community organizations ",  International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy , Vol. 27 No. 11/12, pp. 483-493.

Pollach, I. (2005), " Corporate self-presentation on the WWW: Strategies for enhancing usability, credibility and utility ",  Corporate Communications: An International Journal , Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 285-301.

Rigg, C. (2005), " 'It's in the way they talk': A discourse analysis of managing in two small businesses ",  International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research , Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 58-75.

Robinson, M.G. and Lynch, P.A. (2007), " Hospitality through poetry: control, fake solidarity, and breakdown ",  International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research , Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 237-246.

Sitz, L. (2008), " Beyond semiotics and hermeneutics: discourse analysis as a way to interpret consumers' discourses and experiences ",  Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal , Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 177-191.

Smith, B., Sharma, P. and Hooper, P. (2006), "Decision making in online fantasy sports communities",  Interactive Technology and Smart Education , Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 347-360.

Snape, D. and Spencer, L. (2003) "The foundations of qualitative research", in Ritchie, J. and Lewis, J. (Eds),  Qualitative Research Practice , Sage Publications, London.

Tsoukas, H. (2005), " Afterword: why language matters in the analysis of organizational change ",  Journal of Organizational Change Management , Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 96-104.

Yusoff, H., Lehman, G. and Nasir, N. (2006), " Environmental engagements through the lens of disclosure practices: A Malaysian story ",  Asian Review of Accounting , Vol. 14 No. 1/2, pp. 122-148.

Introducing Discourse Analysis for Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers often try to understand the world by listening to how people talk, but it can be really revealing to look at not just what people say, but how. This is how discourse analysis (DA) can be used to examine qualitative data.

Daniel Turner

Qualitative research often focuses on what people say: be that in interviews , focus-groups , diaries , social media or documents . Qualitative researchers often try to understand the world by listening to how people talk, but it can be really revealing to look at not just what people say, but how. Essentially this is the how discourse analysis (DA) can be used to examine qualitative data. Discourse is the complete system by which people communicate, it’s the widest interpretation of what we call ‘language’. It includes both written, verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as the wider social concepts that underpin what language means, and how it changes. For example, it can be revealing to look at how some people use a particular word, or terms from a particular local dialect. This can show their upbringing and life history, or influences from other people and workplace culture. It can also be interesting to look at non-verbal communication: people’s facial expressions and hand movements are an important part of the context of what people say. But language is also a dynamic part of culture, and the meanings behind terms change over time. How we understand terms like ‘fake news’ or ‘immigration’ or ‘freedom’ tells us a lot, not just about the times we live in or the people using those terms, but groups that have power to change the discourse on such issues. We will look at all these as separate types of discourse analysis. But first it’s important to understand why language is so important; it is much more than just a method of communication.

“Language allows us to do things. It allows us to engage in actions and activities. We promise people things, we open committee meetings, we propose to our lovers, we argue over politics, and we “talk to God”…

Language allows us to be things. It allows us to take on different socially significant identities. We can speak as experts—as doctors, lawyers, anime aficionados, or carpenters—or as ‘everyday people’. To take on any identity at a given time and place we have to ‘talk the talk’…”         - Gee 2011

Language is more than a neutral way of communicating, it’s deeply connected with actions and personal identity, and can even shape the way we think about and understand the world. Who we are, what we do, and our beliefs are all shaped by the language we use. This makes it a very rich avenue for analysis.

Types of discourse analysis Just like so many blanket qualitative terms , there are a lot of different practices and types of analysis called ‘discourse’ analysis, and many different ways of applying them. Hodges et al. (2008) identify 3 meta-types, broadly going from more face-value to conceptual analysis:      • Formal linguistic (basically looking at words/phrases, grammar or semantics)      • Empirical (social practice constructed through text)              • Critical (language constructing and limiting thought)

Tannen et al., 2015 categorise three similar broad types of analysis, again becoming increasingly socially conceptual:

• language use

• anything beyond the sentence

• a broader range of social practice that includes non-linguistic and non-specific instances of language

However Gee (2011) only recognises two main categories, essentially those that look at the use of words, and ‘critical discourse analysis’: like the latter of both groupings above, this is analysis of how language is situated in cultural and contextual power dynamics. But before we get there, let’s start with an example of some more obvious linguistic level discourse analysis.

Example Imagine the following scenario from your favourite fictional medical drama. A patient is wheeled into the ER/casualty unit, conscious but suffering from burns. The doctor attending says three things:

To Patient: “We’re just going to give you a little injection to help with the pain.”

To Nurse: “10cc’s of sodium pentothal, stat!”

To Surgeon: “We’ve got severe second-degree chemical burns, GA administered”

In this situation, the doctor has said essentially the same thing 3 times, but each time using a different response for each recipient. Firstly, when talking to the patient, the doctor doesn’t use any medical terminology, and uses calming and minimising language to comfort the patient. This is a classic type of discourse we are familiar with from medical TV dramas, the ‘good bed-side manner’.

To the nurse, the doctor has a different tone, more commanding and even condescending. It’s a barked command, finished with the term ‘stat!’ - a commonly used medial slang word (actually from the Latin word ‘statum’ meaning immediately, that’s your linguistic analysis!). This is interesting, because it’s not a term you’d hear used in other professional places like a busy kitchen. It shows there is a specific discourse for the setting (a hospital) and for different people in the setting. The ‘10cc of sodium pentothal’ is a commonly used anaesthetic: the same ‘something to help with the pain’ but now with a (trademarked) pharmacological name and dose.

Finally, to the surgeon the same prescription is described by the doctor as an abbreviation (GA for General Anaesthetic). Between senior health professionals, abbreviations might be used more often, in this case actually hiding the specific drug given, perhaps on the basis that the surgeon doesn’t need to know. It could also imply that since only that basic first step has been made, there has been little assessment or intervention so far, telling to an experienced ear what stage of the proceedings they are walking in on. The use of the term ‘we’ might imply the doctor and surgeon are on the same level, as part of the team, a term not used when addressing the nurse.

Even in this small example, there are a lot of different aspects of discourse to unpack. It is very contextually dependent, none of the phrases or manners are likely to be adopted by the doctor in the supermarket or at home. This shows how the identity and performativity of the doctor is connected to their job (and shaped by it, and contextual norms). It also shows differences in discourse between different actors, and power dynamics which are expressed and created through discursive norms.

At a very basic level, we could probably do an interesting study on TV shows and the use of the term ‘stat!’. We could look at how often the term was used, how often it was used by doctors to nurses (often) and by nurses to doctors (rarely). This would probably be more like a basic linguistic analysis, possibly even quantitative. It’s one of the few occasions that a keyword search in a qualitative corpus can be useful – because you are looking at the use of a single, non-replaceable word. If someone says ‘now please’ or ‘as soon as you can’ it has a very different meaning and power dynamic, so we are not interested in synonyms here. However, we probably still want to trawl through the whole text to look at different phrases that are used, and why ‘stat!’ was not the command in all situations. This would be close to the ‘formal linguistic’ approach listed above.

But a more detailed, critical and contextual examination of the discourse might show that nurses struggle with out-moded power dynamics in hospitals (eg Fealy and McNamara 2007 , Turner et al 2007 ). Both of these papers are described as ‘critical’ discourse analysis. However, this term is used in many different ways.

Critical discourse analysis is probably the most often cited, but often used in the most literal sense – that it looks at discourse critically, and takes a comparative and critical analytic stance. It’s another term like ‘grounded theory’ that is used as a catch-all for many different nuanced approaches. But there is another ‘level’ of critical discourse analysis, influenced by Foucault (1972, 1980) and others, that goes beyond reasons for use and local context, to examine how thought processes in society influenced by the control of language and meanings.

Critical discourse analysis (hardcore mode)

“What we commonly accept as objective or obviously true is only so because of negotiated agreement among people” – Gee (2011)

Language and discourse are not absolute. Gee (2011) notes at least three different ways that the positionality of discourse can be shown to be constructed and non-universal: meanings and reality can change over time, between cultures, and finally with ‘discursive construction’ – due to power dynamics in setting language that controls how we understand concepts. Gee uses the term ‘deconstruction’ in the Derridian sense of the word, advocating for the critical examining and dismantling of unquestioned assumptions about what words mean and where they come from.

But ‘deep’ critical discourse analysis also draws heavily from Foucault and an examination of how language is a result of power dynamics, and that the discourse of society heavily regulates what words are understood to mean, as well as who can use them. It also implies that because of these systems of control, discourse is used to actually change and reshape thought and expression. But the key jump is to understand and explain that “what we take to be the truth about the world importantly depends on the social relationships of which we are a part” (Gergen 2015). This is social construction, and a key part of the philosophy behind much critical discourse analysis.

Think of the use of the term ‘freedom’ in mainstream and political discourse in the United States. It is one of the most powerful words used by politicians, and has been for centuries (eg Chanley and Chanley 2015 ) However, it’s use and meaning have changed over time, and what different people from different parts of the political spectrum understand to be enshrined under this concept can be radically different, and even exclusionary. Those in powerful political and media positions are able to change the rhetoric around words like freedom, and sub-terms like ‘freedom of speech’ and ‘freedom of religion’ are both being shifted in public discourse, even on a daily basis, and taking our own internal concepts and ideas with them. It may be that there has never been an age when so much power to manipulate discourse is concentrated in so few places, and able to shift it so rapidly.

Doing Discourse

So do we ‘do’ discourse analysis? How can we start examining complex qualitative data from many voices from a point of view of discourse? Like so many qualitative analytical techniques , researchers will usually adopt a blend of approaches: doing some elements of linguistic analysis, as well as critical discourse analysis for some parts or research questions. They may also draw on narrative and thematic analysis . But discourse analysis is often comparative, it lends itself to differences in the use of language between individuals, professionals and contexts.

From a practical point of view, it can be started by a close reading of key words and terms, especially if it is not clear from the outset what the important and illustrative ones are going to be. For building a complete picture of discourse, a line-by-line approach can be adopted, but it’s also useful to use ‘codes’ or ‘themes’ to tag every use of some terms, or just significant ones. A qualitative software tool like Quirkos can help you do this.

For critical discourse analysis, examination of primary data is rarely enough – it needs to be deeply contextualised within the wider societal or environmental norms that govern a particular subset of discourse. So policy and document analysis are often entwined and can be analysed in the same project. From here, it’s difficult to describe a single technique further, as it will greatly vary by type of source. It is possible in discourse analysis for a single sentence or word to be the major focus of the study, or it may look widely across many different people and data sources.

The textbooks below are all classic works on discourse analysis, each a rabbit hole in itself to digest (especially the new edition of Gergen (2015) which goes much wider into social construction). However, Hodges et al. (2008) is a nice short, practical overview to start your journey.

If you are looking for a tool to help your qualitative discourse analysis, why not give Quirkos a try? It was designed by qualitative researchers to be the software they wanted to use, and is flexible enough for a whole number of analytical approaches, including discourse analysis. Download a free trial , or read more about it here .

Gee, J., P., 2011. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis . Routledge, London.

Gergen, K. J., 2015, An invitation to Social Construction . Sage, London.

Hodges, B. D., Kuper, A., Reeves, S. 2008. Discourse Analysis. BMJ , a879.

Johnstone, B., 2017. Discourse Analysis . Wiley, London.

Paltridge, B., 2012. Discourse Analysis: An Introduction . Bloomsbury.

Tannen, D., Hamilton, H., Schiffrin, D. 2015. The Handbook of Discourse Analysis . Wiley, Chichester.

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A functional analysis of ghanaian presidential debates, rexford boateng gyasi, kwabena sarfo sarfo-kantankah.

Scholars of the functional theory of campaign discourse have explored the nature of political campaign discourse, particularly presidential campaign discourse. This paper adds to the exploration and the data by analysing Ghanaian presidential debates using Benoit’s functional theory. The analysis reveals that the presidential candidates acclaimed more than they attacked and defended. Two additional functional categories – appeal and recommendation – are identified. Contrary to the assumptions of the functional theory that incumbents acclaim more than challengers, the paper finds that challengers acclaimed more than the incumbent, and that the candidates discussed more future plans/deliberative rhetoric. The study concludes that even though most of the assumptions of the theory were confirmed, there are additional persuasive strategies of presidential candidates in Ghanaian political debates such as appeal and recommendation. Thus, the study recommends that further studies extend the theory to accommodate the discourse strategies in multi-candidate campaigns since the theory emerged from several studies of two-candidate campaigns in the United States.

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