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Gas Separation Membrane Module Modeling: A Comprehensive Review

Marcos da conceicao.

1 Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA

Joanna Rivero

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA

Katherine Hornbostel

Glenn lipscomb, associated data.

Not applicable.

Membrane gas separation processes have been developed for diverse gas separation applications that include nitrogen production from air and CO 2 capture from point sources. Membrane process design requires the development of stable and robust mathematical models that can accurately quantify the performance of the membrane modules used in the process. The literature related to modeling membrane gas separation modules and model use in membrane gas separation process simulators is reviewed in this paper. A membrane-module-modeling checklist is proposed to guide modeling efforts for the research and development of new gas separation membranes.

1. Introduction

This review summarizes the literature related to the development and use of membrane gas separation module models in process simulation. The manuscript is divided into the following sections:

• Introduction to membrane gas separations;
• Membrane module designs;
• Module flow patterns;
• Membrane modeling review;
• Modeling non-idealities in membrane gas separation modules;
• Gas separation process modeling applications and challenges.

A final section provides a modeling checklist for developing membrane module models that incorporate the physics and module design detail required to accurately predict performance. The overall goal is to provide the reader with the broad background needed to assess the use of membrane module models in gas separation process simulations.

2. Introduction to Membrane Gas Separations

Separation processes are a critical part of chemical and purified product production. Distillation is the main separation technology in industrial plants and is responsible for 10–15% of the world’s energy usage [ 1 ]. The energy-intensive nature of distillation has led both industry and academia to seek more efficient alternatives that can limit the rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentration while still meeting the desired separation targets. The use of non-thermal separation technologies such as membranes has attracted interest in several industrial sectors due to their unique advantages, such as the following [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]:

• Simple operation and installation;
• No chemical usage;
• Low energy consumption;
• Facile scale-up due to process compactness and modularity;
• Flexible integration with other process units to form hybrid processes with reduced energy consumption.

Membrane-based gas separation has become a relevant process unit that can compete with conventional processes, such as distillation, absorption, and adsorption [ 4 ]. Binary and multicomponent gas separations are achievable with membranes, making them an ideal candidate for myriad applications including but not limited to nitrogen production from air, natural gas sweetening, hydrogen recovery, biogas upgrading, gas dehydration/drying, volatile organic compound (VOC) recovery, and CO 2 capture from flue gas streams [ 5 , 6 ].

Membrane materials can be made from polymeric materials, carbon, inorganic metals and ceramics, or a combination (mixed matrix or hybrid materials) [ 5 , 7 ]. Polymeric membranes are used predominantly in industrial gas separations because they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture, and robust [ 5 ]. Polymeric membrane materials are subdivided into rubbery and glassy polymers. Glassy polymers typically possess lower permeabilities and higher selectivities than rubbery polymers due to reduced molecular motion that restricts fluctuations in free volume. This increases selectivity through enhanced molecular sieving, but it decreases gas diffusion coefficients [ 8 , 9 ].

For membranes that do not possess permanent porosity (i.e., a dense polymeric material), the most widely accepted model for transport is the solution–diffusion model. Transport is envisioned as occurring in three steps: (1) gas dissolution or sorption into the membrane on the high-pressure side of the material, (2) sorbed gas diffusion through the membrane, and (3) desorption from the membrane on the low-pressure side [ 10 ]. The driving force for transport is controlled by the chemical potential difference between the high and low pressure contacting as phases. The driving force is created by gas compression or vacuum. For ideal gas contacting phases, gas flux across the membrane is given by the following calculation:

where J i is the flux across the membrane of species i   (mol/m 2 /s); Q i is the membrane permeability for species i   (mol·m/m 2 /s/Pa); δ is the effective membrane thickness (m); P r and P p are the feed/retentate (high pressure) and permeate (low pressure) pressures (Pa), respectively; and x i and y i are the high- and low-pressure gas phase mole fractions (mol/mol), respectively. The permeability is equal to the product of gas solubility and diffusivity in the membrane. The ratio of permeability to membrane thickness in Equation (1) is defined as the gas permeance: q ≡ Q i δ (mol/m 2 /s/Pa). Commonly, permeance is expressed in gas permeation units (GPU) where 1 GPU = 3.35 × 10 −10 (mol/m 2 /s/Pa).

High-performance polymeric membranes typically consist of a thick, dense submicron layer on top of a porous support, as shown in Figure 1 . Ideally, the support provides mechanical support to permit the imposition of a pressure difference across the membrane without damaging it but does not pose significant resistance to permeation. Membrane permeation rates are controlled by the material comprising the dense layer, and the value of d in Equation (1) is equal to the effective thickness of this layer. Direct measurement of the layer thickness is often difficult. However, the value can be estimated from permeation rates measured for both the supported membrane and thicker samples of a dense unsupported membrane.

Representation of gas separation membrane, which typically consists of a thicker, porous support layer coated with a thin, dense selective layer.

The ability of a membrane to separate two gases is given by its selectivity, which is defined for a pair of gases, i and j , as the ratio of gas permeabilities or permeances:

where component i is the gas with the higher permeability, resulting in a selectivity greater than one. Selectivity and permeability determine the economics of a gas separation process [ 5 ]. Selectivity controls the energy (operating) cost, while permeability controls the capital (membrane area) cost. Increasing selectivity reduces the amount of gas that must permeate from the high feed pressure to the low permeate pressure to achieve product purity targets; this reduces the compression energy lost due to permeation. Increasing permeability or permeance, the gas permeation flux per unit driving force, reduces the membrane area and associated capital cost required to achieve a target feed or product flow rate.

A trade-off exists between permeability and selectivity for a given gas pair, as illustrated in Figure 2 . The permeability–selectivity combination of polymeric membrane materials reported in the literature lies below a line commonly referred to as the Robeson upper bound [ 11 ]. This observation suggests that a limit exists on the ability to increase selectivity and permeability simultaneously through changes in polymer architecture. Recent developments in membrane materials such as facilitated transport, mixed matrix, and molecular sieve membranes indicate that the upper bound can be surpassed through the addition of non-polymeric components and introduction of different transport mechanisms [ 3 , 7 ].

Generic upper bound observed for trade-off between selectivity (ratio of the permeability for the faster permeating species to that for the slower species) and permeability for a gas pair. This “Robeson plot” [ 11 ] implies that attempts to increase permeability, selectivity, or both (as suggested by the arrows) for a family of materials will always lie below the upper bound.

3. Membrane Module Designs

Large membrane areas are required for industrial gas separations to process desired gas flow rates. Membranes are packaged into modular units to form compact, high-surface-area-per-unit-volume contactors. These modules are typically combined in parallel or series inside a pressure vessel or case for use in a separation process. Three primary module designs have been developed: plate and frame, spiral wound, and shell and tube. Flat-sheet membranes are used in the plate-and-frame and spiral-wound designs, while hollow cylindrical membrane fibers are used in the shell-and-tube design [ 5 ].

3.1. Plate-and-Frame Module

Plate-and-frame modules consist of stacks of membrane sheets. Flow channels are created between adjacent membranes with a spacer. The spacers also maintain the flow channel when a pressure difference is imposed across the membrane to drive gas permeation and can mix the fluid in the flow channel to reduce concentration polarization. The spacers for the feed and permeate channels commonly are different since a finer mesh is needed to support the membrane and prevent rupture in the lower pressure gas permeate channel because the membrane is pressed into the spacer by the applied pressure difference.

Membranes are glued together along the edges such that, when the module is placed in a case, gas streams can be introduced into and removed from alternating channels through external connections, as illustrated in Figure 3 . This leads to crossflow contacting where the permeate flows in the normal direction to the feed. Restricting where the gas stream enters along the edges can introduce partial countercurrent contacting (not illustrated). Such modules are one of the oldest membrane systems and are often used in dead-end filtration. Capital costs are usually higher for plate-and-frame modules, but operational costs are typically lower due to lower pressure drops [ 5 , 12 ].

Graphic of a plate-and-frame membrane module with crossflow. Left-hand side illustrates the membrane–spacer stack and flows into and out of the stack. Right-hand side illustrates the repeating unit in the stack.

3.2. Spiral-Wound Module

Flat-sheet membranes also can be used to fabricate spiral-wound modules. Like plate-and-frame modules, membrane sheets are separated by feed and permeate spacers, and adjacent membranes are glued to allow gas introduction and removal from separate flow channels. In contrast to plate-and-frame modules, long membrane sheets are used. One long membrane is glued along the long edges of the sheet, and one short edge with a permeate spacer and central permeate collection tube on top to create a “leaf”, as illustrated in Figure 4 . The permeate collection tube is rolled to wrap the leaf around the tube and form the module. Multiple leafs can be placed in a single module to increase the total membrane area, while reducing leaf length to minimize the permeate pressure drop inside each leaf. The module is placed into a case with external connections that allow for the introduction and removal of the feed and reject along the leaf exterior and separate permeate collection from the leaf interior from a central tube.

Stepwise process for construction of a spiral-wound membrane module [ 13 ]: ( a ) a permeate spacer is placed on top of the membrane; ( b ) glue is applied along the sides of the membrane, as illustrated, and the permeate collection tube is placed along the middle of the membrane sheet; ( c ) the membrane is folded over the permeate collection tube to form a leaf or envelope; ( d , e ) a feed spacer is placed on top of the leaf, and the permeate collection tube is rolled in the direction indicated by the black arrow to wrap the spiral-wound module; ( f ) the spiral-wound module is placed inside a case to permit fluid introduction and removal. The feed and permeate flow in a crossflow configuration with all permeate being collected by the central tube.

The leaf glue lines and connection to the permeate collection tube create crossflow contacting in the module. The feed flows parallel to the permeate collection tube from one face of the module to the other, while the permeate flows perpendicular to the feed in a spiral fashion through the leaf to the permeate collection tube. Compared to plate-and-frame modules, spiral-wound modules can offer greater area per unit volume and more facile manufacture and module handling [ 5 , 12 ].

3.3. Shell-and-Tube Module

Membranes in the form of hollow fibers or tubes are commonly formed into modules like the one shown in Figure 5 . The ends of the bundle are enclosed in a tube-sheet material that seals the fiber together. The tube sheet is machined such that the fiber lumens (interior) are open, and the tube sheet can be sealed to the interior of an external cylindrical case. External ports on the end of the case allow fluid to be introduced to and removed from the fiber lumens, while ports on the circumference allow for separate fluid introduction to and removal from the shell (the space outside the fibers). Such a configuration is the mass transfer equivalent of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger and provides nominal countercurrent contacting with the potential to use a sweep stream that can dilute the permeate and thereby enhance permeation rates [ 5 , 12 ]. Larger hollow-fiber membranes, fibers with an outer diameter greater than ~0.5 cm, often are referred to as tubular or capillary membranes, but the module design is the same as for finer hollow fibers.

Graphic depiction of a hollow-fiber membrane module. In this configuration, the feed stream (blue) is introduced into the shell side and runs countercurrent to the sweep stream (green) introduced into the tube side (fiber lumens). The gas of interest for the separation (e.g., CO 2 or O 2 ) permeates from the feed side through the hollow-fiber membrane to the permeate side.

4. Module Flow Patterns

Figure 6 illustrates the three primary contacting configurations considered in module design and performance calculations [ 5 , 12 ]:

• Co-current: feed and permeate flow parallel to each other in the same direction.
• Countercurrent: feed and permeate flow parallel to each other in opposite directions.
• Crossflow: feed and permeate flow perpendicular to each other.

Membrane module flow configurations (with sweep): ( a ) co-current, ( b ) countercurrent, and ( c ) crossflow.

All three of these flow configurations can be achieved nominally in either a flat-sheet or hollow-fiber module. Additionally, all three can use a sweep stream on the permeate side of the membrane to increase the partial pressure driving force for permeation.

For ideal contacting conditions (i.e., in the absence of significant pressure drop and other module inefficiencies arising from non-uniform membrane properties and fluid distribution, as discussed later), countercurrent contacting maximizes partial pressure differences within the module and yields the best performance, as measured by module productivity (product flow rate per unit membrane area) and gas recovery (fraction of feed recovered as the desired product). However, the differences between the configurations may be small depending on the gas separation and the module stage cut (i.e., the fraction of the feed that permeates). As the stage cut decreases, concentration changes along the feed and permeate channels decrease, and performance differences between the configurations become smaller.

Membrane and module selection is a critical task when developing a new membrane gas separation process. The choice of flat-sheet or hollow-fiber membrane occurs first and dictates what module options exist. If either flat-sheet or hollow-fiber membrane modules offered inherently superior economic performance, manufacturers would opt to produce that type of module. However, since all three contacting configurations are nominally possible with both flat-sheet and hollow-fiber membranes, the choice is based primarily on membrane- and module-manufacturing expertise. The production of high-performance gas separation membranes requires creating an effective dense separation layer less than ~0.1 micron thick on a porous support that provides the requisite strength to withstand the pressure difference across the membrane but does not pose a resistance to gas permeation. The art and science of membrane formation are highly specific to the membrane type and closely guarded by manufacturers, so the development of new membranes typically relies on adapting an existing process.

While similar contacting configurations are available in flat-sheet and hollow-fiber modules, differences between the module types exist and are summarized in Table 1 [ 5 , 12 ]. Cost estimates of module manufacture vary widely and depend strongly on the degree of automation. The patent literature describes automated processes for the formation of large fiber bundles [ 14 ], but the automated manufacture of large flat-sheet modules has lagged.

Comparison of membrane module types (adapted from [ 5 , 12 ]).

The ease of countercurrent contacting is greater in hollow-fiber modules than flat-sheet modules, due to differences in module geometry, while concentration polarization is more difficult to mitigate in hollow-fiber modules, especially in the fiber lumens which lack spacers to promote fluid mixing. For many current commercial gas separations, concentration polarization is not significant, and this would favor the shell-and-tube design. The pressure drop in both module types can be reduced by increasing the flow channel dimensions. Increasing the fiber size or spacer thickness will lead to lower pressure drops but will also reduce the membrane area per unit module volume. With shell-and-tube designs, pressure drops in the shell are lower than in the lumen which may dictate where the feed is introduced. Additionally, shell feed is preferred for a higher-pressure operation since hollow fibers are stronger when externally pressurized.

5. Membrane Modeling Review

A simulation of membrane-based gas separation systems requires the development of stable and robust models that can efficiently predict the separation performance for different flow configurations and module geometries. Mathematical modeling of gas membrane modules was first introduced by Weller and Steiner [ 15 ] in 1950, and their work has served as the basis for future model development. Shindo et al. [ 16 ] developed a calculation methodology for all five flow configurations for multicomponent gas separations. Pan [ 17 , 18 ] proposed solving module performance models with numerical integration of the governing differential equation mass balances, using split boundary conditions for the retentate and permeate side. However, this approach can be highly sensitive to the initial guess and computationally expensive when refining the solution to reduce numerical approximation errors. Khalipour et al. [ 19 ] extended Pan’s model into a system of backward finite differential equations that are solved using a Gauss–Seidel algorithm for an isothermal co-current and countercurrent module. Chowdhury et al. [ 20 ] reformulated Pan’s model as an initial value problem in which either an Adams–Moulton’s or Gear’s backward differentiation method is used for solving the nonlinear differential equations. Kovvali et al. [ 21 ] simplified Pan’s model as a set of nonlinear equations by assuming a linear relationship between the permeate and inlet stream compositions; this approach can reduce the computational effort while maintaining an acceptable accuracy. Sengupta and Sirkar [ 22 ] provide an excellent review of this early work and the numerical methods used to obtain numerical approximations to the governing equations.

Coker et al. [ 23 , 24 ] developed a stage-based approach to convert the differential mass balance equations into a set of nonlinear algebraic equations by assuming that the module consists of a series of well-mixed stages. The resulting equations are solved iteratively using a direct substitution algorithm that requires solution of a set of linear equations each iteration. The coefficients of the linear equations form a block tridiagonal matrix that allows for an efficient simultaneous solution using the Thomas Algorithm. The principal drawback of this approach is the sensitivity of the convergence process on the initial solution guess; the use of the solution for an equivalent crossflow module is recommended. This methodology is readily implemented in different computational environments and allows for a facile addition of non-idealities within the membrane module, such as pressure drop or temperature variation effects that arise due to the expansion-driven process.

The incorporation of the membrane numerical solving algorithm into a commercial process simulator such as Aspen Plus allows the user to understand how the model will behave under a range of operating conditions when connected to other process units. Commercial process simulators often do not have a membrane separation unit as part of their unit operations library; therefore, the implementation of a membrane module in a simulator such as Aspen Plus can help industry and academia further the research and development of membrane gas separation processes.

The inclusion of robust mathematical membrane models into commercial process simulators is well documented in the literature. However, some of these models are found to be simplistic due to the assumptions that are made with respect to the physical, geometrical and transport properties of the process. The baseline approach found in academic literature for membrane modeling consists of assuming the following conditions [ 15 , 16 ]:

• Steady state;
• Ideal gas behavior;
• Isothermal conditions;
• Constant permeance;
• Constant pressure in feed/retentate and permeate channels;
• No axial mixing;
• Uniform flow channel size;
• Negligible concentration polarization effects;
• Laminar flow.

Under these assumptions, the model for an “ideal” module consists of a set of differential mass balances that describe the concentration profiles of each component along the length of the module. Following Coker et al. [ 23 ], these equations can be solved by dividing the module length into a series of N well-mixed, as illustrated in Figure 7 .

Tank in series modeling schematic for countercurrent configuration. Numbers indicate the stage number with the feed introduced in the first stage.

The overall mass balances for an individual stage, as shown in Figure 8 , are given by Equations (3a)–(3c) for the countercurrent, crossflow, and co-current flow, respectively:

where R f and P f are the retentate and permeate flows, respectively; and the subscript indicates the stage the flow comes from. The component flow rates can be calculated similarly by using Equations (4a)–(4c) for the countercurrent, crossflow, and co-current flow, respectively:

where x r and y p are the mole fractions of component i in the retentate and permeate flows, respectively; and the subscripts j − 1, j , and j + 1 indicate the stage that the flow comes from.

Countercurrent membrane cell. The downward arrow indicates gas permeation from the retentate to the permeate.

Permeation across the membrane is calculated from Equation (1), using Equations (5a)–(5c) for countercurrent, crossflow, and co-current flow, respectively:

where P p ( j ) and P r ( j ) are the permeate and retentate pressures, respectively, in stage j . The retentate and permeate mole fractions must sum to unity:

where n c represents the number of components in the gas permeation process.

In the case of different module geometries, the active membrane area ( A ) for which permeation occurs is given by Equation (8) for hollow-fiber membranes based on the outer fiber diameter, and by Equation (9) for flat-sheet and spiral-wound membranes:

where L is the active permeating length of the membrane (excluding regions included in either tubesheets or glue lines), O D is the fiber outside diameter, N f is the number of fibers within the module,   W is the width, N s h e e t s is the number of membrane sheets, and N is the number of discretization stages. N must be increased until the performance predictions become independent of N .

6. Modeling Non-Idealities in Membrane Gas Separation Modules

Various non-ideal effects are observed during the operation of gas separation membrane modules. These non-ideal effects can have adverse effects on gas separation performance, and, thus, these effects should be included in models to improve accuracy if possible. Table 2 summarizes models reported in the literature that have accounted for the following non-ideal effects:

• Real gas behavior;
• Pressure drop in both permeate and retentate channels;
• Non-isothermal behavior;
• Concentration polarization;
• Variable permeance;
• Non-uniform membrane properties.

Summary of available models in the literature that model the following non-ideal behaviors: (1) real gas behavior, (2) channel pressure drop, (3) non-isothermal behavior, (4) concentration polarization, (5) variable permeance, and (6) non-uniform membrane properties. Commercial software packages are also listed for models that have been integrated into process simulation software.

‘-’ indicates that the model did not account for that non-ideal effect, ‘+’ indicates that the model did account for that non-ideal effect. For column ‘5′, ‘+’ indicates that permeance was modeled as a function of temperature only; ‘++’ indicates that permeance was modeled as a function of temperature and pressure; and ‘+++’ indicates that permeance was modeled as a function of temperature, pressure, and composition.

The impacts of each non-ideality on improving performance predictions and module design are discussed. In all cases, including the non-ideality either led to an improvement in predictions or highlighted a key variable for consideration in future module designs. While most studies have been limited to countercurrent modules, the effect of each non-ideality would be included for crossflow and co-current flow following the approach for countercurrent flows.

6.1. Real Gas Behavior

Membrane gas separations can be carried out at high feed pressures (>10 bar), and therefore ideal gas behavior may not be accurate. This can affect the driving force for gas permeation and requires the researcher to replace the partial pressure driving force for permeation with a fugacity driving force. The Soave–Redlich–Kwong equation of state (EOS) has proven to provide a good description of the pressure–volume–temperature (PVT) properties for many industrially relevant gas mixtures [ 28 , 30 ]. A study conducted by Scholz et al. [ 27 ] for biogas separation concluded that real gas effects should be accounted for when operating at pressures exceeding 10 bar. The fugacities were calculated from the EOS and used to calculate the gas permeation rates. The availability of this equation of state is common in well-known process simulators such as Aspen Plus [ 37 ].

6.2. Friction Losses

Pressure drops are expected to occur in all module geometries in both the retentate and permeate channels, reducing the driving force for separation. A pressure drop also increases the energy requirement for the separation process. This is especially important in CO 2 -capture processes where large volumes of gas must be pushed through membranes, leading to large operating costs if pressure drops are high [ 44 ]. Pressure drops through each module will be different due to their inherent geometries. Therefore, module selection is an important aspect during process design.

Pressure drop in hollow-fiber modules is described by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in both the lumen and shell side (assuming an equivalent hydraulic diameter for the shell domain). The Hagen–Poiseuille equation has been studied extensively in hollow-fiber membrane modules for different gas separations and provides a good description of experimental data [ 45 ]. For a hollow-fiber membrane module, pressure drops per stage are given by the following calculations [ 24 , 28 ]:

where μ is the retentate ( r ) or permeate ( p ) viscosity; ρ is the retentate or permeate density;   ∆ P is the pressure drop of the lumen ( l ) or shell ( s ) side; I D is the internal diameter of the fiber; N f is the number of fibers; L is the fiber length; d m is the module diameter; O D is the fiber outside diameter; N is the number of stages; and L f and S f are the lumen and shell flow rate, respectively.

Lumen-side pressure drops can be detrimental to performance when designing a module with small fiber diameters, whereas shell-side pressure drops can be significant at high packing densities. Normally, pressure drops through the shell side are much smaller than those on the lumen side due to limitations on the module packing density required to introduce and remove gas through external ports on the case from the shell. Chu et al. [ 34 ] demonstrated that, for natural gas separation, pressure drops on the lumen side can lead to significant methane-retentate recovery loss, thereby increasing the pressure requirement needed for separation.

Pressure drop in flat-sheet and spiral-wound membrane modules can be approximated by the Darcy–Weisbach law expression [ 35 , 46 ]:

where λ is the friction factor, ρ is gas density, d h is the hydraulic diameter, L c is the channel length, and v is the bulk velocity.

When contrasting spiral-wound and flat-sheet sweep pressure drops for a 20 TPD CO 2 capture multistage membrane system, the flat-sheet membrane displayed a four-times-lower pressure drop (<1 psia) than the spiral-wound modules [ 47 ]. However, this difference comes at the expense of a lower packing density and, hence, larger module footprint.

6.3. Non-Isothermal Behavior

Gas permeation through a membrane is analogous to the isenthalpic expansion of a gas through a throttling valve. Therefore, as the gas permeates, changes in temperature along the length of the membrane can be expected according to the Joule–Thomson coefficients for each component. Temperature changes due to the Joule–Thomson effect impact the permeance and selectivity of the membrane due to the following Arrhenius equation for the temperature dependence of gas permeability:

where E a , i is the activation energy for component i , R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol/K), T r is the retentate temperature at each stage j , T 0 is the reference temperature, Q i is the temperature independent pre-exponential factor, and Q ( T ) ( j , i ) is the temperature dependent permeability of component i at stage j . Note that the resistance to heat transfer across the membrane is small, so the temperature differences between permeate and retentate are often small.

Coker et al. [ 23 ] studied non-isothermal behavior for binary and multicomponent gas mixtures in a hollow-fiber membrane module. The proposed model was validated with experimental data and demonstrated that, for multicomponent natural gas separation, the temperature can decrease up to 40 °C at the 50% stage cut, and increasing the CO 2 feed stream composition led to greater temperature changes due to the high Joule–Thomson coefficient for CO 2 . Ahmad et al. [ 33 ] also demonstrated that the permeate gas temperature decreases as the CO 2 feed content increases for higher stage cuts in a non-isothermal natural gas separation experiment. However, heating of the retentate stream can occur when separating a CO 2 /H 2 stream from pre-combustion power plants, as shown by Miandoab et al. [ 28 ], due to the negative Joule–Thomson coefficient for hydrogen. Temperature-change effects are most critical to model for gas separations with gases that possess large Joule–Thomson coefficients, especially at high stage cuts and high pressure ratios [ 28 , 31 , 33 , 35 ].

6.4. Concentration Polarization

Concentration polarization influences the mass transfer process by slowing the flow of the most permeable component, while increasing the flow of the least permeable gas. Therefore, the concentration of the components changes from the boundary layer surface to inside the porous support and membrane surface. Polarization effects have been observed only for high-flux membranes and negatively affect module performance by decreasing product purity most prominently at high stage cuts [ 25 ].

Concentration polarization can be modeled by introducing a mass transfer coefficient to describe the boundary layers on either side of the membrane and the resistance of the support [ 28 , 29 ]. The dependence of the mass transfer coefficient on the module geometry and operating conditions is complex and not well understood.

Pan [ 17 ] noted the potential impact of concentration polarization in the support of a high-flux membrane and demonstrated that it can lead to effective crossflow contacting even if the module is operated nominally in countercurrent mode. Sidhoum et al. [ 48 ] showed that if the support resistance and contacting-gas-phase resistances are sufficiently low, the performance of asymmetric hollow-fiber membrane modules, with the membrane discriminating layer on the fiber outer surface, does not depend on whether the module is lumen or shell fed. Thus, proper design of the support is critical to minimize internal concentration polarization and maximize module performance.

Alpers et al. [ 49 ] documented the importance of external gas-phase concentration polarization for organic vapor separations with high-flux membranes. The apparent membrane selectivity increased dramatically with the flow rate, and the changes could be described quantitatively with an appropriate mass transfer coefficient correlation for the contacting gas phases.

Miandoab et al. [ 28 ] studied the impact of concentration polarization in a hollow-fiber membrane for pre-combustion CO 2 capture. Concentration polarization had less of an impact on CO 2 and H 2 selective membranes than other non-ideal effects. Such a conclusion concurs with the work of Mourgues et al. [ 36 ] in which concentration polarization was prominent only when component permeance exceeded 1000 GPU and selectivity was greater than 100. Scholz et al. [ 27 ] performed a similar study for assessing the impact of concentration polarization for biogas upgrading and concluded that concentration polarization can be neglected for low-flux membranes. Furthermore, Feng et al. [ 25 ] included the influence of concentration polarization for air separation in lumen-fed hollow-fiber modules and found that concentration polarization may become significant at high stage cuts.

6.5. Non-Uniform Membrane and Module Properties

Membrane module defects that arise from manufacturing practices can have detrimental effects in terms of the separation performance. In hollow-fiber membrane modules, inherent variations in fiber properties, such as permeance and internal diameter, can induce flow maldistribution effects that can dramatically affect module performance and even limit the product purity that can be achieved [ 26 ]. Similar effects can occur in flat-sheet and spiral-wound modules, where variations in permeate channel height and membrane permeance can diminish the recovery for a given retentate product and thereby increase the membrane area required for separation [ 26 , 32 ].

Sonalkar et al. [ 32 ] provided a detailed framework for studying the impact of fiber variability on module performance. The model assumes a Gaussian distribution for fiber internal diameter, selectivity, and gas permeance. A lumen-fed hollow-fiber membrane module was considered with perfect permeate mixing and no permeate mixing, and in the former, the permeate from all fibers was well mixed along the length of the module, whereas in the latter, no mixing between the fiber permeate took place. Simulation results, which were validated against experimental data from an air separation module, show that variation in inner diameter (ID) has the greatest effect on module performance as compared to varying the permeance or selectivity of the fibers.

As ID variation increases, recovery decreases. This inverse relationship is due to the dependence of flowrate on the fourth power of the inner diameter, which is given by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. For instance, a 20% inner diameter variation can decrease the retentate recovery by as much as 30% of the original value in the case of binary air separation. Variations in fiber permeance have a moderate impact on performance compared to ID variation; a permeance variation of 30% is analogous to a 10% ID variation.

An additional study, following similar methodology, investigated the impact of channel height variation on flat-sheet membrane and plate-and-frame module performance [ 43 ]. The model shows that, as channel variability increases, recovery decreases, as the flowrate is dependent on the channel height, but to the third power. Since the dependency is smaller than a hollow-fiber membrane, the effect of flow channel variability is slightly less significant for plate-and-frame modules compared to hollow-fiber modules. However, the study demonstrates that both membrane configurations see performance decline with increasing variability, allowing for further investigations into other non-uniform conditions.

6.6. Competitive Sorption, Penetrant Blocking, and Plasticization Effects

The presence of highly condensable gases in glassy polymeric membranes can induce plasticization effects that can negatively impact the physical properties of the membrane, leading to a reduction in the gas permeance and selectivity [ 50 ]. Plasticization effects lead to enhanced diffusion of the components due to the increased segmental motion stemming from the presence of highly sorbent condensable gases such as CO 2 and CH 4 . Furthermore, competitive sorption effects and penetrant blocking can occur due to the excess free volume present in glassy polymers; these three phenomena can be mathematically described by the dual sorption/partial immobilization model [ 51 , 52 ]. Visser et al. [ 50 ] conducted mixed gas permeation experiments for a CO 2 /N 2 mixture and showed that plasticization effects dominate at high pressures and low concentrations of the inert gas, whereas competitive sorption effects become stronger at higher inert gas concentrations. A subtle balance exists between plasticization and competitive sorption, as the latter can counterbalance the effects induced by plasticization at a high concentration of the inert gas.

Commonly, permeance is assumed to be constant or temperature independent in most models; therefore, the inclusion of a pressure-, temperature-, and composition-dependent permeance is necessary to fully characterize membrane permeation. Miandoab et al. [ 29 ] presented a comprehensive permeance model for investigating these permeance dependencies based on a fugacity-dependent permeance for glassy polymers that includes membrane plasticization, penetrant blocking, and competitive sorption effects [ 51 , 53 , 54 ]. The proposed model was validated with experimental permeance measurements and used for a sensitivity analysis in biogas upgrading. The results showed that competitive sorption and plasticization by CO 2 - and H 2 O-induced free volume blocking can have a significant effect. Additionally, a humidified gas feed showed a larger decrease in performance as compared to a dry gas stream due to the induced free volume blocking by water vapor and competitive sorption effects. Scholz et al. [ 27 ] performed a similar study of biogas upgrading by using a second-order polynomial to express the pressure- and composition-dependent permeance. Although the model predicted more pronounced effects when considering competitive sorption and plasticization effects, the method employed was not an adequate description of permeation physics. Bounaceur and Ahmad et al. [ 31 , 33 ] performed similar studies; however, the former did not consider the effect of composition, whereas the latter assumed constant gas diffusivity. The influence of non-ideal effects due to membrane permeance combined with those of module operation and module fabrication defects should be taken into consideration to accurately quantify the overall module performance.

7. Modeling Applications and Challenges

7.1. dimensional modeling.

One-dimensional membrane module modeling based on an ideal contacting configuration is common in the literature. Axial variations in composition, pressure, and temperature are predicted by assuming plug flow behavior. In the case of hollow-fiber membrane modules with counter and co-current flow configurations, the one-dimensional assumption often allows researchers to make accurate predictions of experimental data since the flow is parallel to the membrane [ 17 , 24 , 25 , 39 ]. However, in the case of crossflow hollow-fiber membrane modules, variations in both the axial and radial direction can be expected due to concentration changes and pressure buildup inside the module; this behavior is analogous to that of spiral-wound and flat-sheet membrane modules in which the permeate flows perpendicular to the feed stream. DeJaco et al. [ 40 ] proposed a 1D and 2D model for simulating air separation from spiral-wound membrane modules. His results showed that the 1D model provided a good approximation to the results of the more detailed 2D model over a range of stage cuts and oxygen permeate concentrations that were fit with experimental data. Additionally, the 1D spatial distribution of momentum variables (pressure drop and velocity) was in good agreement with the one-dimensional averaged variables from the 2D model.

Brinkmann et al. [ 35 ] developed a 1D model for envelope-type and flat-sheet modules and a 2D model for spiral-wound membrane modules in which non-ideal effects were considered for all modules studied. The simulation results from the modules investigated were in good agreement with the pilot plant experiments conducted by the author. Similarly, Dias et al. [ 55 ] presented a 1D and 2D model for simulating the performance of a spiral-wound membrane module under crossflow operation. The 2D profiles obtained were in better agreement with the literature data as compared to the 1D model.

A 3D computational fluid dynamics model is expected to provide enhanced understanding of the flow and mass transfer behavior inside membrane modules, but implementing this level of modeling into a commercial process simulator becomes unpractical due to higher computational times. Moreover, Haddadi et al. [ 56 ] performed a study comparing a 1D model versus a 3D model for a hollow-fiber membrane module and concluded that both models showed good agreement with the experimental data, with less than 2% error. These results suggest that 1D models may provide good performance predictions for initial process design, but higher dimensional modules will be required to improve predictions and agreement with experimental data.

7.2. Software Implementation

Software selection for membrane module modeling is a key step for model development. The decision to model a membrane module depends on the spatial dimension used and the level of complexity of the model equations. Several works in the literature [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 37 ] have used Aspen Custom Modeler (ACM), which is an equation-oriented modeling software that has built-in numerical solvers that are capable of solving linear, nonlinear, ordinary, and partial differential equations. The customized unit operation model can be interfaced with the Aspen properties package and easily exported to Aspen Plus and HYSYS for performing flowsheet simulations. ACM offers a unique advantage over other software tools, such as MATLAB, Excel VBA, and others, because there is no need for coding the numerical method or algorithm for solving these equations, and the interfacing process with a commercial process simulator is simpler.

Additional software tools such as gPROMS have been used by Hensen [ 37 ] and Marriott et al. [ 38 ] to model hollow-fiber membrane modules under different operating conditions; the model can also be exported to Aspen Plus through CAPE-OPEN (Computer-Aided Process Engineering), which allows for the interoperability between a process modeling environment and a custom process modeling component. The incorporation of customized models in process simulators also can be performed through user-defined subroutines that are available in the program (Aspen Plus, HYSYS). However, this requires the user to code the membrane in FORTRAN, Visual Basic, C, or C++ programming languages and interface the routines with the process simulator.

If a more sophisticated modeling approach is desired for analyzing in detail the mass, momentum, and heat-transfer effects inside the membrane module, 3D software tools such as COMSOL Multiphysics, ANSYS, and OpenFoam [ 56 , 57 , 58 ] can be used to account for actual module geometry and associated fluid contacting. However, 3D models can be computationally expensive, and therefore simulation times must be balanced with the level of accuracy wanted as the meshing requirements required for the solution to be mesh independent will lead to longer run times.

7.3. Comparisons with Pilot-Scale Experiments

A great majority of the developed models for membrane gas separations are validated against experimental data from small-scale applications. There is a limited amount of work performed with model validation against pilot-plant-scale experiments. Brinkman et al. [ 35 , 59 ] developed carbon capture membrane models using the Aspen Custom Modeler (ACM) and compared them against experimental data from several field trials completed at three different locations in Germany. The operating conditions and design variables differ from each test conducted, with the purpose of evaluating the performance of the membrane module under a wide range of flows, feed compositions, and other parameters. The pilot-plant experiments were completed in a steady-state fashion over a period of two months for the first two trials and 400 h for the third one. The results from the simulation models were in good agreement with the pilot-plant data; however, the prediction was slightly poorer when concentration polarization effects became prominent at low feed-flow rates. Furthermore, high feed pressures increase the model discrepancies due to the complex behavior of the membrane permeance that was not captured by the model. A decrease in performance was not observed for the period of operation, and thus, the experiments conducted could be predicted without accounting for membrane aging.

Choi et al. [ 60 ] completed a pilot-scale membrane plant study for the separation of CO 2 from liquefied natural fired flue gas. A hollow-fiber simulation was employed to establish comparisons against the experimental data. The pilot plant in this study consists of a multistage membrane separation process with feed gas and vacuum compression. The process was operated under different operating scenarios, and a good agreement between the numerical simulation and the field data was found. However, when atmospheric pressure was applied on the permeate side, the simulations provided poorer predictions of the required membrane area.

Fixed-site carrier membranes developed by Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Norway were pilot tested under different environments and module configurations for CO 2 capture. Sandru et al. [ 61 ] developed plate-and-frame modules (0.25 m 2 –1.5 m 2 ) that were tested for more than six months in a coal-fired power plant in Portugal. The separation performance was consistent over the testing period and showed a good dynamic response to process upsets. However, the flat-sheet membranes were not efficient and were difficult to scale up. Therefore, Hagg et al. [ 62 ] designed a hollow-fiber membrane module (4 m 2 ) for testing in a cement plant. The module performed well and consistently under large testing periods and harsh conditions. He et al. [ 63 ] scaled up the hollow-fiber membranes (4.0 m 2 –10 m 2 ) in order to find the best operating conditions and improve the module’s performance. The membranes were subjected to several experimental runs in which multiple process parameters were varied to assess the membrane’s performance and behavior. The results from this testing campaign indicate that a bore-side-fed module provided better gas distribution within the module and, thus, improved the module’s efficiency compared to a shell-fed module. NTNU demonstrated the compactness and robustness of their membrane modules at a pilot-plant level, but they did not use uncertainty quantification within a process model to account for measurement error and bias while conducting model validation.

Facilitated transport membranes comprising polyvinylamine as a fixed carrier and an amino acid salt as a mobile carrier developed by The Ohio State University [ 64 , 65 , 66 ] also offer attractive performance for CO 2 capture. Transport models were developed and validated for the membrane with data from test coupons, and the model was used to perform technoeconomic analyses. Notably, spiral-wound modules were tested at the National Carbon Capture Center, but detailed comparisons to module simulations were not provided.

An uncertainty quantification approach was taken by DeJaco et al. [ 40 ] to help validate experimental data from an air-separation spiral-wound membrane module with simulation results. Uncertainties in seven input model parameters were evaluated in the simulation and propagated to the output variables: stage cut and permeate mole fraction. The results indicate that the uncertainty for both calculated and experimental stage cuts is predominant at low feed flows due to measurement limitations. Uncertainty in the permeate purity was found to increase when operating the module at high feed pressures; therefore, more precise measurements of component permeances are needed to accurately determine the change in permeate purity.

There has been a large quantity of bench-scale/pilot-plan-scale tests reported in the literature for different gas separations with several module types, as shown in Table 3 . However, only a few of these experimental tests were validated with membrane models, and only DeJaco et al. [ 40 ] accounted for rigorous parametric uncertainty of the process model.

Summary of several lab-scale and pilot-plant trials for multiple membrane module types. Module types listed are (1) hollow fiber (HF), (2) spiral wound (SW), and (3) flat sheet (FS).

The process models for membrane-based separation processes are predominantly deterministic in nature—rigorous parametric uncertainty quantification has not been accounted for. Sensitivity studies must be performed to assess the impact of errors in process variable measurements and help identify input parameters that have the largest contribution to the output variable of interest.

Additionally, optimization studies have been completed to identify regions where the membrane process can meet desired product purity and recovery targets. Propagating the uncertainty through the process model can allow for the estimation of uncertainty in meeting these targets. It has been proven that when taking parameter uncertainty into consideration, the model is able to accurately predict large-scale pilot-plant data for CO 2 capture in solvent systems [ 74 ]. Membrane-based CO 2 -capture technologies can clearly benefit from the implementation of uncertainty quantification into process models that can help replicate the pilot-plant data while maximizing the knowledge in the stochastic modeling and sequential design of experiments’ methodology.

8. Membrane Module Modeling Checklist

Deciding which non-ideal effects to include in module performance models during the early stages of module development is a difficult task. The most comprehensive model will include all the non-ideal effects identified in the preceding section. However, the information required to perform the calculations (e.g., dependence of permeance on temperature and pressure and variability in membrane properties) may not be immediately available.

Model complexity can be reduced by initially neglecting all non-ideal effects and assuming an ideal contacting pattern based on the module geometry, e.g., assuming countercurrent contacting for a hollow-fiber module. Module performance predictions for this ideal module model provide an upper limit on performance in terms of product recovery from the feed and membrane productivity or product flow rate per unit membrane area.

To help evaluate the impact of non-idealities, a checklist was developed, as summarized in Table 4 . Based on the available literature, this checklist provides guidelines for estimating the potential effects of non-idealities and how to modify the ideal model to account for them.

Checklist for inclusion of module non-idealities.

The potential need to use higher dimensional (i.e., 2D or 3D) models for nominal countercurrent modules can be evaluated by comparing performance predictions for countercurrent contacting with predictions for crossflow contacting. If the differences are significant over the anticipated operating range, higher dimensional models may be needed to capture more subtle effects associated with gas distribution into and from the module. Note that the observation of differences does not necessarily imply that higher dimensionality modeling is needed. It only suggests that if differences between simulation and experiment exist, they may be associated with non-ideal fluid contacting, but this does not rule out other non-ideality sources.

Module performance may depend on the variation in membrane and flow channel properties (i.e., ID, channel thickness, permeance, and selectivity) that occurs in membrane and module manufacture. Ideally, manufacturing quality controls reduce these variations to acceptable levels: <10% channel size variation and <30% permeance variation. However, if actual variability is higher, the resulting flow maldistribution effects can be detrimental to performance and should be included in module simulations.

An upper bound on the pressure drop within a module is provided by calculating pressure drops in the absence of permeation, i.e., for a constant flow. If significant, pressure drops must be calculated through the inclusion of a momentum balance, as described previously. Note that pressure drops can be minimized through changes in the module design and operating conditions selected for the desired separation [ 63 , 68 ].

The potential impact of Joule–Thomson effects can be determined by calculating changes in temperature associated with expansion of the feed gas to the permeate pressure, using analytical expressions or a process simulator. If significant temperature changes occur, the energy balance must be included in the simulation. Additionally, the temperature dependence of gas permeance is required. Higher temperature drops along the length of the membrane are expected at low feed temperatures and high feed pressures [ 23 , 28 , 33 ]. The extent of temperature change along the length of the membrane is also governed by the gas composition.

Concentration polarization effects may be important for gas permeances that are higher than 1000 GPU and selectivities that are larger than 100 [ 36 ]. If significant, mass transfer resistances in the contacting gas phases and the membrane porous support should be included in gas permeation rate calculations.

The potential impact of concentration- and pressure-dependent permeances is best determined from experimental permeance measurements over the anticipated range of operating conditions. Theoretical predictions of such effects may be possible using the Flory–Huggins model for rubbery polymers [ 31 , 35 ] or either the dual mode sorption/partial immobilization, ENSIC (ENgaged Species Induced Clustering), or NELF (Non-Equilibrium Lattice Fluid) models for glassy polymers [ 35 , 75 , 76 , 77 ]. These models also provide a theoretical basis for developing correlations of permeance with pressure and composition for use in module models.

The real gas behavior assumption may not be valid when operating at high pressures >10 bar [ 27 ]. An additional check on validity is provided by evaluating fugacity coefficients to determine the deviation from ideal gas behavior. If significant, a fugacity driving force is required to calculate gas permeation rates.

9. Conclusions

Mathematical modeling of membranes for gas separations is an important step for quantifying module performance. Simplified membrane models are likely to overpredict performance and lead to erroneous results when compared to experimental data. The development of robust mathematical membrane models for several gas separation applications that take into consideration non-ideal effects related to module manufacturing, operating conditions, and membrane properties are necessary for better process performance quantification and agreement with real data. Uncertainty quantification of membrane process models can help quantify the best estimates of uncertain design parameters through a stochastic modeling approach. However, uncertainty quantification in membrane models is still a novel process that needs more research that can lead to better model refinement strategies which can provide a better fit with the experimental data. The effective development of membrane models is essential for demonstrating the commercial competitiveness that membranes offer when comparing it to other separation alternatives through a techno-economic analysis.

A checklist for developing future simulations of modules that either possess improved membrane properties or are used in emerging separation areas is provided. As membrane permeances increase, the detrimental effect of concentration polarization within the support and in the external gas phases will have to be considered. This is the case for state-of-the-art membranes developed for CO 2 capture and light hydrocarbon separations. Additionally, module pressure drops and internal flow distribution will be of concern when seeking module designs to minimize the energy input required to create the chemical potential driving force for permeation. These concerns are especially important in CO 2 capture.

Abbreviations

Funding Statement

This work was performed with the support of the US Department of Energy’s Transformational Carbon Capture program. Funding was provided through contract P010267273 from the US Department of Energy.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: M.D.C., L.N., J.R., K.H. and G.L.; writing: M.D.C., L.N., J.R., K.H. and G.L.; visualization: J.R., K.H. and G.L.; supervision: K.H. and G.L.; funding acquisition: K.H. and G.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the conceptualization of the review and writing of the manuscript.

This project was funded by the United States Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, in part, through a site support contract. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor the support contractor, nor any of their employees makes any warranty, whether expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

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PERSPECTIVE article

The future of membrane separation processes: a prospective analysis.

• LRGP-CNRS Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France

Membrane processes are today one of the key technologies for industrial separations and are expected to play an important role in future sustainable production systems. The combination of materials science and process engineering has historically always been an essential condition to the development of new applications for membranes. The recent development of high performance nanostructured materials, together with new production technologies (such as 3D printing) and high performance computing possibilities is expected to open new horizons to membrane processes. The different challenges and prospects to be addressed to achieve this purpose are discussed, with an emphasis on the future of process industries in terms of feedstocks, energy sources, and environmental impact.

1 Introduction: Membrane Separations Today

Membranes are usually considered as the third wave of separation processes, thermal separations (e.g., distillation, evaporation) and auxiliary phase processes (e.g. absorption, liquid extraction, adsorption) being the first and second respectively ( King, 1980 ; Koros, 2001 ). The industrial development of membrane indeed demanded advanced thin layer materials to be produced at a large scale; early attempts of microporous membranes preparation (with pore sizes below µm range) can be dated back 1920, while thin film dense membranes could not be obtained before 1960 ( Hwang and Kammermeyer, 1975 ).

The key production challenges of membranes, which are still valid today, have been soon identified: first, a highly permeable material simultaneously showing a high enough selectivity is logically absolutely necessary. The antagonism between these two performances generates a so called trade-off curve, an empirical limit based on experimental data, that is obtained for the separation of gas and liquid mixtures ( Robeson, 2008 ). The possibility to overpass the corresponding upper bond between permeance and selectivity is one of the key challenges of membrane science ( Park et al., 2017 ).

In a second step, large scale production processes of membrane and module have to be developed with zero default standards.

Finally, the membrane process has to be implemented at the best place in the industrial process, with efficient pretreatment operations, in order to ensure the longest membrane material lifetime.

The development of membrane processes thus requires a combination of 1) high performance materials (chemistry being the key discipline), 2) robust and liable module production technologies and 3) process engineering and design tools ( Prasad et al., 1994 ; Baker, 2004 ; Favre et al., 2017 ).

These three key steps (material, module, system) are sketched in Figure 1 as a science push contribution, while the application framework and constraints correspond to an industry pull action. Taking into account the tremendous developments recently achieved in the different directions shown on Figure 1 , it can be expected that the place and role of membrane processes in a large range of industrial applications will significantly expand in the near future. This prospective statement, together with the associated challenges, is detailed hereafter.

FIGURE 1 . Synopsis of the industrial development framework of membrane processes: scientific advances (innovative materials, new production technologies, and process engineering methodologies) can synergistically contribute to current and future industrial needs.

2 The Future of Membrane Processes: Challenges and Prospects

2.1 membrane materials.

To a large extent, polymers represent today the dominant material family of membrane separation processes ( Baker and Low, 2014 ). This statement applies for porous (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, dialysis) or dense (reverse osmosis, gas separation, and pervaporation) industrial membranes. Polymers effectively offer unique possibilities in terms of thin separation layer production, through cheap, scalable, liable processing technologies (phase inversion, extrusion, hollow fiber spinning, and coating) ( Nunes et al., 2020 ). Globally speaking, the permeability/selectivity trade-off is achieved based on statistical porous structures: pore size distribution in the nm to µm range for porous membranes, statistical free volume distribution in the subnanometer range for dense polymeric membranes ( Figure 2 ). The same statement holds for inorganic membranes (i.e. alumina, carbon, metal oxides, silica…), which are produced by sintering/extrusion and are mostly used for microfiltration and ultrafiltration operations.

FIGURE 2 . Examples of current industrial membrane materials. (A) Dense skin asymmetric polymeric membrane (reverse osmosis, gas separations). Productivity constraints require a very thin dense layer supported on a porous structure. The separation performances result from species solubility and diffusion into a subnanometer free volume distribution matrix. (B) Porous membrane (ultrafiltration, microfiltration, dialysis, membrane contactors, and transmembrane distillation). The porous separating layer, shows a pore size distribution in the nanometer to micrometer range, depending on the liquid mixture to be treated and species to be treated be separated. This type of structure can be based on polymeric or inorganic materials.

With the advent of the nanostructured materials revolution, breakthrough performances are achievable today, mostly at lab scale for membrane materials ( Koros and Zhang, 2017 ). For instance, the classical permeability/selectivity trade-off limit of polymers for gas and, more recently, liquid separations, can be completely overpassed with materials showing a quasi-perfect monodisperse pore size such as zeolites ( Young et al., 2017 ), carbon nanotubes ( Skoulidas et al., 2002 ), Carbon Molecular Sieves (CMS) ( Koh et al., 2016 ), graphenes ( Geim, 2009 ), Metal Oxide Frameworks (MOF) ( Gascon and Kapteijn, 2010 ), among others.

The combination of ultrathin structure (down to the atom level for graphene films), together with perfect lattice structure opens the way to very high separation performances. Moreover, most of the inorganic nanostructured materials mentioned above show high temperature resistance and compatibility with a very broad range of chemicals. The limitations of polymers, with upper operating temperature usually around 100 C and sensitivity to chemicals (e.g., chlorine for ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis in biotechnology and water treatment, heavy hydrocarbons for gas separations, solvents for organic solvent nanofiltration) effectively limit today the selection of membrane processes for industrial use. More specifically, the possibility to operate membrane modules under high temperature conditions could unlock novel hybrid processes such as membrane reactors. The association of catalysis and separation function in a single unit is indeed known to often offer improved performances ( Agrawal, 2001 ; Van Kampen et al., 2021 ). Numerous studies have addressed this type of process for decades, for instance for hydrogen production with high temperature separation membranes based on palladium or inorganic membranes. The success of membrane bioreactors ( Shannon et al., 2008 ), which has been achievable with polymeric materials given the low temperature operation level (ca 30 C), could then possibly apply to a new set of chemical reactors.

2.2 Production Technologies

Besides new material developments, major changes are also expected to occur for membrane module production. The development of a new tailor made module for a new membrane material is known to be tedious, long and costly. Moreover, module/membrane industrial production most often makes use of organic solvents (i.e., for polymer dissolution) that can lead to environmental concerns. Green solvents (water, supercritical CO 2 .) have been proposed in order to limit these problems, but their use is far to be applicable to any type of polymer. Nevertheless, the large efforts and significant progress recently achieved in producing more sustainable membranes, employing green solvents and bio-based materials through the replacement of traditional toxic and harmful compounds should be stressed ( Nunes et al., 2020 ). Simultaneously, solvent resistant membranes, such as fluorinated polymers and thin film polymers showing impressive mechanical resistance have been recently developed, opening new perspectives for polymeric membranes ( Karan et al., 2015 ). Besides solvent use, potting and casing materials can also be an issue, with difficulties in terms of materials compatibility and defect free adhesion operation of resin potting for instance. Module production often relies on secret know-how. The challenges of module production also explain why the number of membrane equipment suppliers remains limited.

With the advent of 3D printing techniques, it might be that a completely new field of development emerges. The direct production of a membrane module through 3D printing in place of classical production techniques (e.g., hollow fiber spinning + resin potting) is not achievable yet, but it could become a reality in a near future. For instance, the production of ultrathin composite membrane samples, with dense skin layers down to 20 nm, has been recently reported, offering tremendous perspectives for development ( Chowdhury et al., 2018 ). Several studies recently reported 3D possibilities for different types of membrane materials and processes ( Bara et al., 2013 ; Bram et al., 2015 ; Nguyen et al., 2019 ). It has to be stressed that major limitations for large scale modules remain. Nevertheless, the direct 3D printing production of a membrane module based on either polymeric or inorganic materials could be a complete game changer. A rapid efficient module production could be achieved, with completely new possibilities offered in terms of structure.

The production constraints of a membrane, be it flat or a hollow fiber, necessarily translates into 1D type module structures. With 3D printing, complex geometries (such as fractal or constructal), possibly including in situ turbulence promoters (in place of spacers), anisotropic membrane or module structures could be possible. It is important to stress that living systems make use of membranes for numerous applications (e.g., lung, kidney…) based on complex structures, far away from the constant cross Section 1D fluid flow. This is certainly not fortuitous, but it may reflect improved performances (energy efficiency, intensification) that are largely unexplored today in membrane science with synthetic polymers.

2.3 Process Design Methods

The synergy between materials and process studies has always been a key requirement of membrane applications. Similarly to any chemical engineering target, Process Systems Engineering (PSE) tools are very efficient for membrane process design purposes today, with different software environments ( Biegler et al., 1997 ). The selection of the most efficient membrane material, together with the best place, best design and optimal operating conditions has been achieved for a great number of industrial applications ( Bozorg et al., 2019 ). Nevertheless, complex processes such as multistage or hybrid systems still address some important and partly unsolved optimization issues. Significant progress has been recently achieved in this direction, but an important paradigm shift is currently under progress.

2.4 Membrane Processes in a New Industrial Environment

With the forecasted decrease of fossil fuel use, a completely new industrial landscape is on the way to become reality in a near future. In terms of feedstocks, renewables are expected to replace fossil hydrocarbons ( Agrawal and Mallapragada, 2010 ; Favre, 2020 ). This will strongly impact the type of separation processes which are classically used in petrorefineries, with the predominant role of distillation. High performance membrane materials can drastically improve the energy efficiency of separation processes ( Sholl and Lively, 2016 ; Castel and Favre, 2018 ).

Biorefineries will require efficient separation processes, adequate to achieve operation on aqueous, diluted mixtures containing heat sensitive biomolecules. Membrane processes which offer the possibility to separate complex mixtures without heat supply and require electricity in place of thermal driving force are considered as a key technology for biorefineries.

Moreover, the use of alternative driving forces could be of interest, besides the classical pressure, power based solution. Temperature difference (such as in transmembrane distillation or thermopervaporation), sweep operation (which can replace vacuum pumping is some cases) or more exotic driving forces such as light ( Gérardin et al., 2021 ) or electrical fields ( Wilcox, 2020 ) have been mostly discarded up to now. It might be that these novel approaches are in some cases reconsidered in a sustainable industrial framework, especially in an integrated, energy efficient network.

3 Discussion

The joined rapid evolution of advanced nanostructured materials, module production technologies and process engineering tools discussed in the previous sections is expected to generate significant changes in the production, place and role of membrane processes in industry.

- The new generation of membrane materials, to a large extent based on inorganic monodisperse structures, is likely to push membrane applications, through improved separation performances, and/or new applications under high temperature or aggressive environments. A sound collaboration between materials scientists and process engineers is however absolutely necessary in order to rigorously evaluate these new perspectives.

- The possibilities offered by new materials production technologies, especially 3D printing, is likely to generate a breakthrough in membrane module production. This field of research is very large and numerous development stoppers have to be solved, but the production tool is there, with spectacular developments in material science, and technological devices.

- Besides the traditional separation function, operated by membranes for decades, new possibilities are expected to emerge, where membranes fulfill at the same time multiple tasks (filtration, catalysis, support, and heat exchange.) ( Liu et al., 2016 ). The development of biomimetic and stimuli responsive membrane materials (such as self repairing structures for instance) is also expected to lead to new applications ( di Vincenzo et al., 2021 ).

- The development of modern, artificial intelligence type tools (neural networks, surrogate models, superstructure approaches, and genetic algorithms…) in Process Systems Engineering enables today the very fast identification of the optimal membrane, process design and operating conditions ( Castel et al., 2020 ). The joined improvements of optimization algorithms and computing capacity opens the way for innovative processes, where the design of mutlimembrane, multistaged processes can be rigorously achieved.

Additionally, the shift of numerous industrial sectors from fossil to renewables feedstocks and energy offers promising perspectives for membrane applications. The rational design of downstream processes for biorefineries, which are expected to gradually replace fossil fuel based refineries, will require a smart combination of technological bricks, where membranes will for sure play a key role ( Huang et al., 2008 ; Favre and Brunetti, 2022 ).

The different aspects listed throughout this prospective analysis are tentatively summarized in a general table ( Supplementary Material ).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

EF: Concept and writing.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fceng.2022.916054/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: membrane, separations, materials, engineering, sustainable, industry

Citation: Favre E (2022) The Future of Membrane Separation Processes: A Prospective Analysis. Front. Chem. Eng. 4:916054. doi: 10.3389/fceng.2022.916054

Received: 08 April 2022; Accepted: 28 April 2022; Published: 17 May 2022.

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*Correspondence: Eric Favre, [email protected]

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Review of Membrane Separation Models and Technologies: Processing Complex Food-Based Biomolecular Fractions

• Published: 02 January 2021
• Volume 14 , pages 415–428, ( 2021 )

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• Subin R. C. K. Rajendran 1 , 2 ,
• Beth Mason 2 &
• Alan A. Doucette   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9467-1002 1  

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There is growing interest in the food industry to develop approaches for large-scale production of bioactive molecules through continuous downstream processing, especially from sustainable sources. Membrane-based separation technologies have the potential to reduce production costs while incorporating versatile multiproduct processing capabilities. This review describes advances in membrane technologies that may facilitate versatile and effective isolation of bioactive compounds. The benefits and drawbacks of pressure-driven membrane cascades, functionalized membranes and electromembrane separation technologies are highlighted, in the context of their applications in the food industry. Examples illustrate the separation of functional macromolecules (peptides, proteins, oligo/polysaccharides, plant secondary metabolites) from complex food-based streams. Theoretical and mechanistic models of membrane flux and fouling are also summarized. Overcoming existing challenges of these technologies will provide the food industry with several attractive options for bioprocessing operations.

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Recovery Technologies for Water-Soluble Bioactives: Advances in Membrane-Based Processes

Introduction to Membrane Separation of Bioactive Compounds; Challenges and Opportunities

Food bioactive ingredients processing using membrane distillation, abbreviations.

bovine serum albumin

electrodialysis reversal

electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membranes

limiting current density

nanofiltration

polyethersulfone

ultrafiltration

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Jessica Nickerson (Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University) for creating the artwork presented in the graphical abstract and for providing helpful editorial suggestions.

SRCKR received funding through the Izaak Walton Killam Predoctoral Scholarship. This work was supported by the National Research Council of Canada (Grant Number 05145, 2017).

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Rajendran, S.R.C.K., Mason, B. & Doucette, A.A. Review of Membrane Separation Models and Technologies: Processing Complex Food-Based Biomolecular Fractions. Food Bioprocess Technol 14 , 415–428 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02559-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02559-x

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Recent progress and challenges in membrane-based O 2 /N 2 separation

Nurul F. Himma received her bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia, in 2013. In 2015, she completed her master’s degree from Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, under the supervision of Professor Wenten, and then worked as a research asisstant in Prof. Wenten’s laboratory. She is currently a lecturer in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia. Her research interests include wastewater treatment and membrane development for environmental protection.

Anita K. Wardani graduated with bachelor’s and master’s degrees in chemical engineering from Institut Teknologi Bandung in 2013 and 2016, respectively. She is currently a PhD student in chemical engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung, under supervision of Prof. I Gede Wenten. Her research interests focus on modification of polypropylene for air separation, water treatment, and other filtration processes.

Nicholaus Prasetya completed his bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering at Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB). After working as a research assistant (at Research Center for Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, ITB) under Prof. Wenten’s supervision, he continued his master’s degree at Imperial College London as an awardee of Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education. He is currently a PhD student under the supervision of Dr. Bradley Ladewig at Imperial College London. His research is focused on development of light-responsive metal-organic framework (MOF) and membrane for gas separation.

Putu T.P. Aryanti received her PhD in chemical engineering from Institut Teknologi Bandung (Indonesia) in 2016 under the supervision of Prof. Wenten. Her master’s degree was received in 2002 from Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS), Indonesia, and her bachelor’s degree from Institut Teknologi Nasional Malang (ITN Malang), Indonesia, in 1997. She joined the Chemical Engineering Department at Universitas Jenderal Achmad Yani (UNJANI), Indonesia, in 2016, and her current research interests include membrane preparation and modification.

I Gede Wenten received his bachelor in chemical engineering from Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Indonesia, and MSc and PhD degrees from DTU Denmark. He is a professor of chemical engineering and a member of Research Center for Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, ITB. I G. Wenten has long time experience in membrane technology at both industrial and academic fields with a career spanning more than 20 years. He received several awards such as Suttle Award (1994), Toray Science and Technology Award (1996), ASEAN Outstanding Engineering Award (2010), and other national awards from academic and professional foundations. He is a founder of GDP Filter Indonesia – a membrane manufacturing company and also a founder of ASEAN Association on Membrane (Membrane Science and Technology conference).

Compared with current conventional technologies, oxygen/nitrogen (O 2 /N 2 ) separation using membrane offers numerous advantages, especially in terms of energy consumption, footprint, and capital cost. However, low product purity still becomes the major challenge for commercialization of membrane-based technologies. Therefore, numerous studies on membrane development have been conducted to improve both membrane properties and separation performance. Various materials have been developed to obtain membranes with high O 2 permeability and high O 2 /N 2 selectivity, including polymer, inorganic, and polymer-inorganic composite materials. The results showed that most of the polymer membranes are suitable for production of low to moderate purity O 2 and for production of high-purity N 2 . Meanwhile, perovskite membrane can be used to produce a high-purity oxygen. Furthermore, the developments of O 2 /N 2 separation using membrane broaden the applications of oxygen enrichment for oxy-combustion, gasification, desulfurization, and intensification of air oxidation reactions, while nitrogen enrichment is also important for manufacturing pressure-sensitive adhesive and storing and handling free-radical polymerization monomers.

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System Upgrade on Tue, May 28th, 2024 at 2am (EDT)

Chapter 4: membrane processes for n 2 –ch 4 separation.

• Shiguang Li , 
• Zhaowang Zong , 
• Miao Yu , and 
• Moises A. Carreon

Gas Technology Institute, 1700 S. Mount Prospect Road, Des Plaines, IL 60018, USA

Search for more papers by this author

Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

An increasing demand for clean energy has led to a search for alternative energies with less environmental impact, of which natural gas is an important option. The large consumption of natural gas requires an effective technology to improve the purity of natural gas, in which inert gases such as nitrogen play a large part. However, current technologies cannot provide economic solutions to remove nitrogen from natural gas, which leads to a decrease in the heat value of the natural gas. Membrane separation by zeolites represents a viable energy-saving method that can potentially offer an effective way to remove nitrogen from natural gas. In particular, SAPO-34 zeolite membranes have been extensively studied for carbon dioxide separation because of their exceptional molecular-sieving effects, higher thermal and chemical resistances. These membranes can also be effective for N 2 –CH 4 separation due to their molecular-sieving effects and adsorption properties. In this mini review, we discuss the different technologies employed for nitrogen rejection from natural gas, emphasizing zeolite membranes as an effective and promising technology to economically separate N 2 from CH 4 .

• The influence of cellulose acetate butyrate membrane structure on the improvement of CO 2 /N 2 separation Jia Qiang Ngo, Shin Tien Lee, Zeinab Abbas Jawad, Abdul Latif Ahmad and Ren Jie Lee et al. 29 October 2019 | Chemical Engineering Communications, Vol. 207, No. 12

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Impact of pclnpg nanopolymeric additive on the surface and structural properties of ppsu ultrafiltration membranes for enhanced protein rejection.

1. Introduction

2. experimental work, 2.1. materials, 2.2. pclnpg synthesis, 2.3. membrane preparation, 2.4. membrane characterization, 2.5. performance tests, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. membrane morphology, 3.2. ftir analysis, 3.3. hydrophilicity of membranes, 3.4. thickness, porosity, and pore size of membranes, 3.5. membrane performance, 3.6. antifouling analysis, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Taha, Y.R.; Zrelli, A.; Hajji, N.; Al-Juboori, R.A.; Alsalhy, Q. Impact of PCLNPG Nanopolymeric Additive on the Surface and Structural Properties of PPSU Ultrafiltration Membranes for Enhanced Protein Rejection. Processes 2024 , 12 , 1930. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091930

Taha YR, Zrelli A, Hajji N, Al-Juboori RA, Alsalhy Q. Impact of PCLNPG Nanopolymeric Additive on the Surface and Structural Properties of PPSU Ultrafiltration Membranes for Enhanced Protein Rejection. Processes . 2024; 12(9):1930. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091930

Taha, Younus Rashid, Adel Zrelli, Nejib Hajji, Raed A. Al-Juboori, and Qusay Alsalhy. 2024. "Impact of PCLNPG Nanopolymeric Additive on the Surface and Structural Properties of PPSU Ultrafiltration Membranes for Enhanced Protein Rejection" Processes 12, no. 9: 1930. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091930

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See all region register, peakvisor app, khanty-mansiysk autonomous okrug – ugra.

Welcome to the land of sheer silent whiteness. Its vast expanses are filled with fresh Arctic air, howling winds, and the spirit of true adventure. Come with us to the lands of the ancient Khanty and Mansi tribes that survived in this harsh climate of the Nether-Polar Urals . See the mountains that defy any logical or geological reason for their existence. Experience the wonders of this sparsely populated land where you can hardly see a human trace. Welcome to Yugra!

Flora & Fauna

Water resources, landmarks and tourism, major mountains, mount narodnaya, mount zaschita, mount neroyka, the pyramid mountain, samarovskaya mountain, ski and sports facilities, protected sites, reserves, national and natural parks, rivers and lakes, major cities, khanty-mansiysk.

The Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Area – Yugra (KhMAO) is located in the central part of the West Siberian Plain, stretching from west to east from the Ural Range to the Ob-Yenisei Watershed. The vast areas of this plain, as well as the Lower Priob region, are considered one of the most recently inhabited areas.

The Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Area (KhMAO) was established in 1930. Its name comes from two main northern indigenous peoples – the Khanty and the Mansi. From 1944 it was legally part of the Tyumen Region , but in 1993 the Area received autonomy and became a full-fledged territorial entity of the Russian Federation. It is a part of the Urals Federal District. The administrative centre is the city of Khanty-Mansiysk , whereas the largest city is Surgut. The word Yugra was introduced to the name of the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Area in 2003 to pay tribute to the old name used by the locals to call the territories lying beyond the North Urals.

The KhMAO borders the Komi Republic in the north-west, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District in the north, the Krasnoyarsk Area and the Tomsk Region in the east and south-east, the Tyumen Region in the south and the Sverdlovsk Region in the south-west.

The area of the territory is 534,801 sq.km, the length from north to south is 800 km, from west to east is 1400 km. The population of this huge territory is 1,674,676 people as of 2020, which is the same amount as people living in Barcelona or Munich.

The main part of the territory is a huge, poorly dissected plain where absolute elevation marks rarely exceed 200 meters above sea level. The western part of the KhMAO territory is characterized by low and middle mountainous terrains with some Alpine relief featured in the Subpolar Urals. Here are ridges and spurs of the mountain system of the North Urals and the Subpolar Urals. The maximum absolute elevations are on the border with the Komi Republic . Mount Narodnaya (1,895m) is the highest peak.

More than 800 species of higher plants grow in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area . Almost the entire territory is covered by taiga forests that occupy about 52% of the area. Spruce, fir, pine, cedar, larch, birch, alder grow here. In the northern parts of the area, the composition of the vegetation is greatly influenced by perennial permafrost. Light lichen grasslands which are used as deer pastures are widespread there. Tundra dominates in the mountainous and hilly areas. River floodplains and lowlands are characterized by meadow vegetation, the so-called water meadows. High floodplains of large rivers are mainly covered with woods that mainly feature willows, birches and aspens. Forests and swamps are rich in berries and various valuable plants, most of which are used in traditional indigenous medicine.

The animal world is typical for the Russian taiga zone. There are 369 species of vertebrates. Mammals are represented by 60 species (28 of them are commercial species). The most common and valuable of them are wild reindeer, elk, fox, sable, fox, squirrel, marten, ermine, Siberian weasel, polecat, mink, weasel, otter, hare and others. Wolverine and West Siberian river beaver are included in the Red Book of Russia.

There are 256 bird species in the region, including 206 sedentary and nesting species. Some rare bird species are listed in the Red Book. There are 42 species of fish in rivers and lakes. Of these, 19 species are commercial, among them are starlet sturgeon, lelema, muksun (whitefish), pelyad, chir, lake herring, wader, tugun, freshwater cod, pike, ide, roach, bream, fir, perch, ruff, golden and silver crucian carp, carp (carp is grown in the cooling ponds of the Surgutskaya and Nizhnevartovskaya hydroelectric plants). Sturgeon is listed in the Red Book. There is an abundance of mosquitoes and gnats in the area, the greatest activity of which is in the second half of summer.

Yugra can boast of over 2 thousand large and small rivers, the total length of which is 172,000 km. The main rivers are the Ob (3,650 km), the Irtysh (3,580 km). These are some of the largest rivers in Russia. Other significant rivers include the tributaries of the Ob (the Vakh, Agan, Tromyogan, Bolshoy Yugan, Lyamin, Pim, Bolshoy Salym, Nazym, Severnaya Sosva, Kazym rivers), the tributary of the Irtysh (the Konda River) and the Sogom River. Ten rivers are over 500 km long. All the Yugra rivers with the exception of the rivers in the Ural part of the region are characterized by rather slow currents, gentle slopes, some surge wave phenomena, spring and summer floods. The Ob River basin extends over a distance of 700-200 km from the mouths of its tributaries. Such abundance of water facilitates the appearance of floodplain swamps and seasonal lakes.

The region's swamps are predominantly of the upper and transitional type. Those water basins occupy about a third of the region. About 290,000 lakes with the area of more than 1 ha are surrounded by swamps and forests. The largest lakes are Tursuntsky Tuman, Levushinsky Tuman, Vandemtor and Trmemtor. The deepest lakes are Kintus (48 m) and Syrky Sor (42 m). However, most of the lakes (about 90%) are modest and quite small and have no surface runoff.

The area is rich in resources of fresh, mineral and thermal underground waters, which are still insignificantly used.

The climate is moderately continental. Winters are harsh, snowy and long, and summers are short and relatively warm. The territory is protected from the west by the Ural Mountains but its openness from the north has a significant impact on the climate formation because cold air masses from the Arctic freely penetrate the area. The flat character of the terrain with a large number of rivers, lakes and swamps also has its impact. Most of the precipitation falls during the warm seasons. But even with a small amount of precipitation, their evaporation is very low, which as a result contributes to the formation of the zone of excessive moisture throughout the Yugra. The snow cover is stable from late October to early May, its height varies from 50 to 80 cm. The region is characterized by a rapid change of weather conditions, especially in transitional seasons (autumn and spring), as well as during the day. Late spring and early autumn frosts are rather frequent and can happen even until mid-June. Average January temperatures range from -18ºC to -24ºC (0 F to -11 F) and can reach -60ºC to -62ºC (-76 F to -80 F) when the northern cold air masses break through. The average temperature in July, the warmest month of the year, ranges from +15ºC to +20ºC (+59 F to +68 F) and on very rare days can reach a maximum temperature of +36ºC (+97 F). The prevailing wind direction is north in summer and south in winter.

The weather in the mountains is quite changeable and cool even in summer. The best time to visit the region's mountains is between July and mid-August.

The Yugra of the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area has a huge natural resource potential. These are oil and gas deposits, forests, gold and iron ore deposits, as well as bauxites, copper, zinc, lead, niobium, tantalum, brown and hard coal deposits, rock crystal, quartz and piezo quartz, peat deposits, etc. The region has plenty of natural resources. In terms of natural gas reserves, the Yugra ranks second in the Russian Federation after the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District .

The industry is dominated by oil and gas production, power generation and processing industries, including woodworking except for pulp and paper production.

The Khanty-Mansi area has very developed tourism of all kinds. There is a modern infrastructure for cultural exploration as well as for active recreation.

Fans of sports and eco-friendly tourism will be able to conquer majestic mountains and raft down picturesque rivers, enjoy the beauty of nature in nature reserves and natural parks. The hills and mountains of this area open up endless opportunities for skiing and snowboarding.

The mountainous part of the Subpolar Urals located on the territory of the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area is very beautiful. The highest peaks of the Ural Mountains are situated here.

Being the highest point of the whole Urals, Mount Narodnaya (1,895 m), also known as Naroda and Poenurr and translated as People's Mountain is territorially situated in the Subpolar Urals, on the border of the Yugra Area and the Komi Republic . It is the highest point in European Russia outside the Caucasus. This leads to its large topographic prominence of 1,772 metres (5,814 ft).

The top of the mountain is half a kilometre from the border towards Yugra. As for the name of the mountain, scientists could not come to a common opinion for a long time, so there are two versions. According to one version, in the Soviet years, an expedition of pioneers gave the mountain a name in honour of the Soviet people - Narodnaya (the stress is on the second syllable). According to the other version, even before the arrival of the first Soviet tourists, the peak was named after the River Naroda (the stress is on the first syllable) flowing at the foot of the mountain. The Nenets peoples called the River Naroda Naro, which means a thicket or a dense forest, and the Mansi peoples called it Poengurr or Poen-urr, which translates as the top, or head. The maps used to refer to it as Mount Naroda or Mount Naroda-Iz. Nowadays, it appears everywhere as Narodnaya.

In the 1980s, someone set a bust of Lenin on the top of the mountain. Its remains can be found there to this day. There is one more symbolic relic there – some Orthodox believers erected a worship cross on top of Mount Narodnaya after a Procession of the Cross.

The slopes of the mountain are steeper in the north-east and south-west and there are many steep rocks on them. The south-eastern and northern parts of the mountain are more gentle but they are also covered with scree. Be vigilant and careful when climbing! On the slopes of the mountain, there are many not only boulders but also caverns filled with clear water as well as ice. There are glaciers and snowfields. From the north-eastern part of the mountain, you can observe Lake Blue near which tourists and travellers like to make bivouacs.

Mesmerizing with its beauty and inaccessibility, it attracts many tourists and fans of active recreation. This majestic mountain is quite remote from the settlements, so getting to it is not an easy task. The mountain is located in the Yugyd Va National Park , so it is necessary to register in advance and get a visit permit from the park administration. How to get to the park administration and get a permit, read the article on the Yugyd Va National Park .

Mountain Zaschita (1,808 m) is the second-highest peak in the Ural Mountains, after Mount Narodnaya . Mysteriously, the name of the mountain, which roughly translates as Defense or Protection Mount, does not correlate in any way with the Mansi names of the nearby mountains and rivers. The origin of the name is unknown. There are some speculations but we will consider just one of them. On the map of the Northern Urals which was made by the Hungarian researcher Reguli the closest peak to Mount Narodnaya was called gnetying olu. Its location coincides with that of the present-day Mount Zaschita . The name gnetying olu in the Mansi can be deciphered as a mountain on which there is some help from ice. The mountain is believed to protect deer grazing on glaciers from mosquitoes. So, early topographers called the mountain more briefly – Mount Defense. Indeed, the slopes of this mountain are covered with a lot of snow and glaciers (the Yugra, Naroda, Kosyu, Hobyu glaciers and others). And it is here that the Mansi shepherds bring their deer which can rest on glaciers and snow. Summarizing all the above, we can say that Zaschita Mount is to some extent protection for deer from mosquitoes. The very name Zaschita appeared on maps with the beginning of hiking tours in the Subpolar Urals.

Mount Neroyka (1,645 m) is 100 km from Neroyka village, the closest tourist base to this peak. In the 1950s, people who were engaged in quartz mining near the mountain worked and lived in this base. Later, a gravel road was built from the village of Saranpaul to the mountain for large-scale development of the quartz deposit. In recent years, the road has not been much used and is practically not cleaned from snow in winter. There has been a plant built 20 km down from the mountain for primary processing of quartz with the use of nanotechnologies. There is an annual big camping event near the mountain. It is organized by the Tourism Department of the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area. You can have a 1-hour helicopter ride to the mountain from the village of Saranpaul. Should you wish to fly from the city of Khanty-Mansiysk , be prepared to fly over the taiga for 2.5-3 hours.

Quite inquisitive tourists happened to discover, by a lucky chance, a Pyramid similar to that of Cheops but four times bigger. It is located on the territory of the Narodo-Ityinsky Ridge. The closest to the pyramid is the village of Saranpaul. The sizes of the found pyramid are as follows: the height is 774 m, in comparison to the Egyptian pyramid which is 147 m; the length of a lateral edge is 230 m whereas the Egyptian pyramid is 1 km. The pyramid is located precisely according to the cardinal directions, there is not a single degree deviation at that. The origin of the pyramid is unknown, scientists are still making assumptions. No traces of human activity were found near the pyramid. The only way to get here at this time is by helicopter.

Samarovskaya Mountain is another wonder that is baffling many people. It is dividing the city of Khanty-Mansiysk into northern and southern parts. Few now living residents know that in the old days the highest part of the modern city used to bear a plural name of the Samarovsky Mountains among which there were Mount Palenina, Komissarskaya, Miroslavskaya, Filinova, and Romanova. Originally, there was a village called Samarovo amidst these mountains. Until now, many issues bewilder both residents and scientists. How could a mountain form in the middle of the West Siberian Plain? What is inside it? Won't the weight of the buildings erected on the top of the mountain affect its height? The uniqueness of Samarovskaya Mountain is that it consists of numerous large stones, boulders, rocks that are absolutely foreign to this area. Scientists have not yet come to a consensus on the mountain’s origin.

The Yugra is very famous for its ski resorts, the main of which are:

• The Cedar Ravine ski resort (Surgut city, Naberezhny Ave. 39/1)
• Three Mountains (Trekhgorie) ski resort (30 km from Nizhnevartovsk, Ermakovsky settlement)
• Stone Cape (Kamenniy Mys) ski resort (near the city of Surgut)
• Pine Urman ski resort ( Khanty-Mansiysk , Sportivnaya Str., 24)

The far-away lands of the Yugra are the blessed sanctuaries for many animals as the area is rather hostile to a human There are reserves, natural parks, wildlife sanctuaries here that aim to protect the national treasures of the lands. Having visited these regions once, you would crave for coming back again and again to feel that unique sense of unity with nature, to forget about the urban fuss and and hustles whatsoever. The harsh but beautiful nature of this extraordinary area leaves an indelible trace in the soul of every person.

On the territory of the district there are 25 specially protected natural areas, the most famous of them are:

• The reserves are two: the Malaya Sosva Reserve and the Yugan Reserve, the latter was established in 1982 as the largest reserve of taiga landscapes. The purpose of the reserves was to study unobtrusively and carefully preserve the endemic flora and fauna without disturbing natural processes. Hunting and economic activities are prohibited here, which is important for the preservation of natural ecosystems.
• The natural parks are the Samarovsky Chugas Nature Park, the Siberian Sloping Hills (Uvaly), the Numto (also called Lake Numto), and the Kondinskie Lakes.

These reserves and natural parks offer tourists their own excursion programs to make visiting their territory much more enjoyable and educational.

The Samarovsky Chugas Nature Park is located in the center of Khanty-Mansiysk , on a small hill between the Ob and Irtysh rivers.

The territory of the Siberian Sloping Hills (Uvaly) natural park is 350 km away from the city of Khanty-Mansiysk . You can get there by helicopter or by plane. The office of the park is located at 7a Pionerskaya Street, Nizhnevartovsk.

The Kondinskie Lakes Natural Park is located 380 km from Khanty-Mansiysk . Half of the park is covered with swamps, but there is also a recreational area. There you can rest, swim, do some amateur fishing, picking berries (cowberries, cranberries) and mushrooms is permitted. There is only one independent walking route here, it runs for 3 km in the deep forest. It is a cool place for kids since the park is equipped with sports grounds, a pool and a small zoo where the kids can interact with brown bear cubs. What else, try the TaiPark, it is a rope course running at the height of 2.5 meters, having 15 stages, the full length is 125 meters. There is an opportunity to order water walking tours in the town of Sovetsky, which can be reached by train from Khanty-Mansiysk .

The Numto Nature Park is located almost in the center of the West Siberian Plain, in the Beloyarsk district of the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area, 300 km from the city of Surgut and 200 km from the town of Beloyarsk. It is located on the border of Yugra and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Area. The administration of the park is located at 2, Beloyarsky micro-district, 4a. The territory of the natural park is a treasure trove of archaeological and ethnocultural monuments. As of today, there have been discovered 20 architectural monuments, including fortified and not fortified settlements, places of worship abandoned by the peoples who lived here from the Stone Age to almost the present day. Researchers have also found 65 monuments of ethnic value, the main of which are worship objects, sacred places and cemeteries.

The Malaya Sosva Reserve includes several subordinated territories and sanctuaries, including Lake Ranghe-Tour. The reserve offers a 4-km walking guided route that gets the visitors introduced to the typical features and characteristics of flora and fauna of the region. The route is called Bear Trail and you can spot bears there (don’t come close though, we’ve already written how to behave if you meet a bear in the wild). Also, you will see the River Malaya Sosva, some marshes, ancient cultural monuments and other nice sights. Permission to visit the reserve can be obtained from the administration of the reserve at Lenina Str. 46, town Sovetskiy.

As to the Yugan Nature Reserve , it is inaccessible to common hikers who are afraid of flying since there are no roads to it. The only way to get there is taking a helicopter ride. You also must obtain a permit in the administration of the reserve, go accompanied by employees of the reserve, and only on special transport of the reserve (motorboat, snowmobile). The central manor of the Reserve and the administration are located in the village of Ugut. To get to this village, you should first go to the town of Surgut, then go to the town of Pyt-Yakh, and from it there is a road to the village of Ugut. It is about 100 km from Ugut to the southern border of the reserve i, and another 25 km to the nearest cordon. The administration works from Monday to Friday. You can request a permit via mail at [email protected] , order a guided tour at [email protected]

The Yugra lands are heaven for water sports aficionados. They can have some awesome fishing or go rafting along such rivers as: the river Naroda, the Deep Sabun, etc.

The Naroda River is 140 km long. It is the left tributary of the Manya River located in the Ob River basin. The river has its origin on the south-western slope of Mount Narodnaya . It is a mountain-taiga river with rapids, swifts, numerous rolls, which attracts interest among water tourists. However, it is usually not rafted very often.

The Deep Sabun River flows through the territory of the Siberian Sloping Hills Nature Park. The park has developed multi-day water routes. It is possible to raft along the river in summer and to go skiing along it in winter.

The Kondinskie Lakes are a system of lakes along the left bank of the Konda River. The largest lake is the Arantur, with pine forests on the northern side and sandy beaches well equipped for a nice relaxing me-time. The water heats up well in summer. The small river Okunevaya and the river Maly Akh flow into the lake. The Maly Akh comes in on the west side and connects lake Arantur with Lake Pon-Tour. This lake is the richest in fish, and there is also a parking lot for fishermen here. The streams connect Pon-Tour with small lakes Krugloe and Lopukhovoye. When you look at Lopukhovoe lake, you feel as if you have found yourself in a fabulous place: more than half of its surface is covered with white lilies, as well as yellow flowers of the water-beans. Then the river Big Akh, which flows into the river Konda, connects all the lakes into a single system. Along the river there are many archeological monuments such as forts and settlements which have paths to them. The southernmost lake of the park is Ranghe-Tour.

Yugra is not the easiest destination and not the most accessible, but the effort is well worth it. You should first get to the capital of Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Area – the city of Khanty-Mansiysk either by air or by train.

Khanty-Mansiysk is based on the premises of the former village Samarovo founded in 1582. It used to be the territory of the Khanty people and a pit stop for coachmen who rode their wagons across the country. The village was founded by Russian Count Samara, thus the name Samarovo. The modern city actually began to develop in 1930 because amidst the Siberian taiga there finally started to appear stone houses on the high bank of the Irtysh River. In 1940, the village was renamed into Khanty-Mansiysk by the name of the peoples living on this territory – the Khanty and the Mansi, and in 1950 it received the status of a town.

The city has several attractions. Mount Samarovskaya is probably the biggest natural and scientific wonder. It divides the city in two parts and causes many concerns for urban developers who always wonder whether this mountain can move making the buildings slide or even sink in.

Another beauty is the century-old cedar grove that is within the city limits. The grove is a part of the natural park Samarovsky Chugas. The word chugas in the language of the Khanty means a lonely hill in the low river floodplain.

The park is one of the main attractions of the city, it hosts an open-air ethnographic museum called the Torum Maa, a cultural and tourist complex called Archaeopark, a biathlon center. Kids and adults, nature lovers and fans of culture love this place dearly.

A memorial sign to Yugra's discoverers is installed on top of the Samarovsky Chugas. It is a tall stele pyramid divided into three portions. On the lower level, there is a restaurant, on the second level is a small museum, and on the third level there is an observation deck, 40 m above the ground, with a magnificent view of the Irtysh River and the river port. The pyramid is decorated by the bas-relief depicting the discoverers of the region, from the 16th-century Count Samara to the geologists of the 20th century.

Another trademark of Khanty-Mansiysk is the State Museum of Nature and Man. The museum hosts a gallery and a workshop of a famous artist G. Rayshev.

The city has a lot of small monuments generously spread around the city. There is the Khanty family resting on a camp, this monument is near the airport building. You can take a pic at the Golden Tambourine located at the intersection of Gagarin Street and Mira Street. Connoisseurs of culture should also visit the Sun – the Theatre of Ob-Ugrian Peoples, it is the world's first professional theatre of Khanty and Mansi peoples. And if you are travelling with kids, the Khanty-Mansiysk Puppet Theatre is a must-visit. In the period from May to October, you can take a boat ride to the confluence of two rivers – the Ob and the Irtysh. Yugra Service Co. operates such cruises, you can find more information locally at their address Tobolsk Trakt street 4, Khanty-Mansiysk .

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