police report research paper

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Front Psychol

Commentary: Problems With Police Reports as Data Sources: A Researchers' Perspective

Introduction.

Güss et al. ( 2020 ) recently published an article on problems with police reports as data sources from a researchers' perspective. Based on their research project on police reports, they reported their experiences with conducting research using this type of data, presenting problems they encountered. According to Güss et al., the first problem concerns the limited access to police reports, while the second problem arises from the poor quality of police reports. Their experiences are based in the United States, and it seems that using police reports as a data source did not meet the researchers' expectations. At first glance, one may assume that researchers would find a comparable situation regarding police reports in Germany (and probably in all locations).

Police Data Access and Data Quality

The first problem highlighted by Güss et al. ( 2020 ) derives, not surprisingly, from access to police data in general. Most recently, Geugjes and Terizakis ( 2022 ) reported comparable experiences to Güss et al. ( 2020 ) from their own research project conducted in several federal states of Germany. Similarly to the United States, Germany is federally organized. By constitution (Art. 30 GG), the 16 federal states execute governmental authority by 16 state police forces and have different police laws and specific regulations that determine practical police work and consequently access to police data. Moreover, the willingness of police organizations to support external (independent) research seems to differ both between federal states and within federal states between local police departments. For instance, whether access to police data is permitted may depend on the openness of individual police leaders and the habitus of local police departments (Geugjes and Terizakis, 2022 ; Schöne and Herrnkind, 2022 ).

Research questions concerning the police have high public relevance. However, due to structural circumstances within the federal states of Germany, there is variation in data access and openness to research projects by the police leadership. For instance, the Rhineland-Palatinate police university may be considered as a more “integrated” part of the state police by police leaders themselves, rather than a separate administration. Here, it may be easier to obtain data access, if the police leadership and policymakers are convinced of the practical benefit of a research project. Problematically, data access and openness to research projects may depend on the organizational non-scientific leadership of the police or the interior ministries of the federal states. Even when research projects are welcomed, they may not be prioritized due to lack of personal and financial resources. Additionally, as Staller and Koerner ( 2022 ) noted, research and science may be used as value labels by the police leadership to highlight their own interests, rather than to solve relevant problems within the police. Thus, collaboration between independent researchers and police organizations may be a promising, and even a necessary, step forward.

The second problem advanced by Güss et al. ( 2020 ) refers to the quality of police data itself. In the present commentary, we will try to add some general and fundamental aspects of police reports that were not mentioned by Güss et al. The following issues may be of relevance to illustrate the specific conditions of the genesis of police reports. The expectation of obtaining free access to high-quality police data for research purposes may be somewhat naïve. In applied research, one might typically expect a scientist–practitioner gap as in other applied disciplines, i.e., clinical psychology or industrial-organizational psychology (Anderson et al., 2010 ; Aguinis et al., 2017 ). This gap refers to the poor connection between scientific research generated by academia and the use of this research evidence by practitioners in the field: there is a “mindset clash” between police practitioners and academic researchers. Applied police research has to address differences between science and practice, whereas science needs to achieve the state of pragmatic science with both high methodological rigor and high practical relevance, while police practice needs to be evidence-based (Sherman, 1998 ; Anderson et al., 2010 ).

Specialty of Police Reports

Among many complex factors with the police, the following issues may be of relevance to the researcher–practitioner gap concerning police science: Among many complex factors, the following issues may be of relevance to the researcher–police practitioner gap:

(a) The self-conception of police organizations differentiates from that of scientific organizations. Beside legal restrictions, for instance regarding data protection restricting data access, police organizations do not consider themselves as scientific institutions or “think tanks.” In the course of organizational socialization, police officers originally adopt a mindset as practitioners with less emphasis on scientific rigor or scientific requirements. Thus, the original purpose of police reports is not to provide information for researchers. Although investigative proceedings using police reports, such as the application of criminalistics methods, forensics, and the writing of sound legal reviews, are a highly demanding part of the job, police reports are primarily written with respect to the specific job demands of investigative proceedings rather than the demands of the social sciences.
(b) Güss et al. ( 2020 ) stated that police reports might be biased, while pointing out some highly relevant aspects of bias. Indeed, we would assume that bias itself determines the nature of police reports; they are not objective records of what happened within police operations. Rather, police reports show the underlying cognitive bias and memory susceptibility of those who generate them (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974 ; Loftus, 1979 ; Loftus and Pickrell, 1995 ; Lewinski et al., 2016 ; Loftus et al., 2021 ). Police reports are initially the outcome of behavioral observations, forensics, and interviews or interrogations conducted by the police officers themselves. Here, the competencies, work experience and even word choice of police officers performing investigative interviews and interrogations might affect the data collection, which forms the basis of the subsequent police reports (e.g., Loftus and Palmer, 1974 ; Loftus, 1975 ; Shaw and Porter, 2015 ; Thielgen et al., 2022 ). Secondly, the written product is predominantly a memory report with a time delay, at least to some extent. There are many possibilities for bias within interviewing and memorizing, and different factors can impact them (Cochran et al., 2016 ). In particular, confirmation bias may play the most important role (Nickerson, 1998 ). According to Nickerson ( 1998 , p. 175–176), confirmation bias refers to the human “tendency to search for and interpret information in ways that are partial to existing hypotheses,” while ignoring opposing information to one's hypotheses or interpreting opposing information in terms of one's hypotheses. As Kassin et al. ( 2013 , p. 45) noted, “[…] we use the term forensic confirmation bias to summarize the class of effects through which an individual's preexisting beliefs, expectations, motives, and situational context influence the collection, perception, and interpretation of evidence during the course of a criminal case.” This kind of information processing results in selective perception and interpretation of the environment (Lidén et al., 2018 , 2019 ; Lidén, 2020 ), which is also a factor present in police officers starting the course of a criminal case with police reports. Usually, police officers are educated to search for both incriminating and exculpatory evidence. However, either the conviction of guilt or the presumption of innocence might be prevalent within police officers and hence control investigations, for instance in terms of biased information seeking. In addition, the police officers may actively themselves decide to write or not write a police report, depending on their evaluation of available information about putatively harmless incidents. Presumably, this self-evaluation tendency may also be generalized to other incidents.
(c) In recent police research, the role of police officers' mindset as a warrior or guardian has been repeatedly discussed (Conti, 2011 ; Rahr and Rice, 2015 ; Stoughton, 2016 ; McLean et al., 2019 ). This attitudinal dichotomy represents opposing cultural orientations of militarization and community policing within the police (Koslicki, 2020 ). Police officers who adopt a guardian mindset prefer service-oriented community policing based on principles of procedural justice. They commit to procedural justice procedures emphasizing cooperation, communication, and community within police operations. Their authority is perceived as based on consent with the public. In contrast, police officers adopting a warrior mindset view themselves as crime fighters, favoring an aggressive style of policing. In police–citizen encounters, they advocate a strict “us vs. them” mentality, relying on a need for authority to be asserted (Boivin et al., 2020 ). As police officers' mindsets seem to affect their behavior within police–citizen encounters, it may be assumed that the content of police reports may also be affected by the cultural orientations of police officers writing the reports (McLean et al., 2019 ; Carlson, 2020 ; Koslicki, 2020 ; Clifton et al., 2021 ). Officially, police leadership proclaim the police as a citizens' police (termed “Bürgerpolizei” in Germany), consisting of guardians which serve the public. Nevertheless, individual police officers might act as warriors aiming to engage in rigorous crime-fighting. Police reports may be adopted as a means to an end, e.g., to make sure that the suspect will punish for a crime of which the police officer is convinced.
(d) The role of police officers within police operations can be manifold. Presumably, police officers' role in investigative proceedings may fundamentally affect the police reports about an incident. Police officers can be initially directly involved in the police operation. For instance, they have to use a taser or gun, if attacked by an offender; perhaps they suffer an injury. Despite their active involvement, they can be eyewitnesses of relevant actions, for instance, if a colleague is attacked by an offender. Finally, they can be an interviewer of participants and witnesses. In the latter case, they usually record the information they evaluate as relevant during an operation and write down the police report at the end of service based on memory and notes. Police reports may vary depending on the police officers' role. In contrast to written police reports, one may also discuss the role of body-worn cameras filming police operations, CCTV material and video-taped interrogations.
(e) Furthermore, the nature of the incident and emotional involvement may impact the police reports (e.g., Honig and Lewinski, 2008 ; McClure et al., 2019 ). Specifically, rare and severe accidents or assaults (e.g., murder) with a high level of emotionality and stress levels may induce more distortion of information processing than more frequent and less severe incidents (e.g., material damage; Hulse and Memon, 2006 ; Zimmerman and Kelley, 2010 ). In contrast, one can assume that police officers may report the crime scene better than civilians based on their work knowledge and work routine (Christianson et al., 1998 ). Most prominent in this regard may be the weapon focus effect. As eyewitnesses, police officers are also prone to this memory bias. According to Fawcett et al. ( 2013 , p. 2), the weapon focus effect “shall be defined as an object-related decrease in memory performance (e.g., feature or identification accuracy) for those elements of an event or visual scene coinciding with the presence of the weapon or unusual object” (e.g., Loftus et al., 1987 ). In a crime scene, police officers may tend to focus their attention on a present weapon and fail to encode information about the perpetrator's physical appearance and the surrounding context, subsequently failing to remember the scene as accurately as would have been the case had no weapon been visible. Consequently, it can be assumed that police reports about such incidents involving visible weapons may differ from those without any visible weapons, for example in terms of richness of detail.
(f) Despite some efforts at academization (e.g., police studies ending with a Bachelor degree in Germany), police studies in Germany mainly lack, or have less, methodological rigor compared to the scientific reasoning and scientific writing found in the social sciences. With respect to differences between the federal states, the value of scientific evidence and scientific methodology may presumably be underrated. Both scientific reasoning and scientific writing may not be sufficiently represented in the curricula of degree programs and do not play an important role within police studies. In the subsequent police practice, the training of police practitioners may direct them away from established evidence-based practices rooted in the scientific literature, especially that of the social sciences. Consequently, police reports are not scientific papers. In sum, a lack of evidence-based practice may exist in policing (Sherman, 1998 ; McDonnell et al., 2012 ; Lum and Koper, 2017 , 2021 ).
(g) Although police officers might acknowledge the beneficial impact of the contribution of the social sciences to practical police work, scientific research as a knowledge process is perceived by police practitioners or police leaders to have little to no practical relevance to police work “on the streets.” Scientific processes (hypothesizing, reasoning, writing, and debating) may be viewed with skepticism or suspicion because they are often time-consuming, controversial, and exhausting to implement. However, police work is quite different and police reports depend on certain tasks. For instance, within criminal investigations of a murder, police officers might implicitly use a kind of scientific methodology when hypothesizing about the criminal act.
(h) The official language of police practitioners is more administrative than scientific with an emphasis on legal categories and terms. Due to time pressure and workload, “police language” may often operate with keywords and abbreviations. As a form of administrative communication, police reports serve as legwork for the prosecution and build up the foundation of legal proceedings. In this regard, one might expect that police officers would avoid self-incrimination, if there is a possibility that they have acted illegally. For instance, police use of force is illustrated from a police officer's perspective, neglecting the citizen's perspective in order to be legally correct.

In sum, police reports are a specific data source generated under specific conditions. Cognitive bias and memory malleability may mostly determine the quality of police reports, indicating that they are subjective measures. Additionally, threat and danger to life may have an impact on police officers' physical and mental functionality. Therefore, we suggest examining police reports as a research subject, questioning the factors that affect the content and quality of the reports. Police reports might be characterized by typologies of impact factors such as criminal acts or police officers' role and mindset.

Aside from cognitive bias and heuristics within police officers, there are several societal and cultural differences between Germany and the United States of America that may affect police reporting in general. For instance, in the United States of America the individual ownership of weapons is constitutionally warranted by the Bill of Rights. Consequently, the accessibility of weapons may be facilitated compared to Germany. It can be assumed that the availability of weapons among citizens may affect both the tactical approach of police officers within police operations and the subsequent police reports. According to the Washington Post's database, 1,022 people have been shot and killed by police in 2020 compared to 15 people in Germany (Tuason and Güss, 2019 ; Lorei, 2021 ; Washington Post, 2022 ). The number of fatal police shootings in the United States of America may indicate police brutality while black Americans are killed at a much higher rate than white Americans. This ethnicity bias may also be present in police reports pointing out the aforementioned issues. However, the racial bias in terms of discriminating against ethnic minorities does not seem to be limited to the United States of America (Vomfell and Stewart, 2021 ).

Addressing the problem of bias, police education and training may play an important role (Fridell, 2017 ). Within pedagogy the anti-bias curriculum of Derman-Sparkes ( 1989 , p. 3) refers to as “an active/activist approach to challenging prejudice, stereotyping, bias, and the ‘isms.' In a society in which institutional structures create and maintain sexism, racism, and handicappism, it is not sufficient to be non-biased (and also highly unlikely), nor is it sufficient to be an observer. It is necessary for each individual to actively intervene, to challenge and counter the personal and institutional behaviors that perpetuate oppression.” Hohensee and Derman-Sparks ( 1992 , p. 2) suggest specific learning goals of anti-bias curriculum in early childhood. Because of their universal validity, these goals may be applicable for police education: “(a) construction of a knowledgeable, confident self-identity, (b) comfortable, empathic interaction with people from diverse backgrounds, (c) critical thinking about bias, (d) ability to stand up for herself or himself, and for others, in the face of bias” (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020 ). Hence, self-esteem, empathy, critical thinking, and procedural justice are core prerequisites of anti-bias police work. The procedural justice approach of police training aims to shift police officers' attention away from crime control, surveillance, and punishment toward a democratic model of policing comprising respectful police-citizen-cooperation, public trust, and de-escalating communication (Tyler, 2003 , 2006 , 2011 ; Lum and Nagin, 2017 ; see also Nagin and Telep, 2020 ). Research found 4 principles of procedural justice that help to gain public trust and collaboration of citizens: First, police officers need to allow citizens to tell their story giving the chance to realize impact on police officers' behavior. Second, police officers need to make decisions fairly by making sure that citizens understand their explanations for decisions based on facts. Third, police officers need to behave respectful, polite, and honest. Finally, police officers need to concern the needs of citizens involved (Goodman-Delahunty, 2010 ; Tyler and Murphy, 2011 ; Mazerolle et al., 2013 ; Tyler et al., 2015 ).

According to social learning theory (Bandura, 1969 , 1977 , 1986 , 1997 ) pedagogical professionals and leadership as role models obtain extraordinary importance within police. Furthermore, contact hypotheses of social psychology posits that interpersonal contact between in-group and outgroup members can effectively reduce intergroup conflict (e.g., between police and citizens) caused by bias, stereotypes, and discrimination (Allport, 1954 ; Pettigrew and Tropp, 2006 ). Thus, police education and training need to include the intergroup contact of police officers with minorities and crime victims, e.g., those suffering from police use of force.

Although police training emphasizing de-escalating communication, procedural justice, and anti-bias decision-making are highly desirable, research has provided little evidence on their behavioral effectiveness or on their unintended side effects so far (e.g., Lai et al., 2016 ; Forscher et al., 2019 ; McLean et al., 2020 ). Future research is needed to establish effective police training reducing the negative effects of bias and heuristics in police work and highlighting long-term effects on police officers' behavior (Birzer and Tannehill, 2001 ; Birzer, 2003 ).

Presumably, one of the most powerful tools of reducing bias is self-reflection (e.g., Lilienfeld and Landfield, 2008 ). According to Boud et al. ( 1985 , p. 19) reflection refers to as “those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations” (Boud and Walker, 1990 , 1998 ). Schön ( 1983 , 1987 ) originated the most influential approach to reflection. His theory of reflective practice differs between reflection during the event in everyday practice termed as reflection-in-action, and reflection after the event termed reflection-on-action. The reflection-in-action approach seems to be applicable to dynamic events of police operations, see also Kolb ( 1984 )'s reflective cycle, and the critical thinking approach proposed by Brookfield ( 1987 ).

Author Contributions

SS developed the overview of the presented ideas and wrote the manuscript of the paper in English language. Both authors contributed equally to editing the first draft to its final version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

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Policing Directions: a Systematic Review on the Effectiveness of Police Presence

Published: 12 November 2021
Volume 29 , pages 191–225, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

Philipp M. Dau ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6739-9878 1 ,
Christophe Vandeviver ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9714-7006 1 , 2 ,
Maite Dewinter ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7430-462X 3 ,
Frank Witlox ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8966-6823 3 , 4 , 5 &
Tom Vander Beken ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1596-5070 1

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We systematically review the effectiveness of police presence. In doing so, we investigate concepts of police presence and differences between reported effects. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and protocols, we systematically identify and review eligible studies on police presence. Further, quality assessment and findings synthesis are used to map limitations of current research as well as grounds for future avenues. The systematic search strategies yielded 49 studies focusing on testing the effects of police presence or evaluating its measurement. We find evidence that police presence has mostly crime reduction effects on crimes related to motor theft, property, violence and guns. Police presence also reduces calls for service and improves traffic behaviour. Police presence focused on specific areas, times and types of crime achieves maximum effectiveness. The reviewed studies show a high degree of heterogeneity in reporting which limits comparability of findings across studies. Research on police presence presents evidence for significant crime preventative effects of focused police actions and shows strongest effects when focused on certain areas, times, or types of crimes. We encourage future research to focus on police presence en route and its effects, including crime prevention, traffic regulation and fear of crime.

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Hot spots policing and crime reduction: an update of an ongoing systematic review and meta-analysis

What and How of Effective Police Enforcement

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These databases were: Elsevier (Science Direct), Emerald Publishing, JSTOR, National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS), ProQuest (Criminology Collection), Sabinet, Sage, Springer, Taylor & Francis, Web of Science, and Wiley.

The introduced categorization goes as follows:

Very low: no mention of measurement, unclear basis for calculations.

Low: Staffing schedules, observations, hand written patrol logs.

Medium: Deployment data, Radio log and call data.

High: GPS tracking, experimental placement.

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This work was supported in part by the Ghent University Research Council (UGent-BOF) Interdisciplinary Research Project funding scheme [BOF18/IOP/001 to C.V., T.V.B., F.W.]. Christophe Vandeviver’s contribution was supported in part by the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) Postdoctoral Fellowship funding scheme [12CO619N to C.V.]. Frank Witlox’s contribution was supported by the Estonian Research Council [PUT PRG306 501 to F.W.].

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Department of Criminology, Criminal Law and Social Law, Ghent University, Universiteitstraat 4, 9000, Ghent, Belgium

Philipp M. Dau, Christophe Vandeviver & Tom Vander Beken

Research Foundation-Flanders (FWO), Egmontstraat 5, 1000, Brussels, Belgium

Christophe Vandeviver

Department of Geography, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S8, 9000, Ghent, Belgium

Maite Dewinter & Frank Witlox

Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, 51014, Tartu, Estonia

Frank Witlox

College of Civil Aviation, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China

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PMD: conceptualization, data curation, investigation, methodology, visualization, writing—original draft. CV: conceptualization, methodology, validation, supervision, writing—review and editing, funding acquisition. MD: writing—review. FW: supervision, funding acquisition. TVB: supervision, writing–review and editing, funding acquisition.

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Dau, P.M., Vandeviver, C., Dewinter, M. et al. Policing Directions: a Systematic Review on the Effectiveness of Police Presence. Eur J Crim Policy Res 29 , 191–225 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-021-09500-8

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Accepted : 19 October 2021

Published : 12 November 2021

Issue Date : June 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-021-09500-8

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A Forensic Linguistic Analysis of Police Reports

Police reports can serve as investigative aids or as pieces of evidence in court. The police officers who make these reports should write them in an accurate, clear and factual manner. Thus, investigation report writing is necessary and is a major duty of those in the criminal justice system. This qualitative content analysis examined the linguistic features and the organizational structure of 30 police reports from the different investigation sections in Davao Region, Philippines. The corpora of the study consist of thievery, shooting incident, murder, stabbing, and drug-related cases. The findings revealed that there are three linguistic features: lexical, syntactical and cohesive devices. Moreover, this legal document is composed of different moves and steps that make up the overall structure of the police reports. Thus, an accurate and clear police report is an important evidence and source of information for any future prosecution.

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This work has benefitted greatly from discussions and debate with Chief William Evans, Chief Charles McClelland, Chief Martha Montalvo, Sergeant Stephen Morrison, Jon Murad, Lynn Overmann, Chief Bud Riley, and Chief Scott Thomson. I am grateful to David Card, Kerwin Charles, Christian Dustmann, Michael Greenstone, James Heckman, Richard Holden, Lawrence Katz, Steven Levitt, Jens Ludwig, Glenn Loury, Kevin Murphy, Derek Neal, John Overdeck, Jesse Shapiro, Andrei Shleifer, Jorg Spenkuch, Max Stone, John Van Reenan, Christopher Winship, and seminar participants at Brown University, University of Chicago, London School of Economics, University College London, and the NBER Summer Institute for helpful comments and suggestions. Brad Allan, Elijah De La Campa, Tanaya Devi, William Murdock III, and Hannah Ruebeck provided truly phenomenal project management and research assistance. Lukas Althoff, Dhruva Bhat, Samarth Gupta, Julia Lu, Mehak Malik, Beatrice Masters, Ezinne Nwankwo, Charles Adam Pfander, Sofya Shchukina and Eric Yang provided excellent research assistance. Financial support from EdLabs Advisory Group and an anonymous donor is gratefully acknowledged. Correspondence can be addressed to the author by email at [email protected]. The usual caveat applies. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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July 5, 2016

Mentioned in the News

Police Research — An Important Tool for Police, Often Underutilized

Police managers and executives routinely use various tools to effectively manage and guide their agencies. They also follow both the successes and the unsuccessful efforts of their peers in these endeavors. Evaluations of police receptiveness to research suggest that executives are receptive to research results. [1] Generally, rank and file officers appear to be similarly receptive and are willing to work with researchers. [2] However, there is a widely held perception that policing research is often underutilized and that police managers and executives miss opportunities to consider this tool when evaluating and directing their agencies’ efforts.

Policing research has been around for decades. The body of knowledge was limited at first, but today it covers many of the issues that police managers and executives are currently facing. Examples of this can be found in the research on body-worn cameras, license plate readers, officer motivation, and patrol officer deployment (hot spots policing), to name a few. There is also emerging research on police legitimacy, officer safety, mental health issues, officer training, and officer wellness. There are many examples of police agencies collaborating with researchers to help create this body of knowledge. Many policing agencies have used this collaborative effort with researchers to implement, adjust, and sometimes abandon a particular policing program. The experience of collaborating with researchers has, in many cases, led to the development of a close relationship between the agency and the researcher, which can last for years.

Policing research often reveals what works and what doesn’t work in the policing field. The term evidence-based policing is frequently used to describe research that targets, tests, and tracks strategies to help decision-makers deal with policing issues. [3] It also exposes issues that executives and managers need to consider in their policing endeavors. Many managers and executives who are interested in this material rely on organizations such as the International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Executive Research Forum, National Police Foundation, and others to provide them access to research. There are governmental entities, such as the National Institute of Justice, that often showcase policing research. However, this is only the tip of the iceberg of policing research. There is a myriad of useful information in the research that is not highlighted by these groups. This can lead to missed opportunities to apply the research, avoid programmatic issues, and increase the potential success of a policing program.

Police executives and managers may believe that it is difficult to access policing research, but it can actually be accomplished rather simply. An email or a phone call may be the only action necessary to obtain this important information. The professional organizations noted earlier can help connect an executive or manager with a police researcher who is knowledgeable in the subject of interest. Police agencies often have such a person nearby or even within their jurisdiction. There are also policing researchers at many colleges and universities across the country. A local college or university might be able to locate policing researchers who can help the agency, or perhaps find a researcher nearby. A policing researcher may be able to unlock the often hidden treasure trove of policing research for the executive or manager, or may be able to find an individual with the knowledge that will help to address the specific issues the police agency is facing. Policing researchers can also help translate complicated findings so they are understandable. Finally, policing researchers might be willing to assist you in developing, implementing, or evaluating your own policing programs.

My message to my fellow police practitioners is to reach out to the policing research community. You will find that many of the researchers are more than willing to assist you in making your policing programs and practices work for you and your agency.

[note 1] Cody W. Telep and Steve Winegar, “Police Executive Receptivity to Research: A Survey of Chiefs and Sheriffs in Oregon,” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 10 no. 3 (2016): 241-249.

[note 2] Cody W. Telep and Cynthia Lum, “The Receptivity of Officers to Empirical Research and Evidence Based Policing: An Examination of Survey Data from Three Agencies,” Policing Quarterly 17 no. 4 (2014): 359-385.

[note 3] Lawrence W. Sherman, “The Rise of Evidence Based Policing: Targeting, Testing, and Tracking,” Crime and Justice 42 no. 1 (2013): 377-451.

About the author

Michael L. Brown currently serves as the chief of the Alexandria (VA) Police Department. Prior to this assignment, he served as a director at the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. He was also the deputy secretary for public safety in California and commissioner of the California Highway Patrol.

Brown is currently the co-chairman of the International Association of Chiefs of Police Research Advisory Committee and a fellow and board member of the National Police Foundation. He received his doctorate in criminology, law, and society from George Mason University.

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The affidavit provides additional details about the night of the University of Idaho killings. It notes that DNA and surveillance video led them to the 28-year-old accused of stabbing four University of Idaho students. Read more ›

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Exhibit A Statement of Brett Payne The below information is provided by Brett Payne, who is a duly appointed, qualified and acting peace officer within the County of Latah, State of Idaho. Brett Payne is employed by Moscow Police Department in the official capacity or position of Corporal (CPL) and has been a trained and qualified peace officer for approximately four (4) years. CPL Payne is being assisted by members of the Idaho State Police and agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. On November 13, 2022, at approximately 4:00 p.m., Moscow Police Department (MPD) Sergeant Blaker and I responded to 1122 King Road, Moscow, Idaho, hereafter the "King Road Residence," to assist with scene security and processing of a crime scene associated with four homicides. Upon our arrival, the Idaho State Police (ISP) Forensic Team was on scene and was preparing to begin processing the scene. MPD Officer (OFC) Smith, one of the initial responding officers to the incident, advised he would walk me through the scene. OFC Smith and I entered the King Road Residence through the bottom floor door on the north side of the building. OFC Smith and I then walked upstairs to the second floor. OFC Smith directed me down the hallway to the west bedroom on the second floor, which I later learned (through Xana's driver's license and other personal belongings found in the room) was Xana Kernodle's, hereafter "Kernodle" room. Just before this room there was a bathroom door on the south wall of the hallway. As I approached the room, I could see a body, later identified as Kernodle's, laying on the floor. Kernodle was deceased with wounds which appeared to have been caused by an edged weapon. Also in the room was a male, later identified as Ethan Chapin, hereafter, "Chapin". Chapin was also deceased with wounds later determined (Autopsy Report provided by Spokane REDACTED 1 SENO, CK29-22-2805 CLRK OF DIST CT. LATAH DEC 25 2022 PK2:52

County Medical Examiner injuries." dated December 15, 2022) to be caused by "sharp-force I then followed OFC Smith upstairs to the third floor of the residence. The third floor consisted of two bedrooms and one bathroom. The bedroom on the west side of the floor was later determined to be Kaylee Goncalves, hereafter "Goncalves," room. I later learned (from review of Officer Nunes' body camera) there was a dog in the room when Moscow Police Officers initially responded. The dog belonged to Goncalves and her ex-boyfriend Jack Ducoeur. I found out from my interview with Jack Ducouer on November 13, 2022 that he and Goncalves shared the dog. OFC Smith then pointed out a small bathroom on the east side of the third floor. This bathroom shared a wall with Madison Mogen's, hereafter "Mogen" bedroom which was situated on the southeast corner of the third floor. As I entered this bedroom, I could see two females in the single bed in the room. Both Goncalves and Mogen were deceased with visible stab wounds. I also later noticed what appeared to be a tan leather knife sheath laying on the bed next to Mogen's right side (when viewed from the door). The sheath was later processed and had "Ka-Bar" "USMC" and the United States Marine Corps eagle globe and anchor insignia stamped on the outside of it. The Idaho State Lab later located a single source of male DNA (Suspect Profile) left on the button snap of the knife sheath. As part of the investigation, numerous interviews were conducted by Moscow Police Department Officers, Idaho State Police Detectives, and FBI Agents. Two of the interviews included B.F., and D.M. Both B.F. and D.M. were inside the King Road Residence at the time of the homicides and were roommates to the victims. B.F.'s bedroom was located on the east side of the first floor of the King Road Residence. 2

Based on numerous interviews conducted by MPD Officers, ISP Detectives, and FBI Agents as well as my review of evidence, I have learned the following: On the evening of November 12, 2022, Chapin and Kernodle are seen by B.F. at the Sigma Chi house on the University of Idaho campus at 735 Nez Perce Drive from approximately 9:00 p.m. on November 12 to 1:45 a.m. on November 13. B.F. also estimated that at approximately, 1:45 a.m. Chapin and Kernodle returned to the King Road Residence. B.F. also stated that Chapin did not live in the King Road Residence but was a guest of Kernodle. Goncalves and Mogen were at a local bar, the Corner Club at 202 N. Main Street, in Moscow. Goncalves and Mogen can be seen on video footage provided by the Corner Club between 10:00 p.m. on November 12 and 1:30 a.m. on November 13th. At approximately 1:30 a.m. Goncalves and Mogen can be seen on video at a local food vendor called the "Grub Truck" at 318 S. Main Street in downtown Moscow. The Grub Truck live streams video from their food truck on the streaming platform Twitch which is available for public viewing on their website. This video was captured by law enforcement. A private party reported that he provided a ride to Goncalves and Mogen at approximately 1:56 a.m. from downtown Moscow (in front of the Grub Truck) to the King Road Residence. D.M. and B.F. both made statements during interviews that indicated the occupants of the King Road Residence were at home by 2:00 a.m. and asleep or at least in their rooms by approximately 4:00 a.m. This is with the exception of Kernodle, who received a DoorDash order at the residence at approximately 4:00 a.m. (law enforcement identified the DoorDash delivery driver who reported this information). 3

D.M. stated she originally went to sleep in her bedroom on the southeast side of the second floor. D.M. stated she was awoken at approximately 4:00 a.m. by what she stated sounded like Goncalves playing with her dog in one of the upstairs bedrooms, which were located on the third floor. A short time later, D.M. said she heard who she thought was Goncalves say something to the effect of "there's someone here." A review of records obtained from a forensic download of Kernodle's phone showed this could also have been Kernodle as her cellular phone indicated she was likely awake and using the TikTok app at approximately 4:12 a.m. D.M. stated she looked out of her bedroom but did not see anything when she heard the comment about someone being in the house. D.M. stated she opened her door a second time when she heard what she thought was crying coming from Kernodle's room. D.M. then said she heard a male voice say something to the effect of "it's ok, I'm going to help you." At approximately 4:17 a.m., a security camera located at 1112 King Road, a residence immediately to the northwest of 1122 King Road, picked up distorted audio of what sounded like voices or a whimper followed by a loud thud. A dog can also be heard barking numerous times starting at 4:17 a.m. The security camera is less than fifty feet from the west wall of Kernodle's bedroom. D.M. stated she opened her door for the third time after she heard the crying and saw a figure clad in black clothing and a mask that covered the person's mouth and nose walking towards her. D.M. described the figure as 5'10" or taller, male, not very muscular, but athletically built with bushy eyebrows. The male walked past D.M. as she stood in a "frozen shock phase." The male walked towards the back sliding glass door. D.M. locked herself in her 4

room after seeing the male. D.M. did not state that she recognized the male. This leads investigators to believe that the murderer left the scene. The combination of D.M.'s statements to law enforcement, reviews of forensic downloads of records from B.F. and D.M.'s phone, and video of a suspect video as described below leads investigators to believe the homicides occurred between 4:00 a.m. and 4:25 a.m. During the processing of the crime scene, investigators found a latent shoe print. This was located during the second processing of the crime scene by the ISP Forensic Team by first using a presumptive blood test and then Amino Black, a protein stain that detects the presence of cellular material. The detected shoe print showed a diamond-shaped pattern (similar to the pattern of a Vans type shoe sole) just outside the door of D.M.'s bedroom (located on second floor). This is consistent with D.M.'s statement regarding the suspect's path of travel. As part of the investigation, an extensive search, commonly referred to in law enforcement as a "video canvass," was conducted in the area of the King Road Residence. This video canvass was to obtain any footage from the early morning hours of November 13, 2022, in the area of the King Road Residence and surrounding neighborhoods in an effort to locate the suspect(s) or suspect vehicle(s) traveling to or leaving from the King Road Residence. This video canvass resulted in the collection of numerous surveillance videos in the area from both residential and business addresses. I have reviewed numerous videos that were collected and have had conversations with the other MPD Officers, ISP Detectives, and FBI Agents that are similarly reviewing footage that was obtained. A review of camera footage indicated that a white sedan, hereafter "Suspect Vehicle 1", was observed traveling westbound in the 700 block of Indian Hills Drive in Moscow at 5

approximately 3:26 a.m and westbound on Styner Avenue at Idaho State Highway 95 in Moscow at approximately 3:28 a.m. On this video, it appeared Suspect Vehicle 1 was not displaying a front license plate. A review of footage from multiple videos obtained from the King Road Neighborhood showed multiple sightings of Suspect Vehicle 1 starting at 3:29 a.m. and ending at 4:20 a.m. These sightings show Suspect Vehicle 1 makes an initial three passes by the 1122 King Road residence and then leave via Walenta Drive. Based off of my experience as a Patrol Officer this is a residential neighborhood with a very limited number of vehicles that travel in the area during the early morning hours. Upon review of the video there are only a few cars that enter and exit this area during this time frame. Suspect Vehicle 1 can be seen entering the area a fourth time a approximately 4:04 a.m. It can be seen driving eastbound on King Road, stopping and turning around in front of 500 Queen Road # 52 and then driving back westbound on King Road. When Suspect Vehicle 1 is in front of the King Road Residence, it appeared to unsuccessfully attempt to park or turn around in the road. The vehicle then continued to the intersection of Queen Road and King Road where it can be seen completing a three-point turn and then driving eastbound again down Queen Road. Suspect Vehicle 1 is next seen departing the area of the King Road Residence at approximately 4:20 a.m. at a high rate of speed. Suspect Vehicle 1 is next observed traveling southbound on Walenta Drive. Based on my knowledge of the area and review of camera footage in the neighborhood that does not show Suspect Vehicle 1 during that timeframe, I believe that Suspect Vehicle 1 likely exited the neighborhood at Palouse River Drive and Conestoga Drive. Palouse River Drive is at the southern edge of Moscow and proceeds into Whitman County, Washington. Eventually the road leads to Pullman, Washington. Pullman Washington is 6

approximately 10 miles from Moscow, Idaho. Both Pullman and Moscow are small college towns and people commonly travel back and forth between them. Law enforcement officers provided video footage of Suspect Vehicle to forensic examiners with the Federal Bureau of Investigation that regularly utilize surveillance footage to identify the year, make, and model of an unknown vehicle that is observed by one or more cameras during the commission of a criminal offense. The Forensic Examiner has approximately 35 years law enforcement experience with twelve years at the FBI. His specific training includes identifying unique characteristics of vehicles, and he uses a database that gives visual clues of vehicles across states to identify differences between vehicles. After reviewing the numerous observations of Suspect Vehicle 1, the forensic examiner initially believed that Suspect Vehicle 1 was a 2011-2013 Hyundai Elantra. Upon further review, he indicated it could also be a 2011-2016 Hyundai Elantra. As a result, investigators have been reviewing information on persons in possession of a vehicle that is a 2011-2016 white Hyundai Elantra. Investigators were given access to video footage on the Washington State University (WSU) campus located in Pullman, WA. A review of that video indicated that at approximately 2:44 a.m. on November 13, 2022, a white sedan, which was consistent with the description of the White Elantra known as Suspect Vehicle 1, was observed on WSU surveillance cameras travelling north on southeast Nevada Street at northeast Stadium Way. At approximately 2:53 a.m., a white sedan, which is consistent with the description of the White Elantra known as Suspect Vehicle 1, was observed traveling southeast on Nevada Street in Pullman, WA towards SR 270. SR 270 connects Pullman, Washington to Moscow, Idaho. This camera footage from 7

Pullman, WA was provided to the same FBI Forensic Examiner. The Forensic Examiner identified the vehicle observed in Pullman, WA as being a 2014-2016 Hyundai Elantra. At approximately 5:25 a.m., a white sedan, which was consistent with the description of Suspect Vehicle 1, was observed on five cameras in Pullman, WA and on WSU Campus cameras. The first camera that recorded the white sedan was located at 1300 Johnson Road in Pullman. The white sedan was observed traveling northbound on Johnson Road. Johnson Road leads directly back to West Palouse River Drive in Moscow which intersects with Conestoga Drive. The white sedan was then observed turning north on Bishop Boulevard and northwest on SR 270. At approximately 5:27 a.m., the White Elantra was observed on cameras traveling northbound on Stadium Way at Nevada Street, Stadium Way at Grimes Way, Stadium Drive at Wilson Road, and Stadium Way at Cougar Way. Depiction showing Moscow and Pullman: BUHOSE Mastite Depiction showing White Elantra's path of travel (not to scale): 8

Legend White Elantra seen leaving WSU Campus White Elantra seen Returning to WSU Campus Arrows are camera locations and indicate vehicle direction of travel Puliman Fun Stadium Washington State University WSU Bear Center On November 25, 2022, MPD asked area law enforcement agencies to be on the lookout for white Hyundai Elantras in the area. On November 29, 2022, at approximately 12:28 a.m., Washington State University (WSU) Police Officer Daniel Tiengo, queried white Elantras registered at WSU. As a result of that query he located a 2015 white Elantra with a Pennsylvania license plate LFZ-8649. This vehicle was registered to Bryan Kohberger hereafter "Kohberger" residing at is approximately three-quarters of a mile from the intersection of Stadium Way and Cougar Way (last camera location that picked up the white Elantra). 9 That same day at approximately 12:58 a.m., WSU Officer Curtis Whitman was looking for white Hyundai Elantra's and located a 2015 white Hyundai Elantra at in Pullman in the parking lot. | is an apartment complex that houses WSU

students. Officer Whitman also ran the car and it returned to Kohberger with a Washington tag. I reviewed Kohberg's WA state driver license information and photograph. This license indicates that Kohberger is a white male with a height of 6' and weighs 185 pounds. Additionally, the photograph of Kohberger shows that he has bushy eyebrows. Kohberger's physical description is consistent with the description of the male D.M. saw inside the King Road Residence on November 13th Further investigation, including a review of Latah County Sheriff's Deputy CPL Duke's body cam and reports, showed that on August 21, 2022, Bryan Kohberger was detained as part of a traffic stop that occurred in Moscow, Idaho, by CPL Duke. At the time, Kohberger, who was the sole occupant, was driving a white 2015 Hyundai Elantra with Pennsylvania plate LFZ-8649 which was set to expire on November 30, 2022. During the stop, which was recorded via a law enforcement body camera, Kohberger provided his phone number as 8458, hereafter the "8458 Phone" as his cellular telephone number. Investigators conducted electronic database queries and learned that the 8458 Phone is a number issued by AT&T. On October 14, 2022, Bryan Kohberger was detained as part of a traffic stop by a WSU Police Officer. Upon review of that body cam and report of the stop, Kohberger was the sole occupant and was driving a white 2015 Hyundai Elantra with Pennsylvania plate LFZ-8649. On November 18, 2022, according to WA state licensing, Kohberger registered the 2015 white Elantra with WA and later received WA plate CFB-8708. Prior to this time, the 2015 white Elantra was registered in Pennsylvania, which does not require a front license plate to be displayed (this was learned through communications with a Pennsylvania officer who is currently certified in the State of Pennsylvania). Based on my own experience and 10

communication with Washington law enforcement, I know that Idaho and Washington require front and back license plates to be displayed. Investigators believe that Kohberger is still driving the 2015 white Elantra because his vehicle was captured on December 13, 2022, by a license plate reader in Loma, Colorado (information provided by a query to a database). Kohberger's Elantra was then queried on December 15, 2022 by law enforcement in Hancock County, Indiana. On December 16, 2022 at approximately 2:26 p.m., surveillance video showed Kohberger's Elantra in Albrightsville, Pennsylvania. The sole occupant of the vehicle was a white male whose description was consistent with Kohberger. Kohberger has family in Albrightsville, Pennsylvania (learned through a TLO search and locate tool database query). Based on information provided on the WSU website, Kohberger is currently a Ph.D Student in Criminology at Washington State University. Pursuant to records provided by a member of the interview panel for Pullman Police Department, we learned that Kohberger's past education included undergraduate degrees in psychology and cloud-based forensics. These records also showed Kohberger wrote an essay when he applied for an internship with the Pullman Police Department in the fall of 2022. Kohberger wrote in his essay he had interest in assisting rural law enforcement agencies with how to better collect and analyze technological data in public safety operations. Kohberger also posted a Reddit survey which can be found by an open-source internet search. The survey asked for participants to provide information to "understand how emotions and psychological traits influence decision making when committing a crime." As part of this investigation, law enforcement obtained search warrants to determine cellular devices that utilized cellular towers in close proximity to the King Road Residence on 11

November 13, 2022 between 3:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m. After determining that Kohberger was associated to both the 2015 White Elantra and the 8458 Phone, investigators reviewed these search warrant returns. A query of the 8458 Phone in these returns did not show the 8458 Phone utilizing cellular tower resources in close proximity to the King Road Residence between 3:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m. Based on my training, experience, and conversations with law enforcement officers that specialize in the utilization of cellular telephone records as part of investigations, individuals can either leave their cellular telephone at a different location before committing a crime or turn their cellular telephone off prior to going to a location to commit a crime. This is done by subjects in an effort to avoid alerting law enforcement that a cellular device associated with them was in a particular area where a crime is committed. I also know that on numerous occasions, subjects will surveil an area where they intend to commit a crime prior to the date of the crime. Depending on the circumstances, this could be done a few days before or for several months prior to the commission of a crime. During these types of surveillance, it is possible that an individual would not leave their cellular telephone at a separate location or turn it off since they do not plan to commit the offense on that particular day. On December 23, 2022, I applied for and was granted a search warrant for historical phone records between November 12, 2022 at 12:00 a.m. and November 14, at 12:00 a.m. for the 8458 Phone held by the phone provider AT&T (approximately 24 hours proceeding and following the times of the homicides). On December 23, 2022, pursuant to that search warrant, I received records for the 8458 Phone from AT&T. These records indicated that the 8458 Phone is subscribed to Bryan Kohberger at an address in Albrightsville, Pennsylvania and the account has been open since 12

June 23, 2022. These records also included historical cell site location information (CSLI) for the 8458 Phone. After receiving this information, I consulted with an FBI Special Agent (SA) that is certified as a member of the Cellular Analysis Survey Team (CAST). Members of CAST are certified with the FBI to provide expert testimony in the field of historical CSLI and are required to pass extensive training that includes both written and practical examinations prior to be certified with CAST as well as the completion of yearly certification requirements. Additionally, the FBI CAST SA that I consulted with has over fifteen years of federal law enforcement experience, which includes six years with the FBI. From information provided by CAST, I was able to determine estimated locations for the 8458 Phone from November 12, 2022 to November 13, 2022, the time period authorized by the court. On November 13, 2022 at approximately 2:42 a.m., the 8458 Phone was utilizing cellular resources that provide coverage to hereafter the "Kohberger Residence." At approximately 2:47 a.m., the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources that provide coverage southeast of the Kohberger Residence consistent with the 8458 Phone leaving the Kohberger Residence and traveling south through Pullman, WA. This is consistent with the movement of the white Elantra. At approximately 2:47 a.m. the 8458 Phone stops reporting to the network, which is consistent with either the phone being in an area without cellular coverage, the connection to the network is disabled (such as putting the phone in airplane mode), or that the phone is turned off. The 8458 Phone does not report to the network again until approximately 4:48 a.m. at which time it utilized cellular resources that provide coverage to ID state highway 95 south of Moscow, ID near Blaine, ID (north of Genesee). Between 4:50 a.m. and 5:26 a.m., the phone utilizes cellular resources that are consistent with the 8458 Phone traveling south on ID state highway 95 to Genesee, ID, then traveling west towards 13

Uniontown, ID, and then north back into Pullman, WA. At approximately 5:30 a.m., the 8458 Phone is utilizing resources that provide coverage to Pullman, WA and consistent with the phone traveling back to the Kohberger Residence. The 8458 Phone's movements are consistent with the movements of the white Elantra that is observed traveling north on Stadium Drive at approximately 5:27 a.m. Based on a review of the 8458 Phone's estimated locations and travel, the 8458 Phone's travel is consistent with that of the white Elantra. Further review indicated that the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources on November 13, 2022 that are consistent with the 8458 Phone leaving the area of the Kohberger Residence at approximately 9:00 a.m. and traveling to Moscow, ID. Specifically, the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources that would provide coverage to the King Road Residence between 9:12 a.m. and 9:21 a.m. The 8458 Phone next utilized cellular resources that are consistent with the 8458 Phone traveling back to the area of the Kohberger Residence and arriving to the area at approximately 9:32 a.m. Below is a depiction (not to scale) of the possible route taken based off of cellular site locations: 14

Ateistring This is a possible route based off celluar device location Investigators found that the 8458 Phone did connect to a cell phone tower that provides service to Moscow on November 14, 2022, but investigators do not believe the 8458 Phone was in Moscow on that date. The 8458 Phone has not connected to any towers that provide service to Moscow since that date. Based on my training, experience, and the facts of the investigation thus far, I believe that Kohberger, the user of the 8458 Phone, was likely the driver of the white Elantra that is observed departing Pullman, WA and that this vehicle is likely Suspect Vehicle 1. Additionally, the route of travel of the 8458 Phone during the early morning hours of November 13, 2022 and the lack of the 8458 Phone reporting to AT&T between 2:47 a.m. and 4:48 a.m. is consistent with Kohberger attempting to conceal his location during the quadruple homicide that occurred at the King Road Residence. 15

) On December 23, 2022, I was granted a search warrant for Kohberger's historical CSLI from June 23, 2022 to current, prospective location information, and a Pen Register/Trap and Trace on the 8458 Phone to aid in efforts to determine if Kohberger stalked any of the victims in this case prior to the offense, conducted surveillance on the King Road Residence, was in contact with any of the victims' associates before or after the alleged offense, any locations that may contain evidence of the murders that occurred on November 13, 2022, the location of the white Elantra registered to Kohberger, as well as the location of Kohberger. On December 23, 2022 pursuant to that search warrant, I received historical records for the 8458 Phone from AT&T from the time the account was opened in June 2022. After consulting with CAST SA, I was able to determine estimated locations for the 8458 Phone from June 2022 to present, the time period authorized by the court. The records for the 8458 Phone show the 8458 Phone utilizing cellular resources that provide coverage to the area of 1122 King Road on at least twelve occasions prior to November 13, 2022. All of these occasions, except for one, occurred in the late evening and early morning hours of their respective days. One of these occasions, on August 21, 2022, the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources providing coverage to the King Road Residence from approximately 10:34 p.m. to 11:35 p.m. At approximately 11:37 p.m., Kohberger was stopped by Latah County Sheriff's Deputy CPL Duke, as mentioned above. The 8548 Phone was utilizing cellular resources consistent with the location of the traffic stop during this time (Farm Road and Pullman Highway). Further analysis of the cellular data provided showed the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources on November 13, 2022 consistent with the Phone travelling from Pullman, Washington to Lewiston, Idaho via US Highway 195. At approximately 12:36 p.m., the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources that would provide coverage to Kate's Cup of Joe coffee stand located at 810 16

Port Drive, Clarkston, WA. Surveillance footage from the US Chef's Store located at 820 Port Drive, Clarkston, WA and adjacent to Kate's Cup of Joe showed a white Elantra, consistent with Suspect Vehicle 1, drive past Kate's Cup of Joe at a time consistent with the cellular data from the 8548 Phone. At approximately 12:46 p.m., the 8458 Phone then utilized cellular data in the area of the Albertson's grocery store at 400 Bridge Street in Clarkston, Washington. Surveillance footage obtained from the Albertson's showed Kohberger exit the white Elantra, consistent with Suspect Vehicle 1, at approximately 12:49 p.m. Interior surveillance cameras showed Kohberger walk through the store, purchase unknown items at the checkout, and leave at approximately 1:04 p.m. Kohberger's possible path of travel is depicted below (not to scale): 149 WASHINGTON 17

Additional analysis of records for the 8458 Phone indicated that between approximately 5:32 p.m. and 5:36 p.m., the 8458 Phone utilized cellular resources that provide coverage to Johnson, ID. The 8458 Phone then stops reporting to the network from approximately 5:36 p.m. to 8:30 p.m. That is consistent with the 8458 Phone being the area that the 8458 Phone traveled in the hours immediately following the suspected time the homicides occurred. On December 27, 2022, Pennsylvania Agents recovered the trash from the Kohberger family residence located in Albrightsville, PA. That evidence was sent to the Idaho State Lab for testing. On December 28, 2022, the Idaho State Lab reported that a DNA profile obtained from the trash and the DNA profile obtained from the sheath, identified a male as not being excluded as the biological father of Suspect Profile. At least 99.9998% of the male population would be expected to be excluded from the possibility of being the suspect's biological father. 2 Based on the above information, I am requesting an arrest warrant be issued for Bryan C. Kohberger, (DOB) 11/21/1994, for Burglary at 1122 King Street in Moscow, Idaho, and four counts of Murder in the First Degree for the murders of Madison Mogen, Kaylee Goncalves, Xana Kernodle, and Ethan Chapin. I declare under penalty of perjury pursuant to the law of the State of Idaho that the foregoing is true and correct. 12/29/2022 Date Bhr Affiant 18 #157

Saturday, September 21, 2024 77° Today's Paper

Police recover body from ‘Boiling Pots’ in Hilo

By Star-Advertiser staff

Sept. 20, 2024 • Last updated 12:13 p.m.

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STAR-ADVERTISER FILE

Hawaii island police have recovered the body of a deceased man from the waters of “Boiling Pots” at Wailuku River State Park in Hilo two days after a swimmer had been reported missing.

A search had been underway for the swimmer after witnesses said they saw him entering the water and getting pulled under by rapids at the spot Tuesday, without resurfacing.

Police had opened a missing person investigation, and presumed the body to be the man, who has not yet been identified but is believed to be a visitor.

On Thursday afternoon, rescue personnel from the Hawaii Fire Department located the body about 30 feet below the surface of one of the pools at “Boiling Pots.”

The victim was taken to Hilo Benioff Medical Center for pronouncement of death.

Police have initiated a coroner’s inquest investigation for the case, and ordered an autopsy to determine the exact cause of death.

The victim’s identity is being withheld pending positive identification and notification of next of kin.

Police ask anyone who may have information to contact Detective Kimo Keli’ipa’akaua of the Area I Criminal Investigation Section at 808-961-2375 or [email protected] .

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COMMENTS

Recreating the Scene: An Investigation of Police Report Writing
Abstract. Police officers do a significant amount of high-stake writing in police reports, but report writing is given little attention in policy academies, and prevailing guidelines treat the task as a mechanical process of recording facts. As a result, officers are ill-prepared for this essential and inherently complex task.
Problems With Police Reports as Data Sources: A Researchers
Research analyzing over 1,000 police reports in Spain with an automated program VeriPol has shown that people sometimes lie to the police—even if it is a felony or a misdemeanor—thus ... The goal of this paper was to describe problems related to acquiring police reports and problems related to the quality of police reports as a potential ...
Recreating the Scene: An Investigation of Police Report Writing
A police report is one of the valuable information sources for triggering a criminal investigation. In general, it is a first-hand information report containing narratives about an incident in ...
An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force
Abstract: This paper explores racial diﬀerences in police use of force. On non-lethal uses of force, blacks and Hispanics are more than ﬁfty percent more likely to experience some form of force in interactions with police. Adding controls that account for important context and civilian behavior reduces, but cannot fully explain, these ...
(PDF) Commentary: Problems With Police Reports as Data Sources: A
As data sources police reports might be offer some specialties quiet relevant for police research and practice. Police reports are a specific data source generated under specific conditions.
The Police Journal: Sage Journals
The Editors of The Police Journal are calling for papers for a Special Issue on the Development and Implementation of Legitimacy Theory in Policing and Criminal Justice. Deadline for Abstracts: December 1, 2024. This journal provides a platform for theory, research and practice to come together to advance all knowledge of different areas and ...
Police Report Similarity Search: A Case Study
The third research question explores the potential of combining embeddings to enhance the search for similar police reports and improve the retrieval of similar reports. In this study, the embeddings from the USE model and Word2Vec-trained model, both trained with the 30,011 police reports, were combined to create a new embedding model called ...
Police Practice and Research
Journal metrics Editorial board. Our primary aim at Police Practice & Research is to present current and innovative police research with a focus on informing policing policy, programs and/or practice around the globe. We welcome qualitative, quantitative and mixed methodological studies from academic researchers and police practitioners alike ...
Commentary: Problems With Police Reports as Data Sources: A Researchers
Based on their research project on police reports, they reported their experiences with conducting research using this type of data, presenting problems they encountered. ... Consequently, police reports are not scientific papers. In sum, a lack of evidence-based practice may exist in policing (Sherman, 1998; McDonnell et al., 2012; Lum and ...
Boycotting the Uniform Crime Report: Organizational Theory Analysis of
The rate at which local and state police and sheriff’s departments fully and accurately report crime data to the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s 94-year-old Uniform Crime Report has been deteriorating in recent years. Police underreporting of homicides,...
Policing Directions: a Systematic Review on the Effectiveness of Police
We systematically review the effectiveness of police presence. In doing so, we investigate concepts of police presence and differences between reported effects. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and protocols, we systematically identify and review eligible studies on police presence. Further, quality assessment and findings ...
Community policing does not build citizen trust in police or reduce
The police implemented the community policing interventions in 707 neighborhoods, districts, and villages, covering ~9 million people. In addition, the six research teams coordinated on an experimental design and harmonized outcome measures of crime, insecurity, and trust in the police, all of which we preregistered.
Police Violence and Associations With Public Perceptions of the Police
Correlates of Police Violence. Research has shown that Black and Latino/a adults are more likely to experience police violence than white adults (Davis et al., 2018; Edwards et al., 2019; Ross, 2015; Tregle et al., 2019).Gender also plays a key role, as empirical evidence has found that Black and Latino men were more likely than white individuals and women to experience threats or use of ...
A Forensic Linguistic Analysis of Police Reports
At this stage in the research, the language features and organizational structure of the reports were defined as the focus of this study. DOI: 10.9790/0837-23010480102 www.iosrjournals.org 80 | Page A Forensic Linguistic Analysis of Police Reports 1.3 Research Questions 1. What are the linguistic features found in police reports? 2.
An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force
Roland G. Fryer, Jr. Working Paper 22399. DOI 10.3386/w22399. Issue Date July 2016. Revision Date January 2018. This paper explores racial differences in police use of force. On non-lethal uses of force, blacks and Hispanics are more than fifty percent more likely to experience some form of force in interactions with police.
Police Research
Cody W. Telep and Steve Winegar, "Police Executive Receptivity to Research: A Survey of Chiefs and Sheriffs in Oregon," Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 10 no. 3 (2016): 241-249. Cody W. Telep and Cynthia Lum, "The Receptivity of Officers to Empirical Research and Evidence Based Policing: An Examination of Survey Data from Three Agencies," Policing Quarterly 17 no. 4 (2014 ...
Police ethics and integrity: Keeping the 'blue code' of silence
Following work by Westmarland (2005, 2013) and Westmarland and Rowe (2016), this paper is a further attempt to expand our understanding of a range of behaviours, and their relation to the police 'code of silence' by asking about attitudes towards rule-breaking and misdemeanours.This includes examples of 'acquisitive corruption' (for personal financial gain), 'noble cause corruption ...
PDF An Empirical Analysis of Racial Di erences in Police Use of Force
In 85.1% of cases, exactly one use of force is recorded. Two use of force categories were used in 12.6% of cases, 1.8% report three use of force categories, and 0.6% of all stop and frisk incidents in which force is used record more than three uses of force. There are several ways to handle this.
Police
Trust in scientists and medical scientists has fallen below pre-pandemic levels, with 29% of U.S. adults saying they have a great deal of confidence in medical scientists to act in the best interests of the public. This is down from 40% in November 2020 and 35% in January 2019, before COVID-19 emerged. Other prominent groups - including the ...
CCTV surveillance for crime prevention: A 40‐year systematic review
Abstract. Research Summary We report on the findings of an updated systematic review and meta‐analysis of the effects of closed‐circuit television (CCTV) surveillance cameras on crime. The ...
Read the Affidavit
Read the Affidavit. Jan. 5, 2023. Share full article. The affidavit provides additional details about the night of the University of Idaho killings. It notes that DNA and surveillance video led ...
Police culture, transparency and civilian oversight: A case study of
Policing scholars have long debated the theoretical notion of police culture. Among its proposed attributes are a certain "occupational personality" that functions to cope with stressors, a collective emphasis on insular social values and the valorization of crime-fighting as the most important aspect of policework (Skolnick, 2008; Terrill et al., 2003).
Day-1 Writing research paper or report/ understanding impact ...
Training Program /FDPOn "A Step-by-Step Guide to write a Good Research Paper"Date: 19-30 September 2024Time: 6:00 PM to 7:00 PM
Police recover body from 'Boiling Pots' in Hilo
Hawaii island police have recovered the body of a deceased man from the waters of "Boiling Pots" at Wailuku River State Park in Hilo two days after a swimmer had been reported missing.
Read Bryan Kohberger Affidavit: Details on Police Evidence in Idaho
Police tape surrounds a home that was the site of a quadruple murder on January 3, 2023, in Moscow, Idaho. A suspect, Bryan Kohberger (inset), has been arrested in connection with the killings.
READ: Full Moscow, Idaho murders court affidavit
Read the full affidavit outlining the case against Bryan Kohberger. Court documents released in Moscow, Idaho, lay out how police identified Bryan Kohberger as a suspect and used DNA evidence to ...