Female: <12 g/dL
Meanwhile, the life course survey also recorded whether the respondents had often been bullied by other classmates during their school days. Similar to domestic violence, campus bullying can also harm the physical and mental health of minors, so it is necessary to take campus bullying as a control variable. The control variable assignment method is shown in Table 3 .
Interpreted, explanatory and control variables.
Category | Variable | Symbol | Definition | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Interpreted variables | Education | 1. Uneducated (illiterate), 2. Uneducated primary school, 3. Private school, 4. Primary school, 5. Junior high school, 6. High school, 7. Technical secondary school (including secondary normal school and vocational high school), 8. Junior college, 9. Undergraduate, 10. Master, 11. Doctor | ||
Healthy | Self-rated health: SRH Blood test index: DM Risk score: Risk Depression score: Depr | Self-rated health: 1. Very bad, 2. Bad, 3. Average, 4. Good, 5. Very good; Blood test indicators: reduce the dimension of blood test indicators through Markov distance function; Risk score: judge whether the blood test indicators are normal according to the threshold, and add up the number of abnormal indicators; Depression score: calculated using depression scale | ||
Life satisfaction | 1. Not at all satisfied, 2. Not very satisfied, 3. Quite satisfied, 4. Very satisfied, 5. Extremely satisfied | |||
Explanatory variable | Domestic violence index | The score is calculated from the four dimensions of injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence | ||
Control variable | Campus bullying | When you were young, were you bullied by other students at school? 1. Never, 2. Rarely, 3. Sometimes, 4. Often | ||
Demography Statistics variable | Age | Age of the interviewee | ||
Gender | 1: Male, 0: female | |||
Registered residence | Respondent’s first household registration: 1: non-agricultural household registration, 0: agricultural household registration | |||
Nation | 1: Han nationality, 0: others | |||
Marriage | 1: Married, 0: unmarried | |||
Region | , central, east | The economic region of the interviewee—west: west, central: central, east: east | ||
Aboriginal family Court variable | Father’s education level | Consistent with the definition of respondents’ education level | ||
Education level of mother | Consistent with the definition of respondents’ education level | |||
Father’s mental health | Has your male caregiver ever been sad or depressed for two or more consecutive weeks? 1: Yes, 0: no | |||
Mother’s mental health | Has your female caregiver ever been sad or depressed for two or more consecutive weeks? 1: Yes, 0: no | |||
Father’s health | Does your male caregiver stay in bed for a long time? 1: Yes, 0: no | |||
Mother’s health | Does your female caregiver stay in bed for a long time? 1: Yes, 0: No | |||
Number of brothers and sisters | Number of brothers and sisters in the family | |||
Does my father drink too much? | 1: Yes, 0: no | |||
Whether the father takes drugs | 1: Yes, 0: no | |||
Does my father gamble? | 1: Yes, 0: no | |||
Family economic status | Before the age of 17, compared with the ordinary families in your community/village at that time, what was your family’s economic situation? 1. A lot worse than them, 2. A little worse than them, 3. The same as them, 4. A little better than them, 5. A lot better than them | |||
Community health | 1. Not clean and tidy at all, 2. Not very clean and tidy, 3. Quite clean and tidy, 4. Very clean and tidy | |||
Family Students Live mass | Living standard | Quantity of 18 kinds of household equipment, durable consumer goods and other valuables | ||
Toilet | 1: There is a flush toilet at home, 0: no | |||
Tap water | 1: There is tap water at home, 0: no | |||
Fuel | 1: The main fuels for cooking are straw and firewood, 0: others | |||
Internet | 1: The house you live in can have broadband internet access, 0: no |
As variables are exogenous, and education level is an ordered variable, linear model is used for estimation [ 31 ]. The empirical model of educational achievement is shown in Equation (2):
where the control variables X include campus bullying, demographic variables and native family variables. The empirical model of the self-assessment of health and life satisfaction is shown in Equation (3):
where the control variables X ′ include campus bullying, demographic statistics, native family variables and variables reflecting the quality of family life. Self-rated health and life satisfaction are both subjective indicators, and there is a causal relationship between them, so they are built into a simultaneous equation model. As self-rated health and life satisfaction are ordered variables, Equation (3) is a bivariate ordered variable model. Health is further divided into two dimensions: physical health and mental health. As physical health and mental health are mutually causal, a simultaneous equation model is also used to quantify the impact of domestic violence on health:
Different from Equation (3), the indicators reflecting physical health (DM), risk scores (Risk) and depression scores (Depr) can be regarded as continuous variables, while life satisfaction is an ordered variable, so Equation (4) is a mixed structure model. In quantitative research, the ordered probit/logit model and the simple linear regression model have consistency in the direction and significance of parameter estimates, with the latter being more intuitive and convenient to explain. Therefore, many studies directly use the OLS estimation ordered choice variable model [ 32 , 33 ], so they can also directly use the seemingly unrelated regression estimator (Equations (2)–(5)).
The empirical research includes three main parts: First, the 2018 cross-sectional data are taken as the sample to quantify the impact of domestic violence on personal educational achievements. For the middle-aged and elderly aged 45 and above, the education level was finalized, and the 2018 cross-sectional data can be used as the sample to retain the observation object to the maximum extent. Second, the seemingly unrelated regression model is used to estimate the simultaneous equation of the self-assessment of health and life satisfaction. The sample data are panel data composed of 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2018 survey data. Finally, health is refined into physical health and mental health dimensions, and simultaneous equations are estimated through seemingly unrelated regression. The sample data are panel data composed of 2011 and 2015 survey data.
Equation (2) is estimated based on sample data. The estimated results are shown in Table 4 , which lists the estimated results of the OLS and ordered probit/logit models at the same time. According to the estimation results of the three types of models, at the 1% significance level, domestic violence significantly reduces individual educational achievements. Taking the OLS estimation results as an example, if one unit is added to the domestic violence index, the education level of individuals will decrease by 0.1318 levels. The interpretation of the estimated results of the ordered probit model requires the help of marginal effects. Based on the estimated results of the ordered probit model, the marginal effects of education level on the average value of the domestic violence index ∂ P ( E d u = κ ) / ∂ V ¯ can be estimated, in turn. The estimated results are shown in Figure 3 .
Marginal effect and probability ratio of education level on domestic violence index.
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Ordered Probit Model | Ordered Logit Model | ||
Variable | |||
−0.1318 *** | −0.0951 *** | −0.1557 *** | |
(0.0307) | (0.0212) | (0.0368) | |
−0.0099 | −0.0047 | −0.0216 | |
(0.0232) | (0.0160) | (0.0281) | |
−0.0178 *** | −0.0129 *** | −0.0250 *** | |
(0.0018) | (0.0013) | (0.0021) | |
0.6911 *** | 0.4814 *** | 0.8277 *** | |
(0.0316) | (0.0221) | (0.0386) | |
−0.9048 *** | −0.6448 *** | −1.1659 *** | |
(0.0493) | (0.0345) | (0.0617) | |
0.0938 | 0.0613 | 0.1156 | |
(0.0634) | (0.0436) | (0.0779) | |
0.2589 *** | 0.1931 *** | 0.3401 *** | |
(0.0389) | (0.0268) | (0.0467) | |
0.1881 *** | 0.1360 *** | 0.2413 *** | |
(0.0384) | (0.0264) | (0.0460) | |
0.1564 *** | 0.1075 *** | 0.1845 *** | |
(0.0156) | (0.0106) | (0.0187) | |
0.1206 *** | 0.0842 *** | 0.1457 *** | |
(0.0103) | (0.0071) | (0.0124) | |
−0.1351 ** | −0.0864 ** | −0.1531 ** | |
(0.0634) | (0.0436) | (0.0756) | |
−0.1969 *** | −0.1342 *** | −0.2421 *** | |
(0.0595) | (0.0412) | (0.0724) | |
−0.0860 * | −0.0508 | −0.1063 * | |
(0.0516) | (0.0353) | (0.0617) | |
−0.0928 * | −0.0721 ** | −0.1287 ** | |
(0.0484) | (0.0336) | (0.0577) | |
−0.0113 | −0.0050 | −0.0068 | |
(0.0088) | (0.0060) | (0.0105) | |
−0.1007 * | −0.0577 | −0.1071 | |
(0.0593) | (0.0405) | (0.0700) | |
0.0298 | −0.0391 | −0.1376 | |
(0.3549) | (0.2225) | (0.3348) | |
−0.2785 ** | −0.2048 ** | −0.4052 *** | |
(0.1314) | (0.0897) | (0.1475) | |
0.2301 *** | 0.1631 *** | 0.2854 *** | |
(0.0172) | (0.0119) | (0.0208) | |
−0.0230 | −0.0203 | −0.0303 | |
(0.0209) | (0.0144) | (0.0250) | |
Constant term | 4.6869 *** | ||
(0.1794) | |||
Observation object | 9642 | 9642 | 9642 |
0.1808 |
Note: Robust standard deviation in brackets; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1; the estimated result of the tangent point value is omitted.
It can be seen from the estimation results of the marginal effect that when the domestic violence index takes the average value, the marginal effect of the probability value P ( E d u = 4 ) (being educated to graduate from primary school) on the domestic violence index is 0.0056, and for other levels of education, the marginal effect is significantly less than 0. Therefore, it can be seen that domestic violence significantly reduces educational achievements after primary school graduation.
To intuitively explain the estimation results of the ordered logit model, we can also use the generalized ordered logit model in addition to the probability ratio. The generalized ordered logit model converts the ordered logit model into several logit models, which is consistent with the above. Typical primary school graduation, junior high school graduation, senior high school graduation, technical secondary school graduation, junior college graduation and undergraduate graduation are selected as the threshold for model transformation; that is, the impact of the domestic violence index on the probability value P ( E d u ≥ k | X ) ( k = 4 , 5 , ⋯ , 9 ) is mainly examined, with the estimation results of the probability ratio shown in Figure 3 . It can be seen from the estimated results of the probability ratio that, if the domestic violence index increases by 1 unit, the probability ratio of attaining primary school graduation and above will decrease by 13.42%, the probability ratio of attaining junior high school graduation and above will decrease by 13.72% and the probability ratios of attaining high school graduation, technical secondary school graduation, junior college graduation, undergraduate graduation and above will decrease by 21.11, 16.94, 14.45 and 17.61%, respectively. According to the estimation results of the OLS estimation, the ordered probit/logit model and the generalized logit model, domestic violence significantly reduces the educational achievements of respondents.
The domestic violence index is composed of four dimensions, and the impact of each dimension on educational achievements may be inconsistent. In view of this, in the heterogeneity analysis, the domestic violence index is subdivided into four dimensions, and the corresponding estimation results are shown in Table 5 . It can be seen from the above estimation results that the OLS estimation and the coefficient estimation of the ordered probit/logit model are consistent in significance and sign, so the OLS estimation results of the linear model are used to explain the practical meaning of the model. At the 1% confidence level, among the four dimensions, only the emotional abuse dimension has a significant negative impact on educational achievement; that is, compared with the other three dimensions, emotional abuse has the most prominent negative impact on educational achievement. Specifically, if the emotional abuse index increased by 1 unit, the education level decreased by 0.0759. This is because emotional abuse will affect children’s cognitive development and impair their memory and cognitive ability to a certain extent, making them likely to encounter difficulties in learning, thus affecting their academic performance and then their education level. From another perspective, scholars have found that the level of education will adjust the impact of domestic violence on individuals, so the level of education is an important factor to consider the impact of domestic violence on individuals [ 34 ].
Results of the dimensional heterogeneity analysis.
Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) |
---|---|---|---|
Ordered Probit Model | Ordered Logit Model | ||
0.0288 | 0.0238 | 0.0506 * | |
(0.0229) | (0.0158) | (0.0277) | |
−0.0228 | −0.0159 | −0.0254 | |
(0.0178) | (0.0122) | (0.0212) | |
−0.0759 *** | −0.0565 *** | −0.0970 *** | |
(0.0162) | (0.0112) | (0.0193) | |
−0.0283 | −0.0217 | −0.0399 | |
(0.0347) | (0.0240) | (0.0419) | |
Constant term | 4.6315 *** | ||
(0.1818) | |||
Observation object | 9642 | 9642 | 9642 |
0.1819 | |||
Control variable | √ | √ | √ |
Note: Robust standard deviation in brackets; *** p < 0.01, * p < 0.1; the estimated results of control variables and tangent point values are omitted.
Similar to the above, this part also uses the linear model for empirical research. The Breusch–Pagan test shows that the residual terms of the simultaneous equations are correlated, so the seemingly uncorrelated panel model is used to estimate the simultaneous equations. The estimation results are shown in Table 6 . At the 1% confidence level, the domestic violence index has a significant negative impact on the self-assessment health level and life satisfaction. If the domestic violence index increases by 1 unit, the self-assessment health level decreases by 0.0320, and life satisfaction decreases by 0.0948. Furthermore, the domestic violence index is divided into four levels. For health self-evaluation, at the 1% confidence level, only the emotional abuse dimension has a significant negative impact on the health self-evaluation level, which increases by 1 unit, while the self-evaluation health level decreases by 0.0267. In the life satisfaction equation, at the 1 or 5% confidence level, injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence all have significant negative impacts on life satisfaction. For each increase in the index of each dimension, life satisfaction decreases by 0.0240, 0.0189, 0.0314, and 0.0216 levels, in turn. In general, domestic violence significantly reduces the self-rated health level and life satisfaction. This is because domestic violence causes great harm to the victims, directly damages the physical and mental health of the victims and causes long-term mental tension, anxiety and fear in the victims. At the same time, because domestic violence makes it difficult for victims to feel warmth from family, life satisfaction will be greatly reduced.
Estimated results of domestic violence, health and life satisfaction.
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | ||||
0.5700 *** | 0.5681 *** | |||
(0.0079) | (0.0079) | |||
0.3444 *** | 0.3434 *** | |||
(0.0048) | (0.0048) | |||
−0.0320 *** | −0.0948 *** | |||
(0.0116) | (0.0090) | |||
−0.0005 | −0.0240 *** | |||
(0.0087) | (0.0067) | |||
0.0078 | −0.0189 *** | |||
(0.0066) | (0.0051) | |||
−0.0276 *** | −0.0314 *** | |||
(0.0061) | (0.0048) | |||
−0.0050 | −0.0216 ** | |||
(0.0129) | (0.0100) | |||
Constant term | 1.5371 *** | 1.6178 *** | 1.5406 *** | 1.6256 *** |
(0.0755) | (0.0582) | (0.0760) | (0.0586) | |
Sample size | 23,861 | 23,861 | 23,861 | 23,861 |
0.0903 | 0.0779 | 0.0914 | 0.0786 | |
Control variable | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Time-fixed effect | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Note: Robust standard deviation in brackets; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05; the estimated results of other control variables and tangent point values are omitted.
On the basis of the above, health is further divided into physical health and mental health, characterized by biomarker indicators and depression score indicators. The corresponding estimation results are shown in Table 7 . At the 1% confidence level, the domestic violence index has a significant positive impact on depression scores; at the 5% confidence level, the domestic violence index significantly increases the abnormal frequency of blood test indicators. Specifically, in the simultaneous equation of DM and depression scores, if the domestic violence index increased by 1 unit, the depression score increased by 0.6591 points; in the simultaneous equation of the abnormal frequency of blood test index and depression scores, if the domestic violence index increased by 1 unit, the abnormal frequency of blood test index increased by 0.0532 units, and the depression score increased by 0.6617 points. Furthermore, the domestic violence index is divided into four dimensions. At the 1% confidence level, the three indexes of injury from violence, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence significantly improved the depression score but have no significant impact on the two health risk indicators based on blood test indicators. Therefore, on the whole, it can be determined that domestic violence increases the subjective mental health risk.
Estimated results of domestic violence and physical and mental health.
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Simultaneous Equation (1) | Simultaneous Equation (2) | Simultaneous Equation (3) | Simultaneous Equation (4) | |||||
Variable | ||||||||
0.0147 *** | 0.0063 *** | 0.0148 *** | 0.0061 ** | |||||
(0.0029) | (0.0024) | (0.0029) | (0.0024) | |||||
0.2004 *** | 0.2014 *** | |||||||
(0.0395) | (0.0395) | |||||||
0.1291 *** | 0.1252 ** | |||||||
(0.0487) | (0.0486) | |||||||
0.0400 | 0.6591 *** | 0.0532 ** | 0.6617 *** | |||||
(0.0329) | (0.1210) | (0.0267) | (0.1210) | |||||
0.0184 | 0.2255 ** | 0.0265 | 0.2264 ** | |||||
(0.0249) | (0.0918) | (0.0203) | (0.0919) | |||||
0.0240 | 0.0562 | 0.0192 | 0.0588 | |||||
(0.0186) | (0.0687) | (0.0151) | (0.0687) | |||||
−0.0018 | 0.1838 *** | −0.0031 | 0.1842 *** | |||||
(0.0174) | (0.0640) | (0.0141) | (0.0640) | |||||
−0.0054 | 0.4847 *** | 0.0428 | 0.4793 *** | |||||
(0.0366) | (0.1348) | (0.0298) | (0.1349) | |||||
Constant term | 2.6178 *** | 18.4491 *** | 0.0666 | 19.0057 *** | 2.6204 *** | 18.1320 *** | 0.0401 | 18.6963 *** |
(0.2124) | (0.7650) | (0.1726) | (0.7566) | (0.2139) | (0.7710) | (0.1738) | (0.7627) | |
Sample size | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 |
0.0200 | 0.1255 | 0.0162 | 0.1255 | 0.0201 | 0.1267 | 0.0165 | 0.1267 | |
Control variable | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Time-fixed effect | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Calculating the domestic violence index through dimension reduction can quantify the degree of domestic violence experienced by the interviewees in general, but it will also lose some of the indicator information. In view of this, in the robustness test, directly using the secondary indicators as explanatory variables is proposed, with the estimated results shown in Table 8 . In the education decision equation, at the 1% confidence level, only the relationship with the mother has a significant negative impact on education level. In the simultaneous equation of self-rated health and life satisfaction, for self-rated health, at the 5% confidence level, only the relationship with the mother has a significant negative impact. For life satisfaction, at the 1% confidence level, whether the father has injuries from violence, whether the mother has invested enough in taking care of herself and the relationship with the father have significant negative effects. In the two simultaneous equations of health risk, seven secondary indicators have no significant impact on the health risk indicators based on blood test indicators. For subjective mental health, at the 1 or 5% confidence level, whether the mother behaved violently, the relationship with the mother and whether domestic violence was witnessed have significant positive effects on the depression score. In general, the secondary indicators in the dimension of emotional abuse have a particularly prominent impact on educational achievement, life satisfaction and mental health, which verifies the main conclusions of the empirical study.
Estimation results of the robustness test.
Variable | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Equation (2) | Equation (3) | Equation (4) | Equation (5) | ||||
0.0271 | −0.0071 | −0.0065 | −0.0119 | 0.1874 ** | 0.0105 | 0.1841 ** | |
(0.0203) | (0.0076) | (0.0059) | (0.0216) | (0.0797) | (0.0176) | (0.0797) | |
−0.0009 | 0.0079 | −0.0184 *** | 0.0342 | 0.0179 | 0.0170 | 0.0228 | |
(0.0227) | (0.0086) | (0.0067) | (0.0247) | (0.0909) | (0.0201) | (0.0909) | |
−0.0189 | 0.0083 | −0.0198 *** | 0.0247 | 0.0391 | 0.0190 | 0.0418 | |
(0.0179) | (0.0066) | (0.0052) | (0.0188) | (0.0693) | (0.0153) | (0.0693) | |
−0.0825 *** | −0.0178 ** | −0.0086 | 0.0006 | 0.2280 *** | 0.0002 | 0.2286 *** | |
(0.0225) | (0.0083) | (0.0064) | (0.0235) | (0.0867) | (0.0191) | (0.0867) | |
0.0051 | −0.0100 | −0.0227 *** | −0.0023 | −0.0394 | −0.0034 | −0.0395 | |
(0.0219) | (0.0080) | (0.0062) | (0.0229) | (0.0843) | (0.0186) | (0.0843) | |
−0.0114 | −0.0129 | −0.0099 | −0.0132 | 0.4454 *** | 0.0141 | 0.4419 *** | |
(0.0272) | (0.0101) | (0.0079) | (0.0288) | (0.1061) | (0.0234) | (0.1061) | |
−0.0366 | 0.0218 | −0.0124 | 0.0154 | −0.1544 | 0.0529 | −0.1583 | |
(0.0490) | (0.0187) | (0.0145) | (0.0539) | (0.1986) | (0.0438) | (0.1987) | |
0.5682 *** | |||||||
(0.0079) | |||||||
0.3434 *** | |||||||
(0.0048) | |||||||
0.0149 *** | 0.0061 *** | ||||||
(0.0029) | (0.0024) | ||||||
0.2027 *** | |||||||
(0.0395) | |||||||
0.1265 *** | |||||||
(0.0486) | |||||||
Constant term | 4.6471 *** | 1.5254 *** | 1.6271 *** | 2.6113 *** | 18.3200 *** | 0.0161 | 18.8899 *** |
(0.1851) | (0.0770) | (0.0594) | (0.2166) | (0.7802) | (0.1760) | (0.7720) | |
Sample size | 9642 | 23,861 | 23,861 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 | 8698 |
0.1824 | 0.0915 | 0.0787 | 0.0202 | 0.1275 | 0.0166 | 0.1275 | |
Control variable | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Fixed-time effect | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Domestic violence includes not only physical violence but also mental violence with regard to neglect, emotional abuse, etc. Therefore, this study estimates a domestic violence index from the four aspects of injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence, and then takes the CHARLS (2011, 2013, 2015, 2018) and the “life course” survey as sample data to assess the impact of domestic violence on personal education, health and life satisfaction, in turn. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Domestic violence significantly reduced the respondents’ educational achievements. Compared with the three dimensions of injury from violence, negligent care and witnessing domestic violence, emotional abuse had the most significant negative impact on educational achievements. (2) Domestic violence significantly reduced the self-rated health level and life satisfaction and significantly increased the mental health risk of the respondents.
The above conclusions have important policy implications for optimizing social governance strategies. Domestic violence has far-reaching negative impacts on personal education, health and life satisfaction. To prevent domestic violence and heal the trauma caused, based on its complexity and concealment, we believe that its long-term impact on individuals should be approached from the following four perspectives.
First, a domestic violence monitoring system should be built. Domestic violence has the characteristics of being long-term and repeated, so it is necessary to find the families involved and prevent recurrence in a timely manner. On one hand, the tracking mechanism should be strengthened: for people with low educational achievements and low physical and mental satisfaction (especially young people), society, schools and families should be vigilant in tracing domestic violence back to the source to prevent long-term negative impacts. On the other hand, the feedback mechanism should be strengthened: for those who have suffered from domestic violence, the probability of being subjected to repeated domestic violence is greatly increased. Therefore, they should be encouraged to express their concerns freely, and in the future, a “one-to-one” follow-up mechanism, and a “fixed + random” feedback mechanism should be established to strengthen the ability of victims to provide feedback and communicate with the relevant departments.
Second, the harm caused by emotional abuse and other mental abuse should be confronted. On one hand, the consciousness of the victims needs to be awakened. Domestic violence refers not only to physical violence but also emotional abuse, neglect and other spiritual mistreatment. However, compared with physical violence, the biggest dilemma surrounding domestic psychological abuse is that the victims do not comprehend it themselves but instead feel extreme emotional pain and depression. Therefore, it is necessary to make the content and methods of domestic psychological abuse known, so that the parties who are unknowingly experiencing it will become aware and safeguard their rights. On the other hand, we should establish a working mechanism for linking the authorities that deal with domestic violence. The difficulty in determining if domestic violence is occurring is that it is not easy to obtain evidence, and many victims are unable to enter the judicial process. Therefore, the judicial department should link with women’s federations, neighborhood committees, village committees and other departments to deal with cases of psychological abuse flexibly and quickly, integrating evidence collection, assistance and protection.
Third, attention should be paid to the long-term impact of domestic violence on individuals. On one hand, many perpetrators do not realize that domestic violence is a crime; on the other hand, they ignore the long-term harm to individuals caused by domestic violence. Therefore, we should not only enhance the public’s legal understanding of domestic violence but also use new media to publicize the serious harm that can be caused to individuals as a result of domestic violence. Furthermore, family moral education needs to be strengthened, and the establishment of harmonious families advocated.
Fourth, it is necessary for domestic violence to be prevented at the source. Accordingly, we must go deep into communities to facilitate an understanding of the legal issues related to family disputes [ 35 , 36 ], not only to issue personal safety protection orders to the victims but also to use laws and regulations to intervene and correct the behavior of the perpetrators [ 37 ]. Finally, we need to fully investigate and establish a family violence litigation protection base and form a “one-stop” litigation processing procedure that is simple and smooth, with privacy protections.
This research was funded by the Hunan Health Economics and Information Society, grant number 2022B07.
L.B. and P.Y. generated the idea and study design, collected data, and carried out the data analysis and write up. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Domestic violence: public reactions and strategic interventions, causes and impacts of domestic violence against women: cases in indonesia, analysis of protection and recovery efforts against victims of domestic violence especially children and women, rejecting domestic violence in malaysia based on the qur’an and prophetic traditions, intimate partner violence against women: operationalized psychodynamic diagnosis (opd-2), 'i am not safe at my home' causes and effects of intimate partner violence during covid-19 (preprint), penal mediation in the settlement of criminal of household violence by husband towards wife from the social order era of the pandemic of covid-19, a qualitative study to investigate male victims’ experiences of female-perpetrated domestic abuse in jordan, the role of patriarchal structure and gender stereotypes in cyber dating abuse: a qualitative examination of male perpetrators experiences., investigating the relationship between socioeconomic status and domestic violence against women in isfahan, iran in 2021: a cross‐sectional study, 52 references, the risk factor of domestic violence in india, domestic violence against women in turkey: a systematic review and meta analysis., a predictive model of domestic violence in multicultural families focusing on perpetrator..
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Violence against women is one of the most widespread, persistent and detrimental violations of human rights in today’s world, which has not been reported in most cases due to impunity, silence, stigma and shame, even in the age of social communication. Domestic violence against women harms individuals, families, and society. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and experiences of domestic violence against women in Semnan.
This study was conducted as mixed research (cross-sectional descriptive and phenomenological qualitative methods) to investigate domestic violence against women, and some related factors (quantitative) and experiences of such violence (qualitative) simultaneously in Semnan. In quantitative study, cluster sampling was conducted based on the areas covered by health centers from married women living in Semnan since March 2021 to March 2022 using Domestic Violence Questionnaire. Then, the obtained data were analyzed by descriptive and inferential statistics. In qualitative study by phenomenological approach and purposive sampling until data saturation, 9 women were selected who had referred to the counseling units of Semnan health centers due to domestic violence, since March 2021 to March 2022 and in-depth and semi-structured interviews were conducted. The conducted interviews were analyzed using Colaizzi’s 7-step method.
In qualitative study, seven themes were found including “Facilitators”, “Role failure”, “Repressors”, “Efforts to preserve the family”, “Inappropriate solving of family conflicts”, “Consequences”, and “Inefficient supportive systems”. In quantitative study, the variables of age, age difference and number of years of marriage had a positive and significant relationship, and the variable of the number of children had a negative and significant relationship with the total score and all fields of the questionnaire (p < 0.05). Also, increasing the level of female education and income both independently showed a significant relationship with increasing the score of violence.
Some of the variables of violence against women are known and the need for prevention and plans to take action before their occurrence is well felt. Also, supportive mechanisms with objective and taboo-breaking results should be implemented to minimize harm to women, and their children and families seriously.
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Violence against women by husbands (physical, sexual and psychological violence) is one of the basic problems of public health and violation of women’s human rights. It is estimated that 35% of women and almost one out of every three women aged 15–49 experience physical or sexual violence by their spouse or non-spouse sexual violence in their lifetime [ 1 ]. This is a nationwide public health issue, and nearly every healthcare worker will encounter a patient who has suffered from some type of domestic or family violence. Unfortunately, different forms of family violence are often interconnected. The “cycle of abuse” frequently persists from children who witness it to their adult relationships, and ultimately to the care of the elderly [ 2 ]. This violence includes a range of physical, sexual and psychological actions, control, threats, aggression, abuse, and rape [ 3 ].
Violence against women is one of the most widespread, persistent, and detrimental violations of human rights in today’s world, which has not been reported in most cases due to impunity, silence, stigma and shame, even in the age of social communication [ 3 ]. In the United States of America, more than one in three women (35.6%) experience rape, physical violence, and intimate partner violence (IPV) during their lifetime. Compared to men, women are nearly twice as likely (13.8% vs. 24.3%) to experience severe physical violence such as choking, burns, and threats with knives or guns [ 4 ]. The higher prevalence of violence against women can be due to the situational deprivation of women in patriarchal societies [ 5 ]. The prevalence of domestic violence in Iran reported 22.9%. The maximum of prevalence estimated in Tehran and Zahedan, respectively [ 6 ]. Currently, Iran has high levels of violence against women, and the provinces with the highest rates of unemployment and poverty also have the highest levels of violence against women [ 7 ].
Domestic violence against women harms individuals, families, and society [ 8 ]. Violence against women leads to physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, including threats, coercion and arbitrary deprivation of their freedom in public and private life. Also, such violence is associated with harmful effects on women’s sexual reproductive health, including sexually transmitted infection such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), abortion, unsafe childbirth, and risky sexual behaviors [ 9 ]. There are high levels of psychological, sexual and physical domestic abuse among pregnant women [ 10 ]. Also, women with postpartum depression are significantly more likely to experience domestic violence during pregnancy [ 11 ].
Prompt attention to women’s health and rights at all levels is necessary, which reduces this problem and its risk factors [ 12 ]. Because women prefer to remain silent about domestic violence and there is a need to introduce immediate prevention programs to end domestic violence [ 13 ]. violence against women, which is an important public health problem, and concerns about human rights require careful study and the application of appropriate policies [ 14 ]. Also, the efforts to change the circumstances in which women face domestic violence remain significantly insufficient [ 15 ]. Given that few clear studies on violence against women and at the same time interviews with these people regarding their life experiences are available, the authors attempted to planning this research aims to investigate the prevalence and experiences of domestic violence against women in Semnan with the research question of “What is the prevalence of domestic violence against women in Semnan, and what are their experiences of such violence?”, so that their results can be used in part of the future planning in the health system of the society.
This study is a combination of cross-sectional and phenomenology studies in order to investigate the amount of domestic violence against women and some related factors (quantitative) and their experience of this violence (qualitative) simultaneously in the Semnan city. This study has been approved by the ethics committee of Semnan University of Medical Sciences with ethic code of IR.SEMUMS.REC.1397.182. The researcher introduced herself to the research participants, explained the purpose of the study, and then obtained informed written consent. It was assured to the research units that the collected information will be anonymous and kept confidential. The participants were informed that participation in the study was entirely voluntary, so they can withdraw from the study at any time with confidence. The participants were notified that more than one interview session may be necessary. To increase the trustworthiness of the study, Guba and Lincoln’s criteria for rigor, including credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability [ 16 ], were applied throughout the research process. The COREQ checklist was used to assess the present study quality. The researchers used observational notes for reflexivity and it preserved in all phases of this qualitative research process.
Based on the phenomenological approach and with the purposeful sampling method, nine women who had referred to the counseling units of healthcare centers in Semnan city due to domestic violence in February 2021 to March 2022 were participated in the present study. The inclusion criteria for the study included marriage, a history of visiting a health center consultant due to domestic violence, and consent to participate in the study and unwillingness to participate in the study was the exclusion criteria. Each participant invited to the study by a telephone conversation about study aims and researcher information. The interviews place selected through agreement of the participant and the researcher and a place with the least environmental disturbance. Before starting each interview, the informed consent and all of the ethical considerations, including the purpose of the research, voluntary participation, confidentiality of the information were completely explained and they were asked to sign the written consent form. The participants were interviewed by depth, semi-structured and face-to-face interviews based on the main research question. Interviews were conducted by a female health services researcher with a background in nursing (M.Sh.). Data collection was continued until the data saturation and no new data appeared. Only the participants and the researcher were present during the interviews. All interviews were recorded by a MP3 Player by permission of the participants before starting. Interviews were not repeated. No additional field notes were taken during or after the interview.
The age range of the participants was from 38 to 55 years and their average age was 40 years. The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants are summarized in table below (Table 1 ).
Five interviews in the courtyards of healthcare centers, 2 interviews in the park, and 2 interviews at the participants’ homes were conducted. The duration of the interviews varied from 45 min to one hour. The main research question was “What is your experience about domestic violence?“. According to the research progress some other questions were asked in line with the main question of the research.
The conducted interviews were analyzed by using the 7 steps Colizzi’s method [ 17 ]. In order to empathize with the participants, each interview was read several times and transcribed. Then two researchers (M.Sh. and M.N.) extracted the phrases that were directly related to the phenomenon of domestic violence against women independently and distinguished from other sentences by underlining them. Then these codes were organized into thematic clusters and the formulated concepts were sorted into specific thematic categories.
In the final stage, in order to make the data reliable, the researcher again referred to 2 participants and checked their agreement with their perceptions of the content. Also, possible important contents were discussed and clarified, and in this way, agreement and approval of the samples was obtained.
The cross-sectional study was implemented from February 2021 to March 2022 with cluster sampling of married women in areas of 3 healthcare centers in Semnan city. Those participants who were married and agreed with the written and verbal informed consent about the ethical considerations were included to the study. The questionnaire was completed by the participants in paper and online form.
The instrument was the standard questionnaire of domestic violence against women by Mohseni Tabrizi et al. [ 18 ]. In the questionnaire, questions 1–10, 11–36, 37–65 and 66–71 related to sociodemographic information, types of spousal abuse (psychological, economical, physical and sexual violence), patriarchal beliefs and traditions and family upbringing and learning violence, respectively. In total, this questionnaire has 71 items.
The scoring of the questionnaire has two parts and the answers to them are based on the Likert scale. Questions 11–36 and 66–71 are answered with always [ 4 ] to never (0) and questions 37–65 with completely agree [ 4 ] to completely disagree (0). The minimum and maximum score is 0 and 300, respectively. The total score of 0–60, 61–120 and higher than 121 demonstrates low, moderate and severe domestic violence against women, respectively [ 18 ].
In the study by Tabrizi et al., to evaluate the validity and reliability of this questionnaire, researchers tried to measure the face validity of the scale by the previous research. Those items and questions which their accuracies were confirmed by social science professors and experts used in the research, finally. The total Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.183, which confirmed that the reliability of the questions and items of the questionnaire is sufficient [ 18 ].
Descriptive data were reported using mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentage. Then, to measure the relationship between the variables, χ2 and Pearson tests also variance and regression analysis were performed. All analysis were performed by using SPSS version 26 and the significance level was considered as p < 0.05.
According to the third step of Colaizzi’s 7-step method, the researcher attempted to conceptualize and formulate the extracted meanings. In this step, the primary codes were extracted from the important sentences related to the phenomenon of violence against women, which were marked by underlining, which are shown below as examples of this stage and coding.
The primary code of indifference to the father’s role was extracted from the following sentences. This is indifference in the role of the father in front of the children.
“Some time ago, I told him that our daughter is single-sided deaf. She has a doctor’s appointment; I have to take her to the doctor. He said that I don’t have money to give you. He doesn’t force himself to make money anyway” (p 2, 33 yrs).
“He didn’t value his own children. He didn’t think about his older children” (p 4, 54 yrs).
The primary code extracted here included lack of commitment in the role of head of the household. This is irresponsibility towards the family and meeting their needs.
“My husband was fired from work after 10 years due to disorder and laziness. Since then, he has not found a suitable job. Every time he went to work, he was fired after a month because of laziness” (p 7, 55 yrs).
“In the evening, he used to get dressed and go out, and he didn’t come back until late. Some nights, I was so afraid of being alone that I put a knife under my pillow when I slept” (p 2, 33 yrs).
A total of 246 primary codes were extracted from the interviews in the third step. In the fourth step, the researchers put the formulated concepts (primary codes) into 85 specific sub-categories.
Twenty-three categories were extracted from 85 sub-categories. In the sixth step, the concepts of the fifth step were integrated and formed seven themes (Table 2 ).
These themes included “Facilitators”, “Role failure”, “Repressors”, “Efforts to preserve the family”, “Inappropriate solving of family conflicts”, “Consequences”, and “Inefficient supportive systems” (Fig. 1 ).
Themes of domestic violence against women
Some of the statements of the participants on the theme of “ Facilitators” are listed below:
“He got his death sentence for drugs. But, at last it was ended for 10 years” (p 4, 54 yrs).
“At the age of thirteen, I married a boy who was 25 years old” (p 8, 25 yrs).
“My first husband obeyed her parents. I was 12–13 years old” (p 3, 32 yrs).
“I couldn’t do anything. I was humiliated” (p 1, 38 yrs).
“A bridegroom came. The mother was against. She said, I am young. My older sister is not married yet, but I was eager to get married. I don’t know, maybe my father’s house was boring for me” (p 2, 33 yrs).
“My parents used to argue badly. They blamed each other and I always wanted to run away from these arguments. I didn’t have the patience to talk to mom or dad and calm them down” (p 5, 39 yrs).
“My husband’s parents don’t stop interfering, but my husband doesn’t say anything because he is a student of his father. My husband is self-employed and works with his father on a truck” (p 8, 25 yrs).
“Every time I argue with my husband because of lack of money, my mother-in-law supported her son and brought him up very spoiled and lazy” (p 7, 55 yrs).
“After three years, my mother married her friend with my uncle’s insistence and went to Shiraz. But, his condition was that she did not have the right to bring his daughter with her. In fact, my mother also got married out of necessity” (p 8, 25 yrs).
Some of their other statements related to “ Role failure” are mentioned below:
“I got angry several times and went to my father’s house because of my husband’s bad financial status and the fact that he doesn’t feel responsible to work and always says that he cannot find a job” (p 6, 48 yrs).
“I saw that he does not want to change in any way” (p 4, 54 yrs).
“No matter how kind I am, it does not work” (p 1, 38 yrs).
Some of their other statements regarding “ Repressors” are listed below:
“My mother always forced me to continue living with my husband. Finally, my father had been poor. She all said that you didn’t listen to me when you wanted to get married, so you don’t have the right to get angry and come to me, I’m miserable enough” (p 2, 33 yrs).
“Because I suffered a lot in my first marital life. I was very humiliated. I said I would be fine with that. To be kind” (p1, 38 yrs).
“Well, I tell myself that he gets angry sometimes” (p 3, 32 yrs).
“I don’t want my daughter-in-law to know. She is not a relative” (p 4, 54 yrs).
Some of the statements of the participants regarding the theme of “ Efforts to preserve the family” are listed below:
“I always hope in God and I am patient” (p 2, 33 yrs).
“My divorce took a month. We got a divorce. I forgave my dowry and took my children instead” (p 2, 33 yrs).
Some of their other statements regarding the “ Inappropriate solving of family conflicts” are listed below:
“My husband wanted to take me to a doctor to treat me. But my father-in-law refused and said that instead of doing this and spending money, marry again. Marriage in the clans was much easier than any other work” (p 8, 25 yrs).
“I was nervous about him, but I didn’t say anything” (p 5, 39 yrs).
“Now I am satisfied with my life and thank God it is better to listen to people’s words. Now there is someone above me so that people don’t talk behind me” (p 2, 33 yrs).
Some of their other statements regarding the “ Consequences” are listed below:
“My eldest daughter, who was about 7–8 years old, behaved differently. Oh, I was angry. My children are mentally depressed and argue” (p 5, 39 yrs).
“Even though I got a divorce, my mother and I came to a remote area due to the fear of what my family would say” (p 2, 33 yrs).
“I work at a retirement center for living expenses” (p 2, 33 yrs).
“I had to go to clean the houses” (p 5, 39 yrs).
“The children’s relationship with their father became bad. Because every time they saw their father sitting at home smoking, they got angry” (p 7, 55 yrs).
“When I look back, I regret why I was not careful in my choice” (p 7, 55 yrs).
“I felt very bad. For being married to a man who is not bound by the family and is capricious” (p 9, 36 yrs).
Some of their other statements regarding “ Inefficient supportive systems” are listed below:
“We didn’t have children. I was at my father’s house for about a month. After a month, when I came home, I saw that my husband had married again. I cried a lot that day. He said, God, I had to. I love you. My heart is broken, I have no one to share my words” (p 8, 25 yrs).
“My brother-in-law was like himself. His parents had also died. His sister did not listen at all” (p 4, 54 yrs).
“I didn’t have anyone and I was alone” (p 1, 38 yrs).
“That day he argued with me, picked me up and threw me down some stairs in the middle of the yard. He came closer, sat on my stomach, grabbed my neck with both of his hands and wanted to strangle me. Until a long time later, I had kidney problems and my neck was bruised by her hand. Given that my aunt and her family were with us in a building, but she had no desire to testify and was afraid” (p 3, 32 yrs).
“I told my mother, you just said no, how old I was? You never insisted on me and you didn’t listen to me that this man is not good for you” (p 9, 36 yrs).
In the present study, 376 married women living in Semnan city participated in this study. The mean age of participants was 38.52 ± 10.38 years. The youngest participant was 18 and the oldest was 73 years old. The maximum age difference was 16 years. The years of marriage varied from one year to 40 years. Also, the number of children varied from no children to 7. The majority of them had 2 children (109, 29%). The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants are summarized in the table below (Table 3 ).
The frequency distribution (number and percentage) of the participants in terms of the level of violence was as follows. 89 participants (23.7%) had experienced low violence, 59 participants (15.7%) had experienced moderate violence, and 228 participants (60.6%) had experienced severe violence.
Cronbach’s alpha for the reliability of the questionnaire was 0.988. The mean and standard deviation of the total score of the questionnaire was 143.60 ± 74.70 with a range of 3-244. The relationship between the total score of the questionnaire and its fields, and some demographic variables is summarized in the table below (Table 4 ).
As shown in the table above, the variables of age, age difference and number of years of marriage have a positive and significant relationship, and the variable of number of children has a negative and significant relationship with the total score and all fields of the questionnaire (p < 0.05). However, the variable of education level difference showed no significant relationship with the total score and any of the fields. Also, the highest average score is related to patriarchal beliefs compared to other fields.
The comparison of the average total scores separately according to each variable showed the significant average difference in the variables of the previous marriage history of the woman, the result of the previous marriage of the woman, the education of the woman, the education of the man, the income of the woman, the income of the man, and the physical disease of the man (p < 0.05).
In the regression model, two variables remained in the final model, indicating the relationship between the variables and violence score and the importance of these two variables. An increase in women’s education and income level both independently show a significant relationship with an increase in violence score (Table 5 ).
The results of analysis of variance to compare the scores of each field of violence in the subgroups of the participants also showed that the experience and result of the woman’s previous marriage has a significant relationship with physical violence and tradition and family upbringing, the experience of the man’s previous marriage has a significant relationship with patriarchal belief, the education level of the woman has a significant relationship with all fields and the level of education of the man has a significant relationship with all fields except tradition and family upbringing (p < 0.05).
According to the results of both quantitative and qualitative studies, variables such as the young age of the woman and a large age difference are very important factors leading to an increase in violence. At a younger age, girls are afraid of the stigma of society and family, and being forced to remain silent can lead to an increase in domestic violence. As Gandhi et al. (2021) stated in their study in the same field, a lower marriage age leads to many vulnerabilities in women. Early marriage is a global problem associated with a wide range of health and social consequences, including violence for adolescent girls and women [ 12 ]. Also, Ahmadi et al. (2017) found similar findings, reporting a significant association among IPV and women age ≤ 40 years [ 19 ].
Two others categories of “Facilitators” in the present study were “Husband’s criminal record” and “Overdependence” which had a sub-category of “Forced cohabitation”. Ahmadi et al. (2017) reported in their population-based study in Iran that husband’s addiction and rented-householders have a significant association with IPV [ 19 ].
The patriarchal beliefs, which are rooted in the tradition and culture of society and family upbringing, scored the highest in relation to domestic violence in this study. On the other hand, in qualitative study, “Normalcy” of men’s anger and harassment of women in society is one of the “Repressors” of women to express violence. In the quantitative study, the increase in the women’s education and income level were predictors of the increase in violence. Although domestic violence is more common in some sections of society, women with a wide range of ages, different levels of education, and at different levels of society face this problem, most of which are not reported. Bukuluki et al. (2021) showed that women who agreed that it is good for a man to control his partner were more likely to experience physical violence [ 20 ].
Domestic violence leads to “Consequences” such as “Harm to children”, “Emotional harm”, “Social harm” to women and even “Non-acceptance in their own family”. Because divorce is a taboo in Iranian culture and the fear of humiliating women forces them to remain silent against domestic violence. Balsarkar (2021) stated that the fear of violence can prevent women from continuing their studies, working or exercising their political rights [ 8 ]. Also, Walker-Descarte et al. (2021) recognized domestic violence as a type of child maltreatment, and these abusive behaviors are associated with mental and physical health consequences [ 21 ].
On the other hand and based on the “Lack of effective communication” category, ignoring the role of the counselor in solving family conflicts and challenges in the life of couples in the present study was expressed by women with reasons such as lack of knowledge and family resistance to counseling. Several pathologies are needed to investigate increased domestic violence in situations such as during women’s pregnancy or infertility. Because the use of counseling for couples as a suitable solution should be considered along with their life challenges. Lin et al. (2022) stated that pregnant women were exposed to domestic violence for low birth weight in full term delivery. Spouse violence screening in the perinatal health care system should be considered important, especially for women who have had full-term low birth weight infants [ 22 ].
Also, lack of knowledge and low level of education have been found as other factors of violence in this study, which is very prominent in both qualitative and quantitative studies. Because the social systems and information about the existing laws should be followed properly in society to act as a deterrent. Psychological training and especially anger control and resilience skills during education at a younger age for girls and boys should be included in educational materials to determine the positive results in society in the long term. Manouchehri et al. (2022) stated that it seems necessary to train men about the negative impact of domestic violence on the current and future status of the family [ 23 ]. Balsarkar (2021) also stated that men and women who have not had the opportunity to question gender roles, attitudes and beliefs cannot change such things. Women who are unaware of their rights cannot claim. Governments and organizations cannot adequately address these issues without access to standards, guidelines and tools [ 8 ]. Machado et al. (2021) also stated that gender socialization reinforces gender inequalities and affects the behavior of men and women. So, highlighting this problem in different fields, especially in primary health care services, is a way to prevent IPV against women [ 24 ].
There was a sub-category of “Inefficiency of social systems” in the participants experiences. Perhaps the reason for this is due to insufficient education and knowledge, or fear of seeking help. Holmes et al. (2022) suggested the importance of ascertaining strategies to improve victims’ experiences with the court, especially when victims’ requests are not met, to increase future engagement with the system [ 25 ]. Sigurdsson (2019) revealed that despite high prevalence numbers, IPV is still a hidden and underdiagnosed problem and neither general practitioner nor our communities are as well prepared as they should be [ 26 ]. Moreira and Pinto da Costa (2021) found that while victims of domestic violence often agree with mandatory reporting, various concerns are still expressed by both victims and healthcare professionals that require further attention and resolution [ 27 ]. It appears that legal and ethical issues in this regard require comprehensive evaluation from the perspectives of victims, their families, healthcare workers, and legal experts. By doing so, better practical solutions can be found to address domestic violence, leading to a downward trend in its occurrence.
Some of the variables of violence against women have been identified and emphasized in many studies, highlighting the necessity of policymaking and social pathology in society to prevent and use operational plans to take action before their occurrence. Breaking the taboo of domestic violence and promoting divorce as a viable solution after counseling to receive objective results should be implemented seriously to minimize harm to women, children, and their families.
Domestic violence against women is an important issue in Iranian society that women resist showing and expressing, making researchers take a long-term process of sampling in both qualitative and quantitative studies. The location of the interview and the women’s fear of their husbands finding out about their participation in this study have been other challenges of the researchers, which, of course, they attempted to minimize by fully respecting ethical considerations. Despite the researchers’ efforts, their personal and professional experiences, as well as the studies reviewed in the literature review section, may have influenced the study results.
Data and materials will be available upon email to the corresponding author.
Intimate Partner Violence
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
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The authors of this study appreciate the Deputy for Research and Technology of Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Social Determinants of Health Research Center of Semnan University of Medical Sciences and all the participants in this study.
Research deputy of Semnan University of Medical Sciences financially supported this project.
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School of Allied Medical Sciences, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
Mina Shayestefar & Mohadese Saffari
Amir Al Momenin Hospital, Social Security Organization, Ahvaz, Iran
Razieh Gholamhosseinzadeh
Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
Monir Nobahar
Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
Monir Nobahar & Majid Mirmohammadkhani
Clinical Research Development Unit, Kowsar Educational, Research and Therapeutic Hospital, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
Seyed Hossein Shahcheragh
Student Research Committee, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
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M.Sh. contributed to the first conception and design of this research; M.Sh., Z.Kh., M.S., R.Gh. and S.H.Sh. contributed to collect data; M.N. and M.Sh. contributed to the analysis of the qualitative data; M.M. and M.Sh. contributed to the analysis of the quantitative data; M.SH., M.N. and M.M. contributed to the interpretation of the data; M.Sh., M.S. and S.H.Sh. wrote the manuscript. M.Sh. prepared the final version of manuscript for submission. All authors reviewed the manuscript meticulously and approved it. All names of the authors were listed in the title page.
Correspondence to Mina Shayestefar .
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This article is resulted from a research approved by the Vice Chancellor for Research of Semnan University of Medical Sciences with ethics code of IR.SEMUMS.REC.1397.182 in the Social Determinants of Health Research Center. The authors confirmed that all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. All participants accepted the participation in the present study. The researchers introduced themselves to the research units, explained the purpose of the research to them and then all participants signed the written informed consent. The research units were assured that the collected information was anonymous. The participant was informed that participating in the study was completely voluntary so that they can safely withdraw from the study at any time and also the availability of results upon their request.
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Shayestefar, M., Saffari, M., Gholamhosseinzadeh, R. et al. A qualitative quantitative mixed methods study of domestic violence against women. BMC Women's Health 23 , 322 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-023-02483-0
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Received : 28 April 2023
Accepted : 14 June 2023
Published : 20 June 2023
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-023-02483-0
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ISSN: 1472-6874
Title: | A Study in Domestic Violence against Women in India Determinants and Consequences |
Researcher: | Patrikar, Seema |
Guide(s): | |
Keywords: | Social Sciences Social Sciences General Sociology |
University: | Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics |
Completed Date: | 2014 |
Abstract: | Although violence at home affects the lives of millions of women worldwide, across diverse socioeconomic classes, it is yet under recognized human rights violation in the world. It can trigger a profound health problem that could sap women s energy, debilitate their physical and mental health, and erode their self-esteem. Until recently, the general view was that cases of violence against women could be appropriately addressed through the social welfare and justice systems. During the past decade, however, the combined efforts of grass-roots and international women s organizations, international experts, and governments have resulted in a profound transformation in public awareness regarding this issue. Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is now widely recognized as a serious human rights abuse. The official United Nations definition of gender-based violence was first presented in 1993 when the General Assembly passed the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. Domestic Violence is a sensitive topic and the varying causes which can spark the violence within the four walls of homes need to be analysed carefully and study of the factors causing the violence may prevent a family to suffer from the menace of domestic violence. In India comprehensive household data on the prevalence and costs of domestic violence are lacking. This hidden nature of domestic violence against women remains so due to the social construction of the divide between public and private affairs, either because women are ashamed to discuss about it, or because no one has thought to ask them about it, or because it is considered as a natural part of culture. Domestic violence is to be perceived not as a law and order problem alone. Its impact has far reaching effects on the family life, health of woman, life of children etc. Studies such as these which examines the causes, its nature and manifestations and consequences would assist the general society. |
Pagination: | v, 270 |
URI: | |
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A cbpr toolkit for domestic violence researchers.
This toolkit is for researchers across disciplines and social locations who are working in academic, policy, community, or practice-based settings. In particular, the toolkit provides support to emerging researchers as they consider whether and how to take a CBPR approach and what it might mean in the context of their professional roles and settings. Domestic violence advocates will also find useful information on the CBPR approach and how it can help answer important questions about your work.
Suggested Citation: Goodman, L.A., Thomas, K.A., Serrata, J.V., Lippy, C., Nnawulezi, N., Ghanbarpour, S., Macy, R., Sullivan, C. & Bair-Merritt, M.A. (2017). Power through partnerships: A CBPR toolkit for domestic violence researchers. National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, Harrisburg, PA. Retrieved from cbprtoolkit.org
Foundational information about the definition and history of CBPR, and more importantly, CBPR within domestic violence work.
How to engage in the self-reflection necessary for conducting CBPR in the domestic violence arena while learning about the community with which you’d like to collaborate.
A description of the core values of CBPR and a set of concrete questions and ideas to help you translate these values into action.
Download these tools with the full toolkit or each individually to save valuable time and resources.
What's the purpose of your study? What will happen during your study? Will my information be kept private? Download this and let others know.
Build your efforts on our solid foundation of CBPR principles based on 30 years of our collective lived experiences. Download and get started.
Two case studies that demonstrate successful collaboration within the CBPR field. Download and read for additional inspiration.
A short summary of a study, potentially useful for practitioners who do not have time to read an article in a journal. Download and see how.
We are a group of CBPR researchers who bring decades of experience doing CBPR from the perspective of different disciplines, professional settings, communities, roles, and identities. Some of us are based in universities and others are based in national organizations. All of us have worked directly in and/or with programs that serve survivors.
We are grateful for the enormous contribution from doctoral students at Boston College and Simmons School of Social Work, our video editor, and of course WT Grant Foundation - who provided the initial investment in this project. We also thank the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, who decided that this toolkit should be more than a local endeavor and supported our efforts to expand it.
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exposure to domestic violence in childhood was the second highest predictor for experiencing domestic violence as an adult (Kimber et al., 2018). By gaining insight into the problem, this research can educate adolescents and adults on the impacts of domestic violence and identify methods to decrease or prevent violence in future relationships.
Intimate partner violence is a more specific term defining one of the most common forms of violence against women which refers to a pattern of assaultive and coercive behavior by an individual ...
1. Introduction. Intimate partner violence is a pervasive global issue, particularly affecting women. According to the World Health Organization (), approximately 30% of women worldwide have experienced violence from their intimate partners.Disturbingly, recent studies indicate that circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupt daily lives on a global scale, have exacerbated ...
The purpose of the present study is to report the prevalence of various forms of domestic violence against women and to examine various related issues from the Central zone. Kavre districts, 2 Bethanchowk VDC, Ward no. 06 of Nepal. The form domestic violence is usually taken to partner abused, specifically violence perpetrated by male partner.
PDF (1.2M) Actions. Cite; Collections. Add to Collections. ... Based on the complexity and concealment of domestic violence, combined with empirical research conclusions, this paper proposes countermeasures to prevent and control domestic violence. ... Domestic violence has the characteristics of being long-term and repeated, so it is necessary ...
A growing group of older women are living in the context of current or previous domestic violence. Latest figures available from the CSEW find lifetime prevalence for women of domestic abuse by a partner is 24.9% for 16-59 year olds and 15.9% for 60-74 year olds.1 This is the first year that data has been collected on women over 60 and no data ...
Domestic violence is a global problem that crosses cultural, geographic, religious, social and economic boundaries and is a violation of human rights. The emerging literatures on domestic violence have focused primarily on risks factor for either the perpetrators or the victims alone without assessing the overlapping relation between the two. Therefore, this article introduces a conceptual ...
The U.S. Department of Justice (2018) has defined domestic violence (DV) as a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner. Domestic violence can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or threats of actions that influence another person. (p. 1)
Abstract. This empirical literature review examines and synthesizes inter-national domestic violence literature related to prevalence, types of violence, honor and dowry killings, health=pregnancy ...
In the United States, about one in four women will experience domestic violence in their lifetime. "About 1,200 women every year are killed by their intimate partners" (The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Justice, 2000, cited by Stein, 2014, p.1). In France, due to its scale and severity, domestic ...
PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED BYSave a Life InternationalFocus of the projectThis is a scale up project focusing on reducing gender-based violence (domestic and sexual violence perpetrated against women, boys and girls) in the home and in the society at large, gender-based violence conflict and post conflict and harmful traditional practices, such ...
Chronic stress can produce physiological responses in children, leading to stress-related illnesses. Children who had experienced domestic violence had behavioural, emotional, and cognitive ...
Violence against women is one of the most widespread, persistent and detrimental violations of human rights in today's world, which has not been reported in most cases due to impunity, silence, stigma and shame, even in the age of social communication. Domestic violence against women harms individuals, families, and society. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and ...
The official United Nations definition of gender-based violence was first presented in 1993 when the General Assembly passed the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. Domestic Violence is a sensitive topic and the varying causes which can spark the violence within the four walls of homes need to be analysed carefully and ...
male victims of domestic violence in our society. Female victims of domestic violence are increasingly treated by society with sympathy and support, while male victims are treated with disbelief. Society‟s view on domestic violence has been reinforced by the media‟s coverage of the issues surrounding domestic violence, portraying females as the
illings on average to fight domestic violence1, the laws andpolicieswhich are eff. Domestic. violence has increased from 2010 to date despite the existence of good laws2 • This has affected. many families in the region Uganda and caused disappointments to families (children, Mothers.
Research Proposal - Free download as Word Doc (.doc), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. A Research Proposal On Domestic Violence on Married Woman (Age 20 to 35) of Rukum District Submitted by Binod Paudel 2014
Abstract. Introduction: Domestic Violence [DV] is a global health problem of pandemic proportions. WHO identifies it as psychological, physical or sexual violence or threats of the same, in the ...
Abstract. Violence against women is partly a result of gender relations that assumes men to be superior to women. Given the subordinate status of women, much of gender violence is considered normal and enjoys social sanction. Violence includes physical aggression, sexual abuse, and psychological violence.
In the 12 months prior to the Personal Safety Survey (2005) (ABS, 2005), 363,000 women were physically assaulted (4.6% of survey participants). The ABS (2005) reported 2.1% (160,100 persons) of women had experienced violence from a current domestic partner, and 15% (1,135,500) reported violence from a previous partner.
The effects of domestic violence are highly influential on children and can result in. emotional problems, such a s depre ssion, emotional confusion, nervousness, fear, possible. adaptation ...
A CBPR Toolkit For Domestic Violence Researchers. This toolkit is for researchers across disciplines and social locations who are working in academic, policy, community, or practice-based settings. In particular, the toolkit provides support to emerging researchers as they consider whether and how to take a CBPR approach and what it might mean ...
The police and institutions charged with implementing the Domestic Violence Act (DVA) experience high workloads and do not implement the provisions of the DVA effectively. Women complain that they ...