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Key Foreign Language Teaching Methods

How do you teach your foreign language students?

Consider for a moment the manners in which you teach reading , writing, listening, speaking, grammar and culture . Why do you use those methods?

In my experience, knowing the history of how your subject has been taught will help you understand your teaching methods.

It will also help you learn to select the best ones for your students at any given moment.

Read on for the most common foreign language teaching methods of today, as well as how to choose which ones to employ.

Grammar-translation

Audio-lingual, total physical response, communicative, task-based learning, community language learning, the silent way, functional-notional, other methods, how to choose a foreign language teaching method.

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Those who’ve studied an ancient language like Latin or Sanskrit have likely used this method . It involves learning grammar rules, reading original texts and translating both from and into the target language.

You don’t really learn to speak—although, to be fair, it’s hard to practice speaking languages that have no remaining native speakers.

For the longest time, this approach was also commonly used for teaching modern foreign languages. Though it’s fallen out of favor, there are some benefits to it for occasional use.

With grammar-translation , you might give your students a brief passage in the target language, provide the new vocabulary and give them time to try translating. The reading might include a new verb tense, a new case or a complex grammatical construction.

When it occurs, speaking might only consist of a word or phrase and is typically in the context of completing the exercises. Explanations of the material are in the native language.

After the assignment, you could give students a series of translation sentences or a brief paragraph in the native language for them to translate into the target language as homework.

The direct method , also known as the natural approach, was a response to the grammar-translation method. Here, the emphasis is on the spoken language.

Based on observations of children learning their native tongues, this approach centers on listening and comprehension at the beginning of the language learning process.

Lessons are taught in the target language —in fact, the native language is strictly forbidden. A typical lesson might involve viewing pictures while the teacher repeats the vocabulary words, then listening to recordings of these words used in a comprehensible dialogue.

Once students have had time to listen and absorb the sounds of the target language, speaking is encouraged at all times, especially because grammar instruction isn’t taught explicitly.

Rather, students should learn grammar inductively. Allow them to use the language naturally, then gently correct mistakes and give praise to proper language usage. (Note that many have found this method of grammar instruction insufficient.)

Direct method activities might include pantomiming, word-picture association, question-answer patterns, dialogues and role playing.

The theory behind the audio-lingual approach is that repetition is the mother of all learning. This methodology emphasizes drill work in order to make answers to questions instinctive and automatic.

This approach gives highest priority to the spoken form of the target language. New information is first heard by students; written forms come only after extensive drilling. Classes are generally held in the target language.

An example of an audio-lingual activity is a substitution drill. The instructor might start with a basic sentence, such as “I see the ball.” Then they hold up a series of other photos for students to substitute for the word “ball.” These exercises are drilled into students until they get the pronunciations and rhythm right.

The audio-lingual approach borrows from the behaviorist school of psychology, so languages are taught through a system of reinforcement . Reinforcements are anything that makes students feel good about themselves or the situation—clapping, a sticker, etc.

Full immersion is difficult to achieve in a foreign language classroom—unless, of course, you’re teaching that language in a country where it’s spoken and your students are doing everything in the target language.

For example, ESL students have an immersion experience if they’re studying in an Anglophone country. In addition to studying English, they either work or study other subjects in English for the complete experience.

Attempts at this methodology can be seen in foreign language immersion schools, which are becoming popular in certain districts in the US. The challenge is that, as soon as students leave school, they are once again surrounded by the native language.

One way to get closer to the core of this method is to use an online language immersion program, such as FluentU . The authentic videos are made by and for native speakers and come with a multitude of learning tools.

Expert-vetted, interactive subtitles provide definitions, photo references, example sentences and more. Each lesson contains a quiz personalized to every individual student.

You can also import your own flashcard lists and assign tasks directly to learners with FluentU in order to encourage immersive learning outside of class.

Also known as TPR , this teaching method emphasizes aural comprehension. Gestures and movements play a vital role in this approach.

Children learning their native language hear lots of commands from adults: “Catch the ball,” “Pick up your toy,” “Drink your water.” TPR aims to teach learners a second language in the same manner with as little stress as possible.

The idea is that when students see movement and move themselves, their brains create more neural connections, which makes for more efficient language acquisition.

In a TPR-based classroom, students are therefore trained to respond to simple commands: stand up, sit down, close the door, open your book, etc.

The teacher might demonstrate what “jump” looks like, for example, and then ask students to perform the action themselves. Or, you might simply play Simon Says!

This style can later be expanded to storytelling , where students act out actions from an oral narrative, demonstrating their comprehension of the language.

The communicative approach is the most widely used and accepted approach to classroom-based foreign language teaching today.

It emphasizes the learner’s ability to communicate various functions, such as asking and answering questions, making requests, describing, narrating and comparing.

Task assignment and problem solving —two key components of critical thinking—are the means through which the communicative approach operates.

A communicative classroom includes activities where students can work out a problem or situation through narration or negotiation—composing a dialogue about when and where to eat dinner, for instance, or creating a story based on a series of pictures.

This helps them establish communicative competence and learn vocabulary and grammar in context. Error correction is de-emphasized so students can naturally develop accurate speech through frequent use. Language fluency comes through communicating in the language rather than by analyzing it.

Task-based learning is a refinement of the communicative approach and focuses on the completion of specific tasks through which language is taught and learned.

The purpose is for language learners to use the target language to complete a variety of assignments. They will acquire new structures, forms and vocabulary as they go. Typically, little error correction is provided.

In a task-based learning environment, three- to four-week segments are devoted to a specific topic, such as ecology, security, medicine, religion, youth culture, etc. Students learn about each topic step-by-step with a variety of resources.

Activities are similar to those found in a communicative classroom, but they’re always based around the theme. A unit often culminates in a final project such as a written report or presentation.

In this type of classroom, the teacher serves as a counselor rather than an instructor.

It’s called community language learning because the class learns together as one unit —not by listening to a lecture, but by interacting in the target language.

For instance, students might sit in a circle. You don’t need a set lesson since this approach is learner-led; the students will decide what they want to talk about.

Someone might say, “Hey, why don’t we talk about the weather?” The student will turn to the teacher ( standing outside the circle ) and ask for the translation of this statement. The teacher will provide the translation and ask the student to say it while guiding their pronunciation.

When the pronunciation is correct, the student will repeat the statement to the group. Another student might then say, “I had to wear three layers today!” And the process repeats.

These conversations are always recorded and then transcribed and mined for lesson continuations featuring grammar, vocabulary and subject-related content.

Proponents of this approach believe that teaching too much can sometimes get in the way of learning. It’s argued that students learn best when they discover rather than simply repeat what the teacher says.

By saying as little as possible, you’re encouraging students to do the talking themselves to figure out the language. This is seen as a creative, problem-solving process —an engaging cognitive challenge.

So how does one teach in silence ?

You’ll need to employ plenty of gestures and facial expressions to communicate with your students.

You can also use props.  A common prop is Cuisenaire Rods —rods of different colors and lengths. Pick one up and say “rod.” Pick another, point at it and say “rod.” Repeat until students understand that “rod” refers to these objects.

Then, you could pick a green one and say “green rod.” With an economy of words, point to something else green and say, “green.” Repeat until students get that “green” refers to the color.

The functional-notional approach recognizes language as purposeful communication. That is, we use it because we need to communicate something.

Various parts of speech exist because we need them to express functions like informing, persuading, insinuating, agreeing, questioning, requesting, evaluating, etc. We also need to express notions (concepts) such as time, events, action, place, technology, process, emotion, etc.

Teachers using the functional-notional method must evaluate how the students will be using the language .

For example, very young kids need language skills to help them communicate with their parents and friends. Key social phrases like “thank you,” “please” or “may I borrow” are ideal here.

For business professionals, you might want to teach the formal forms of the target language, how to delegate tasks and how to vocally appreciate a job well done. Functions could include asking a question, expressing interest or negotiating a deal. Notions could be prices, quality or quantity.

You can teach grammar and sentence patterns directly, but they’re always subsumed by the purpose for which the language will be used.

A student who wants to learn with the reading method probably never intends to interact with native speakers in the target language.

Perhaps they’re a graduate student who simply needs to read scholarly articles. Maybe they’re a culinary student who only wants to understand the French techniques in her cookbook.

Whoever it is, these students only require one linguistic skill: reading comprehension.

Do away with pronunciation and dialogues. No need to practice listening or speaking, or even much (if any) writing. 

With the reading approach, simply help your students build their vocabulary. They’ll likely need a lot of specialized words in a specific field, though they’ll also need to know elements like conjunctions and negation—enough grammar to make it through a standard article in their field.

These approaches are not necessarily as common in the classroom setting but deserve a mention nonetheless:

• Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): A number of commercial products ( Pimsleur , Rosetta Stone ) and online products ( Duolingo , Babbel ) use the CALL method. With careful planning, you can likely employ some in the classroom as well.
• Cognitive-code: Developed in response to the audio-lingual method , this approach requires essential language structures to be explicitly laid out in examples (dialogues, readings) by the teacher, with lots of opportunities for students to practice .
• Suggestopedia: The idea here is that the more relaxed and comfortable students feel, the more open they are to learning , which therefore makes language acquisition easier.

Now that you know a number of methodologies and how to use them in the classroom, how do you choose the best?

You should always try to choose the methods and approaches that are most effective for your students. After all, our job as teachers is to help our students to learn in the best way for them— not for us or for researchers or for administrators.

So, the best teachers choose the best methodology and the best approach for each lesson or activity. They aren’t wedded to any particular methodology but rather use principled eclecticism:

• Ever taught a grammatical construction that only appears in written form? Had your students practice it by writing? Then you’ve used the grammar-translation method.
• Ever talked to your students in question/answer form, hoping they’d pick up the grammar point? Then you’ve used the direct method.
• Every repeatedly drilled grammatical endings, or numbers, or months, perhaps before showing them to your students? Then you’ve used the audio-lingual method.
• Ever played Simon Says? Or given your students commands to open their textbook to a certain page? Then you’ve used the total physical response method.
• Ever written a thematic unit on a topic not covered by the textbook, incorporating all four skills and culminating in a final assignment? Then you’ve used task-based learning.

If you’ve already done all of these, then you’re already practicing principled eclecticism!

The point is: The best teachers make use of all possible approaches at the appropriate time, for the appropriate activities and for those students whose learning styles require that approach.

The ultimate goal is to choose the foreign language teaching methods that best fit your students, not to force them to adhere to a particular or method.

Remember: Teaching is always about our students! You got this!

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Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: CLT, TPR

Teaching a foreign language can be a challenging but rewarding job that opens up entirely new paths of communication to students. It’s beneficial for teachers to have knowledge of the many different language learning techniques including ESL teaching methods so they can be flexible in their instruction methods, adapting them when needed.

Keep on reading for all the details you need to know about the most popular foreign language teaching methods. Some of the ESL pedagogy ideas covered are the communicative approach, total physical response, the direct method, task-based language learning, suggestopedia, grammar-translation, the audio-lingual approach and more.

Language teaching methods

Most Popular Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

Here’s a helpful rundown of the most common language teaching methods and ESL teaching methods. You may also want to take a look at this: Foreign language teaching philosophies .

#1: The Direct Method

In the direct method ESL, all teaching occurs in the target language, encouraging the learner to think in that language. The learner does not practice translation or use their native language in the classroom. Practitioners of this method believe that learners should experience a second language without any interference from their native tongue.

Instructors do not stress rigid grammar rules but teach it indirectly through induction. This means that learners figure out grammar rules on their own by practicing the language. The goal for students is to develop connections between experience and language. They do this by concentrating on good pronunciation and the development of oral skills.

This method improves understanding, fluency , reading, and listening skills in our students. Standard techniques are question and answer, conversation, reading aloud, writing, and student self-correction for this language learning method. Learn more about this method of foreign language teaching in this video: 

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#2: Grammar-Translation

With this method, the student learns primarily by translating to and from the target language. Instructors encourage the learner to memorize grammar rules and vocabulary lists. There is little or no focus on speaking and listening. Teachers conduct classes in the student’s native language with this ESL teaching method.

This method’s two primary goals are to progress the learner’s reading ability to understand literature in the second language and promote the learner’s overall intellectual development. Grammar drills are a common approach. Another popular activity is translation exercises that emphasize the form of the writing instead of the content.

Although the grammar-translation approach was one of the most popular language teaching methods in the past, it has significant drawbacks that have caused it to fall out of favour in modern schools . Principally, students often have trouble conversing in the second language because they receive no instruction in oral skills.

#3: Audio-Lingual

The audio-lingual approach encourages students to develop habits that support language learning. Students learn primarily through pattern drills, particularly dialogues, which the teacher uses to help students practice and memorize the language. These dialogues follow standard configurations of communication.

There are four types of dialogues utilized in this method:

• Repetition, in which the student repeats the teacher’s statement exactly
• Inflection, where one of the words appears in a different form from the previous sentence (for example, a word may change from the singular to the plural)
• Replacement, which involves one word being replaced with another while the sentence construction remains the same
• Restatement, where the learner rephrases the teacher’s statement

This technique’s name comes from the order it uses to teach language skills. It starts with listening and speaking, followed by reading and writing, meaning that it emphasizes hearing and speaking the language before experiencing its written form. Because of this, teachers use only the target language in the classroom with this TESOL method.

Many of the current online language learning apps and programs closely follow the audio-lingual language teaching approach. It is a nice option for language learning remotely and/or alone, even though it’s an older ESL teaching method.

#4: Structural Approach

Proponents of the structural approach understand language as a set of grammatical rules that should be learned one at a time in a specific order. It focuses on mastering these structures, building one skill on top of another, instead of memorizing vocabulary. This is similar to how young children learn a new language naturally.

An example of the structural approach is teaching the present tense of a verb, like “to be,” before progressing to more advanced verb tenses, like the present continuous tense that uses “to be” as an auxiliary.

The structural approach teaches all four central language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It’s a technique that teachers can implement with many other language teaching methods.

Most ESL textbooks take this approach into account. The easier-to-grasp grammatical concepts are taught before the more difficult ones. This is one of the modern language teaching methods.

Most popular methods and approaches and language teaching

#5: Total Physical Response (TPR)

The total physical response method highlights aural comprehension by allowing the learner to respond to basic commands, like “open the door” or “sit down.” It combines language and physical movements for a comprehensive learning experience.

In an ordinary TPR class, the teacher would give verbal commands in the target language with a physical movement. The student would respond by following the command with a physical action of their own. It helps students actively connect meaning to the language and passively recognize the language’s structure.

Many instructors use TPR alongside other methods of language learning. While TPR can help learners of all ages, it is used most often with young students and beginners. It’s a nice option for an English teaching method to use alongside some of the other ones on this list. 

An example of a game that could fall under TPR is Simon Says. Or, do the following as a simple review activity. After teaching classroom vocabulary, or prepositions, instruct students to do the following:

• Pick up your pencil.
• Stand behind someone.
• Put your water bottle under your chair.

Are you on your feet all day teaching young learners? Consider picking up some of these teacher shoes .

#6: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

These days, CLT is by far one of the most popular approaches and methods in language teaching. Keep reading to find out more about it.

This method stresses interaction and communication to teach a second language effectively. Students participate in everyday situations they are likely to encounter in the target language. For example, learners may practice introductory conversations, offering suggestions, making invitations, complaining, or expressing time or location.

Instructors also incorporate learning topics outside of conventional grammar so that students develop the ability to respond in diverse situations.

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CLT teachers focus on being facilitators rather than straightforward instructors. Doing so helps students achieve CLT’s primary goal, learning to communicate in the target language instead of emphasizing the mastery of grammar.

Role-play , interviews, group work, and opinion sharing are popular activities practiced in communicative language teaching, along with games like scavenger hunts and information gap exercises that promote student interaction.

Most modern-day ESL teaching textbooks like Four Corners, Smart Choice, or Touchstone are heavy on communicative activities.

#7: Natural Approach

This approach aims to mimic natural language learning with a focus on communication and instruction through exposure. It de-emphasizes formal grammar training. Instead, instructors concentrate on creating a stress-free environment and avoiding forced language production from students.

Teachers also do not explicitly correct student mistakes. The goal is to reduce student anxiety and encourage them to engage with the second language spontaneously.

Classroom procedures commonly used in the natural approach are problem-solving activities, learning games , affective-humanistic tasks that involve the students’ own ideas, and content practices that synthesize various subject matter, like culture.

#8: Task-Based Language Teaching (TBL)

With this method, students complete real-world tasks using their target language. This technique encourages fluency by boosting the learner’s confidence with each task accomplished and reducing direct mistake correction.

Tasks fall under three categories:

• Information gap, or activities that involve the transfer of information from one person, place, or form to another.
• Reasoning gap tasks that ask a student to discover new knowledge from a given set of information using inference, reasoning, perception, and deduction.
• Opinion gap activities, in which students react to a particular situation by expressing their feelings or opinions.

Popular classroom tasks practiced in task-based learning include presentations on an assigned topic and conducting interviews with peers or adults in the target language. Or, having students work together to make a poster and then do a short presentation about a current event. These are just a couple of examples and there are literally thousands of things you can do in the classroom. In terms of ESL pedagogy, this is one of the most popular modern language teaching methods. 

It’s considered to be a modern method of teaching English. I personally try to do at least 1-2 task-based projects in all my classes each semester. It’s a nice change of pace from my usually very communicative-focused activities.

One huge advantage of TBL is that students have some degree of freedom to learn the language they want to learn. Also, they can learn some self-reflection and teamwork skills as well. 

#9: Suggestopedia Language Learning Method

This approach and method in language teaching was developed in the 1970s by psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is sometimes also known as the positive suggestion method but it later became sometimes known as desuggestopedia.

Apart from using physical surroundings and a good classroom atmosphere to make students feel comfortable, here are some of the main tenants of this second language teaching method:

• Deciphering, where the teacher introduces new grammar and vocabulary.
• Concert sessions, where the teacher reads a text and the students follow along with music in the background. This can be both active and passive.
• Elaboration where students finish what they’ve learned with dramas, songs, or games.
• Introduction in which the teacher introduces new things in a playful manner.
• Production, where students speak and interact without correction or interruption.

TESOL methods and approaches

#10: The Silent Way

The silent way is an interesting ESL teaching method that isn’t that common but it does have some solid footing. After all, the goal in most language classes is to make them as student-centred as possible.

In the Silent Way, the teacher talks as little as possible, with the idea that students learn best when discovering things on their own. Learners are encouraged to be independent and to discover and figure out language on their own.

Instead of talking, the teacher uses gestures and facial expressions to communicate, as well as props, including the famous Cuisenaire Rods. These are rods of different colours and lengths.

Although it’s not practical to teach an entire course using the silent way, it does certainly have some value as a language teaching approach to remind teachers to talk less and get students talking more!

#11: Functional-Notional Approach

This English teaching method first of all recognizes that language is purposeful communication. The reason people talk is that they want to communicate something to someone else.

Parts of speech like nouns and verbs exist to express language functions and notions. People speak to inform, agree, question, persuade, evaluate, and perform various other functions. Language is also used to talk about concepts or notions like time, events, places, etc.

The role of the teacher in this second language teaching method is to evaluate how students will use the language. This will serve as a guide for what should be taught in class. Teaching specific grammar patterns or vocabulary sets does play a role but the purpose for which students need to know these things should always be kept in mind with the functional-notional Approach to English teaching.

#12: The Bilingual Method

The bilingual method uses two languages in the classroom, the mother tongue and the target language. The mother tongue is briefly used for grammar and vocabulary explanations. Then, the rest of the class is conducted in English. Check out this video for some of the pros and cons of this method:

#13: The Test Teach Test Approach (TTT)

This style of language teaching is ideal for directly targeting students’ needs. It’s best for intermediate and advanced learners. Definitely don’t use it for total beginners!

There are three stages:

• A test or task of some kind that requires students to use the target language.
• Explicit teaching or focus on accuracy with controlled practice exercises.
• Another test or task is to see if students have improved in their use of the target language.

Want to give it a try? Find out what you need to know here:

Test Teach Test TTT .

#14: Community Language Learning

In Community Language Learning, the class is considered to be one unit. They learn together. In this style of class, the teacher is not a lecturer but is more of a counsellor or guide.

In general, there is no set lesson for the day. Instead, students decide what they want to talk about. They sit in the a circle, and decide on what they want to talk about. They may ask the teacher for a translation or for advice on pronunciation or how to say something.

The conversations are recorded, and then transcribed. Students and teacher can analyze the grammar and vocabulary, as well as subject related content.

While community language learning may not comprehensively cover the English language, students will be learning what they want to learn. It’s also student-centred to the max. It’s perhaps a nice change of pace from the usual teacher-led classes, but it’s not often seen these days as the only method of teaching a class.M

#15: The Situational Approach

This approach loosely falls under the behaviourism view of language as habit formation. The situational approach to teaching English was popular in England, starting in the 1930s. Find out more about it:

Language Teaching Approaches FAQs

There are a number of common questions that people have about second or foreign language teaching and learning. Here are the answers to some of the most popular ones.

What is language teaching approaches?

A language teaching approach is a way of thinking about teaching and learning. An approach produces methods, which is the way of teaching something, in this case, a second or foreign language using techniques or activities.

What are method and approach?

Method and approach are similar but there are some key differences. An approach is the way of dealing with something while a method involves the process or steps taken to handle the issue or task.

What is presentation practice production?

How many approaches are there in language learning.

Throughout history, there have been just over 30 popular approaches to language learning. However, there are around 10 that are most widely known including task-based learning, the communicative approach, grammar-translation and the audio-lingual approach. These days, the communicative approach is all the rage.

What is the best method of English language teaching?

It’s difficult to choose the best single approach or method for English language teaching as the one used depends on the age and level of the students as well as the material being taught. Most teachers find that a mix of the communicative approach, audio-lingual approach and task-based teaching works well in most cases.

What is micro teaching?

What are the most effective methods of learning a language.

The most effective methods for learning a language really depends on the person, but in general, here are some of the best options: total immersion, the communicative approach, extensive reading, extensive listening, and spaced repetition.

The Modern Methods of Teaching English

There are several modern methods of teaching English that focus on engaging students and making learning more interactive and effective. Some of these methods include:

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

This approach emphasizes communication and interaction as the main goals of language learning. It focuses on real-life situations and encourages students to use English in meaningful contexts.

Task-Based Learning (TBL)

TBL involves designing activities or tasks that require students to use English to complete a specific goal or objective. This approach helps students develop language skills while focusing on the task at hand.

Technology-Enhanced Learning

Using technology such as computers, tablets, and smartphones can make learning more engaging and interactive. Online resources, apps, and educational games can be used to supplement traditional teaching methods.

Flipped Classroom

In a flipped classroom, students learn new material at home through videos or online resources, and then use class time for activities, discussions, and practice exercises. This approach allows for more individualized learning and interaction in the classroom.

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

PBL involves students working on projects or tasks that require them to use English in a real-world context. This approach helps students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills while improving their language abilities.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

CLIL involves teaching subjects such as science or history in English, rather than teaching English as a separate subject. This approach helps students learn English while also learning about other subjects.

Gamification

Using game elements such as points, badges, and leaderboards can make learning English more fun and engaging. Educational games can help students practice language skills in a playful and interactive way.

These modern methods of teaching English focus on making learning more student-centered, interactive, and engaging, leading to better outcomes for students.

Have your say about Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

What’s your top pick for a language teaching method? Is it one of the options from this list or do you have another one that you’d like to mention? Leave a comment below and let us know what you think. We’d love to hear from you. And whatever approach or method you use, you’ll want to check out these top 1o tips for new English teachers .

Also, be sure to give this article a share on Facebook, Pinterest, or Twitter. It’ll help other busy teachers, like yourself, find this useful information about approaches and methods in language teaching and learning.

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About Jackie

Jackie Bolen has been teaching English for more than 20 years to students in South Korea and Canada. She's taught all ages, levels and kinds of TEFL classes. She holds an MA degree, along with the Celta and Delta English teaching certifications.

Jackie is the author of more than 100 books for English teachers and English learners, including 101 ESL Activities for Teenagers and Adults , Great Debates for ESL/EFL , and 1001 English Expressions and Phrases . She loves to share her ESL games, activities, teaching tips, and more with other teachers throughout the world.

You can find her on social media at: YouTube Facebook Pinterest Instagram

This is wonderful, I have learned a lot!

You’re welcome!

What year did you publish this please?

Recently! Only a few months ago.

Wonderful! Thank you for sharing such useful information. I have learned a lot from them. Thank you!

I am so grateful. Thanks for sharing your kmowledge.

Hi thank you so much for this amazing article. I just wanted to confirm/ask is PPP one of the methods of teaching ESL if so was there a reason it wasn’t included in the article(outdated, not effective etc.?).

PPP is more of a subset of these other ones and not an approach or method in itself.

Good explanation, understandable and clear. Congratulations

That’s good, very short but clear…👏🏾👏🏾👏🏾👏🏾👏🏾

I meant the naturalistic approach

This is amazing! Thank you for writing this article, it helped me a lot. I hoped this will reach more people so I will definitely recommend this to others.

Thank you, sir! I just used this article in my PPT presentation at my Post Grad School. More articles from you!

I think this useful because it is teaching me a lot about english. Thank you bro! 😀👍

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Teaching Writing to Second Language Learners: Insights from Theory and Research

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John Hedgcock

Aseel Kanakri-Ghashmari

This article discusses the academic writing challenges and needs of English as second language (ESL) students. Specifically, it aims at in-depth understanding of the needs of ESL students in academic environments with regards to academic writing across the disciplines. It also elaborates on the role of genre study (theory) in helping ESL students overcome their challenges and meet the requirements of their academic disciplines. This article calls for the importance of understanding ESL student' needs and challenges which can help in developing better instruction, dictate the curriculum, and provide a systematic support for these students to succeed and complete their degrees.

The Modern Language Journal

Melinda Reichelt

Svjetlana Curcic

Guadalupe Valdes

Learning and Instruction

Alasdair Archibald

Writing is a complex activity whose components and sub-components involve action on a number of levels. It is multifaceted, requiring proficiency in several areas of skill and knowledge that make up writing only when taken together. Research into writing has mirrored this complexity and has developed concurrently in a number of disciplines — in psychology and the cognitive sciences, text linguistics and pragmatics, applied linguistics and first and second language education.This special issue of Learning and Instruction is a collection of four papers that represent different aspects of current research into writing in a second language. They do not cover the full range of research into this area of writing, but serve as examples of the depth and breadth of study in this one particular part of the field. They are introduced here within the context of a discussion of current interests in writing research and each of the papers will be presented within the research area into which it most reasonably fits.

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PERSPECTIVE article

Review of effective methods of teaching a foreign language to university students in the framework of online distance learning: international experience.

• 1 Sibai Institute (Branch), Bashkir State University, Sibai, Russia
• 2 Bashkir State University, Ufa, Russia
• 3 Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
• 4 Kolomna Institute (Branch) of Moscow Polytechnic University, Kolomna, Russia

The research goal is to analyze the existing and most frequently used methods and competency-based approaches to distance learning of a foreign language. The tasks are formulated to achieve the goal. They involve classifying the methods of foreign language teaching based on the competency approach and identifying the effective methods. The methodological basis of this research includes methods of analyzing the practical experience of foreign language teaching based on a competency-based approach, synthesis of national and international experience, comparison of national models of the language environment, and generalization of sociological data. As a result of the conducted research, it has been revealed that among various methods, approaches related to information and communication technologies [ICT] are utilized most often. We believe that when teachers conduct courses using synchronous computer-mediated communication [SCMC] tools or platforms, students should be given opportunities to express their opinions. Most teachers recognize the creation of instructional videos as the most effective. According to the students, this type of activity also has the greatest learning effect and stimulates creativity. The scientific novelty of the research is the study of foreign language teaching methods based on a competency-based approach within the framework of online distance learning and the relationship of all interested parties, in other words, teachers, students, and educational institutions.

1. Introduction

Global integrative trends, expansion of intercultural interaction, and rapid social development contribute to mastering one or more foreign languages not only to communicate with representatives of other cultures but also to improve professional skills since modern society requires specialists to solve global issues ( Berger, 2021 ). Teaching a foreign language has long gone beyond the boundaries of classrooms. The very term “distance learning of foreign languages” includes an entire educational paradigm related to the socio-cognitive, pragmatic, and ethical aspects of the foreign-speaking world.

Both foreign language learners and teachers in the process of communication face not only issues related to ethnicity and dilemmas associated with historically, socially, and culturally different psychology and worldviews. It includes ways of rationalizing perception, knowledge structures, attitudes, and the choice of expressing these feelings and beliefs. For both students and teachers, language learning and cognition are inseparable from the emotional component, which regulates adaptation to changes caused by external and internal educational events. Considering these issues within the framework of the psycholinguistic discipline, several studies ( Ko and Rossen, 2017 ; Marlina, 2018 ; Liu et al., 2021 ; McCallum, 2022 ) propose a set of interrelated methods and actions, including (1) systematic approach to developing the competencies of a foreign language learner and teacher; (2) introduction of a psycholinguistic approach to the study/teaching of a foreign language [ELL/ELT – English Language Learning and English Language Teaching], which highlights the student, their personality; (3) support of language training programs for graduates and postgraduates with ethnolinguistic components of intercultural learning; (4) development of compatible formats of teacher and student research activities and mechanisms for the use of these products ( Marlina, 2018 ). This collective monograph examines the tasks related to implementing these actions, with recommendations leading to a methodological basis for developing a linguistic personality in ELT. The proposed methodologies appeared by virtue of a series of studies by scholars ( Kholod, 2018 ; Marlina, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ) in the field of linguistic categorization of emotions, language acquisition, and bilingual identity, as well as the basics of culture research in language education.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on education. Almost overnight, it stopped teaching in most educational institutions and gradually affected all levels of education. The situation was unprecedented. Educational institutions had to switch to a new form of education rapidly. The pandemic has affected both the means and the forms, methods, and teaching approaches, including the competency paradigm in teaching a foreign language ( Wang and Zou, 2021 ; Samorodova et al., 2022 ). The tasks of the pedagogical community are to create conditions for building up the information technology base of educational institutions, developing, and implementing adapted teaching methods based on the potential of information technologies. For example, Russia is implementing the National Project “Education,” which plans to “…create by 2024 a new and secure digital educational environment in all educational institutions at every level, which will ensure high quality and accessibility of education of all types and levels” ( Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, 2022 ). The Modern Digital Educational Environment (MDEE) was created as part of the project, uniting more than 100 Russian universities and 70 different educational platforms. Currently, MDEE offers 1,560 courses on various subjects where students can improve their knowledge, skills, and abilities in their major ( Akubekova and Kulyeva, 2021 ).

The transformation of foreign language teaching methods based on a competency-based approach within the framework of online distance learning has affected all interested parties, for example, teachers, students, and educational institutions. Therefore, the research on these relationships is scientifically significant.

The research aim is to analyze the existing and most frequently used methods and competency-based approaches to teaching a foreign language remotely (online).

The following tasks have been actualized to achieve the aim:

1. Classifying the methods of teaching a foreign language based on the competency approach;

2. Identifying the most effective methods according to teachers and students.

Combining creativity and new technologies in teaching and learning a foreign language achieves these tasks. The basis for the current research is the scientific work of specialists from different countries ( Alipichev and Takanova, 2020 ; Baker, 2020 ; Almehlafi, 2021 ; Wang and Zou, 2021 ). It covers the issues of teaching foreign languages and the results of a survey of teachers and students of bachelor’s and master’s degrees ( Bailey et al., 2021 ; Zubr and Sokolova, 2021 ). The analytical methods of this work include the study and analysis of the work of some Eurasian scientists and teachers ( Marlina, 2018 ; Ogbonna et al., 2019 ; Hovhannisyan, 2022 ; McCallum, 2022 ). This choice is justified by methodological limitations, namely the use of relevant literature over the past 5 years in the field of effective methods of teaching a foreign language to university students in the framework of online distance learning, mainly in Europe and Asia. All literature is freely available (Springer Nature Switzerland AG.) and allows determining the development trends of foreign language online education today. Besides, we used the method of interviewing teachers and students in the form of an anonymous questionnaire.

The methodological basis includes methods of analyzing the practical experience of teaching foreign languages based on the competency approach, synthesis of national and international teaching experience, comparison of national models of the language environment, and generalization of sociological data in the distance segment.

2. Assessing the effectiveness of distance learning in foreign languages

When describing methods and approaches to learning foreign languages directly, it is crucial and relevant to evaluate the effectiveness of online learning. Active academic mobility in Eurasia is also supported by a great variety of English-language programs at all three stages of the Bologna process. According to the Masterportal.com portal, there are over 20,000 bachelor’s programs in English, 22,000 master’s programs, 2,500 Ph.D. programs, and about 5,000 online degree programs in Europe ( Balan, 2022 ). From 2014 to 2021, the number of English-taught bachelor’s programs increased by 2.47 times. Simultaneously, English-language programs are equally available at state universities on a paid and budgetary basis. For international students from outside the EU jurisdiction, free English-language programs are available in Germany and Norway; in France, Austria, and Belgium, programs are available at a low cost of 200 to 3,000 euros per year ( Balan, 2022 ). To study in English-language programs, students must submit diplomas of international exams confirming the level of English proficiency (PTE Academic, IELTS Academic, TOEFL iBT) ( Balan, 2022 ). The largest share of English-language programs is among educational programs in Switzerland (80%), the Netherlands (60%), Denmark (56%), Finland (55%), and Sweden (50%).

The future of education is defined in the Open University (OU) innovative pedagogy report 2022 ( Hulme, 2022 ). The goal of the research by Zubr and Sokolova (2021) is to present the survey questionnaire results, which focus on the experience of distance learning students. The questionnaire contains feedback from students regarding the distance learning form (distance mode) they have encountered. The study was conducted at the Faculty of Informatics and Management [FIM] at the University of Hradec Králové (Czech Republic). The interviewed students studied during the 2020/2021 academic year using distance learning. A total of 122 students took part in the study. The results show that FIM often uses online tools such as Microsoft Teams and BlackBoard. Students pointed out that the BlackBoard Learning Management System [LMS] is the most useful tool. In general, respondents are equally satisfied with distance learning and face-to-face training. The researchers emphasize that it is impossible to determine whether students prefer distance learning or full-time education ( Zubr and Sokolova, 2021 ). The survey “Digital Learning at the Bashkir State University” (Bashkir State University) among 204 s-year bachelor students at the beginning of the 2021/2022 academic year revealed that 84% of students prefer distance learning in a foreign language. In total, 95% of students always attend online classes and video conferences. The majority (80%) increased their level of motivation for distance learning ( Akubekova and Kulyeva, 2021 ). We agree that it is difficult to say unequivocally that distance learning is 100% a priority. Our teaching experience shows that blended learning is the most effective method. The most interesting digital methods of learning foreign languages will be considered further.

3. Methods of formation of multi-literacy

An interesting technique is the formation of multi-literacy. Multimodal writing positively impacts students’ written competency, ability to cooperate, and motivation to learn. The study by Zhang et al. (2021) , based on the theory of multi-literacy and the use of technology, is aimed at studying the influence of multimodal writing on vocabulary acquisition by EFL students (English as a foreign language). Seventy students were recruited, including 35 in the experimental group (EG) and 35 in the control group (CG). The selection criteria were teaching multimodal writing and EFL students mastering the English vocabulary in tweet-based writing in the official WeChat account. The experimental group mastered the multimodality technique, and the control group mastered the traditional technique. After a 7-week experiment for EG, positive improvements were noted in the acquisition of vocabulary, especially in the use of the dictionary. There were no significant differences when comparing traditional writing and multimodal writing. Questionnaires and interviews about the perception and attitude of students toward writing tweets on the official account were conducted among 35 students in EG. Most students considered multimodal writing a pleasant and effective way to improve vocabulary acquisition ( Zhang et al., 2021 ). The methodology of multi-literacy and teaching Russian to Greek-speaking students has also been tested in European countries. As practice shows, the most preferable is the division of students into microgroups (3–4 students). According to the gender composition of microgroups, it is recommended to adhere to the proportions of 50:50 and 60:40 ( Kholod, 2016 ).

From 2016 until today, the dilemmas method has been applied during online foreign language classes in groups of pedagogical and historical faculties of Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushinsky (Yaroslavl, Russia). On average, the method is used several times per semester. The parameters adopted for evaluating heuristic (sounding) speech in foreign practice were used during the control: accuracy, fluency (freedom), interaction with the communicant, pronunciation, variety, and goal achievement. Compared with the control groups, where the method was not applied, the students of the considered groups showed an increase in fluency by 30%, a variety of language structures and an improvement in pronunciation – by 16%, accuracy – by 20%, and communication with a partner and achievement of a goal – by 25% ( Kholod, 2018 ). At the Sibay Institute (branch) of Bashkir State University (Sibay, Russia), Bashkir State University (Ufa, Russia), and Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation (Moscow, Russia), the distance learning system is organized in the Moodle educational platform, which allows work effectively in tandem for both teachers and students. The system is accessible; it is designed for different levels of learners. Marinina emphasizes, “Providing access to the platform and its content from any remote point of the country and the world is another of its absolute advantages compared to traditional teaching methods” ( Marinina and Kruchinkina, 2020 ). The teaching staff develops their own electronic courses with theoretical and practical material on multi-literacy and tests based on the approved DWP (disciplines work programs). The Sibay Institute (branch) of Bashkir State University, Bashkir State University, and Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation offer a large set of interactive elements for the formation of foreign language multi-literacy: forums, glossaries, chats, blogs, video conferences.

4. Methods of learning English using artificial intelligence methods

Methods based on artificial intelligence are of undoubted interest for teachers of higher educational institutions. In the studies of Liu et al. (2021) , an application for studying the concept of a foreign language is proposed, combining the study of the concept of English and artificial intelligence technologies, such as automatic generation of options and speech recognition analysis. The app is based on a WeChat mini program aimed at helping and conducting English language learning by providing various exercises such as multiple-choice and phonetic questions. To generate incorrect variants of multiple-choice questions, scientists utilize new words from WordNet. It is a large English lexical database in which word combinations are detected using statistical processing of natural language and neural network models, such as Continuous bag of words [CBOW] in Word2vec or BERT [Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers]. The user’s voice input is built into the speech interaction for recognition and analysis. Based on the framework, scholars expect that this application will be combined with other artificial intelligence [AI] technologies to analyze user performance and adjust the subsequent curriculum accordingly ( Liu et al., 2021 ).

The study by Ogbonna et al. (2019) provides an example of the use of synchronous computer-mediated communication [SCMC] in English lessons at Wuhan University (China) during the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal is to identify the advantages and disadvantages of using applications with synchronous technologies in online English courses. The data set consists of ethnographic observations and in-depth interviews with the teacher and students. Thematic analysis shows that the advantages of SCMC include the availability of extensive learning resources, the availability of instant information exchange, and a relatively calm learning environment. The two main drawbacks are that face-to-face communication generally leads to the teacher showing “one person,” and the limited screen size reduces eye contact between the teacher and the students. The research ( Ogbonna et al., 2019 ) shows that SCMC can be used during and after a pandemic to stimulate student discussion and cooperation.

5. Methodology of formation of communicative foreign language digital competency

Both voice and video blogs are widely used in various fields. Their use in learning English as a foreign language [EFL], mainly at universities, aims at improving the listening and speaking skills of students ( Ogbonna et al., 2019 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). Few studies have examined how involving EFL students in creating video blogs can help improve their conversational speech ( Liu et al., 2021 ; McCallum, 2022 ). Therefore, the publication of Wang and Zou (2021) is a study of the impact of the creation of voice and video blogs on the spoken language of EFL students and their perception of digital multimodal composition based on video blogs [DMC]. Sixty-seven high school students from Guangdong Province, China, participated in the 10-week study. The data included their preliminary and post-test performance evaluations, two videos, a questionnaire, and a semi-structured interview. The research results displayed a positive effect of DMC on conversational speech based on video blogs. The students showed better fluency from the first to the second video blogs. Additionally, EFL students leading video blogs surpassed their colleagues in accuracy but lost in fluency, in which they demonstrated some significant changes ( Wang and Zou, 2021 ). The Russian experience of testing the methodology for the formation of communicative foreign language digital competency is focused on the use of YouTube video hosting in teaching a foreign language.

Portal features included in classroom and extracurricular activities can enhance learning quality ( Ezhova and Pats, 2020 ). By producing, sharing, and commenting on educational videos, YouTube promotes student engagement in a creative and collaborative learning environment. The advantages of the portal in teaching a foreign language are the following. A wide range of video materials – from video lessons created specifically to use in teaching a foreign language to vlogs edited by bloggers, which can also be included in the educational process – make it possible to work with authentic texts, listen to the speech of native speakers, and enter into dialogues with them. The visibility of information makes it possible to increase the efficiency of the learning process. While watching, it is possible to pay attention to articulatory features, facial expressions, and pantomime ( Borshcheva and Kuzmina, 2021 ). Teachers of Bashkir State University, Bashkir State University, and Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation during the survey indicated that it is also important that the student receives information about the appearance of the communication participants and the environment in which events take place. Videos can become a means of providing background information, an idea of the life, traditions, and reality of the countries of the studied language; these contribute to the implementation of such an important requirement of the communicative methodology of language cognition as immersion in a foreign language reality and its comprehension.

6. Conclusion

Among the wide variety of methods, competency-based approaches related to information and communication technologies [ICT] are utilized most often. We also suggest that when language teachers conduct courses using SCMC tools or platforms, students should be given wide opportunities to express their opinions. Additionally, most teachers recognize creating instructional videos as the most effective for forming students’ creative abilities. According to students, this type of activity also has the greatest learning effect and stimulates creativity, making the learning process more interesting and effective.

The consideration of several relevant competency-based approaches is the practical significance of reviewing effective methods of teaching a foreign language to university students in the framework of distance online learning based on national and international experience.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: ELL competencies, education, ELT competencies, online learning, students, video blog, synchronous communication

Citation: Akhmetzadina ZR, Mukhtarullina AR, Starodubtseva EA, Kozlova MN and Pluzhnikova YA (2023) Review of effective methods of teaching a foreign language to university students in the framework of online distance learning: international experience. Front. Educ . 8:1125458. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1125458

Received: 16 December 2022; Accepted: 02 May 2023; Published: 30 May 2023.

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Copyright © 2023 Akhmetzadina, Mukhtarullina, Starodubtseva, Kozlova and Pluzhnikova. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Zulfiya R. Akhmetzadina, [email protected] ; [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• Original article
• Open access
• Published: 30 June 2020

Effects of using inquiry-based learning on EFL students’ critical thinking skills

• Bantalem Derseh Wale 1 &
• Kassie Shifere Bishaw 2  

Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education volume  5 , Article number:  9 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The aim of this study was to examine the effects of using inquiry-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills. A quasi-experimental design which employed time series design with single group participants was used. A total of 20 EFL undergraduate students who took advanced writing skills course were selected using comprehensive sampling method. Tests, focus group discussion, and student-reflective journal were used to gather data on the students’ critical thinking skills. The participants were given a series of three argumentative essay writing pretests both before and after the intervention, inquiry-based argumentative essay writing instruction. While the quantitative data were analyzed using One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA, the qualitative data were analyzed through narration. The findings of the study revealed that using inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction enhances students’ critical thinking skills. Therefore, inquiry-based instruction is suggested as a means to improve students’ critical thinking skills because the method enhances students' interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation skills which are the core critical thinking skills.

Introduction

Critical thinking is the ability to ask and/or answer insightful questions in a most productive way in order to reach on a comprehensive understanding (Hilsdon, 2010 ). It consists interpretation, analysis, evaluation, synthesize explanation, inference, and self-regulation. Empowering critical thinking skills among students in higher education especially in academic writing through the integration of critical thinking into the teaching learning process is essential in order to develop students’ problem solving, decision making and communication skills (Abdullah, 2014 ; Adege, 2016 ; McLean, 2005 ). Inquiry-based learning develops students’ critical thinking skills because it helps students to develop interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, inferring, explaining, and self-regulation skills which are the core critical thinking skills (Facione, 2011 ; Facione & Facione, 1994 ; Hilsdon, 2010 ).

The level of thinking depends on the level of questioning as long as the questioning leads to new perspectives (Buranapatana, 2006 ). When students learn to ask their own thought-provoking questions in and outside the classroom, and provide explanatory answers, they are well on the way to self-regulation of their learning. In inquiry-based writing instruction, students engaged in writing lessons and tasks that enhance their ability to apply these critical thinking skills because the method emphasize to produce texts through inquisition and investigation. In writing, when students’ written papers realize these skills, the students considered that their critical thinking skills are developed.

Inquiry-based learning is the act of gaining knowledge and skills through asking for information (Lee, 2014 ). It is a discovery method of learning that involves students in making observations; posing questions; examining sources; gathering, analyzing, interpreting, and synthesizing data; proposing answers, explanations and predictions; communicating findings through discussion and reflection; applying findings to the real situation, and following up new questions that may arise in the process. Inquiry-based learning emphasizes students’ abilities to critically view, question, and explore various perspectives and concepts of the real world. It takes place when the teacher facilitates and scaffolds learning than gives facts and knowledge so that students engage in investigating, questioning, and explaining their world in a student-centered learning environment.

Although inquiry-based learning is intended for science as it is classified as scientific approach, it can be implemented in language field. Rejeki ( 2017 ) mentioned that inquiry-based language learning is useful in promoting lifelong education that enables EFL learners to continue the quest for knowledge throughout life. Similarly, Lee ( 2014 ) stated that inquiry-based learning is an analogy for communicative approach. The principles of inquiry-based learning are compatible with Communicative Language Teaching because communicative approach focuses on communicative proficiency rather than mere mastery of structure to develop learners’ communicative competence as to inquiry-based learning. Inquiry-based learning is, therefore, a form of Communicative Language Teaching which serves to bring down the general principles of communicative approach, and implement in language classrooms in an inquisitive and discovery manner (Lee, 2014 ; Qing & Jin, 2007 ; Richards & Rodgers, 2001 ). While communicative approach is an umbrella of various active language learning methods, inquiry-based learning is one of the active learning methods that drive learning through inquisition and investigation. It mainly focuses on discovery and learner cognitive development to be achieved using thoughtful questions.

In inquiry-based writing instruction, students engaged in pre-writing tasks through generating ideas, narrowing and clarifying topics; exploring information on their writing topics from various sources; explaining their discoveries gained from the exploration, and elaborating their thinking through transforming their understanding into the real world situation. When students come up through this distinct process in manipulating such tasks, their critical thinking skills can be enhanced because this process develops students’ ability to analyze, synthesis, and evaluate concepts.

This study also revealed that students’ critical thinking skills has been enhanced through inquiry-based writing instruction because the method focuses on the process of knowledge discovery that involves students in seeking, collecting, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information; creating ideas, and solving problems through communication, collaboration, deep thinking, and learner autonomy. The study can contribute to the field of foreign language learning by possibly leading English language teachers and learners into a more effective language learning method. The study has applicable significances to EFL teachers to understand the nature and application of inquiry-based learning.

Literature review

Developing students’ critical thinking skills through inquiry-based writing instruction.

Inquiry-based learning develops students’ critical thinking skills because the method improves the students’ mental activities such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, explanation, inference, and self-regulation. Previous studies have shown that students’ critical thinking abilities are significantly higher when students are taught through inquiry-based learning comparing with traditional teaching methods. Having a free medium of student learning class where students will share good experiences through an inquiry process that is based on curiosity is a preferred learning method to the act of teaching that characterized with teaching by forced (Ahmad, Sitti, Abdul, Mohammad, & Sanitah, 2014 ; Iakovos, 2011 ).

By using inquiry-based learning in writing lessons, students can develop critical thinking skills, and learn how to generate and organize ideas through investigation or/and discussion to find out alternative ideas, and produce sound written papers. Accordingly, students who used inquiry-based learning techniques in their language learning are better achievers because they have an active role in choosing the writing topics, and on developing the outcomes of their own investigations. Inquiry-based learning has impacts in EFL classes to help students improve the target language, and develop other abilities needed to understand this constantly changing world. When students participate in real life situations, they can develop effective research skills, adapt and respond better to change, and they are also prepared to the development of critical thinking skills (Escalante, 2013 ; Ismail, 2006 ; Lessner & Craig, 2010 ).

Similar studies conducted by Ash and Kluger-Bell ( 2012 ); Byker, Harden, Heafner, and Holzberg ( 2017 ); Ahmad et al. ( 2014 ) discovered that learners preferred and performed much better with confirmation level of inquiry compared to guided, structured and open inquiry because teachers provide every needed conditions and allow the student the freedom to learn independently in the confirmation level. In the same vein, Ghaemi and Mirsaeed ( 2017 ) investigated the impacts of inquiry-based learning approach on critical thinking skill of EFL students, and revealed that doing inquiry-based activities in EFL classroom increased the critical thinking ability of the students.

Finally, Naryanti ( 2017 ) who conducted an action research to explore the extent to which inquiry-based learning method can improve grade eight students’ ability in writing a descriptive text find out that inquiry-based learning method is able to improve the students’ descriptive writing skills. The students concerned actively in the learning process, especially in conveying their opinions, asking and responding questions, and enthusiasm in producing written texts.

In sum, the aforementioned studies indicated that using inquiry-based learning in ESL/EFL writing classroom improves students’ critical thinking skills, and help them to become lifelong mind seekers. However, most of the aforementioned studies were conducted on pretest-posttest two groups design unlike the present study which followed single group pretest-posttest design employing time serious design. On the other hand, the finding of these study show the effects of using inquiry-based learning excluding the local context, where the present study was conducted. However, in the study area, inquiry-based learning seems to have been a missing feature of English as a foreign language leaning in general and writing skills in particular. Thus, examining the effects of using inquiry-based learning on EFL students’ critical thinking skills in the local context was relevant to fill the research gap.

Why inquiry-based learning for EFL students’ critical thinking skills?

Critical thinking plays a significant role for higher education ESL/EFL learners’ in order to produce sound written texts including argumentative essays (Klimova, 2013 ; Ghaemi & Mirsaeed, 2017 ). However, various studies conducted on students’ critical thinking skills and writing performance revealed that students are commonly challenged to support their arguments through referring to and synthesizing academic sources due to poor reasoning and unsupported claims. Especially, synthesizing sources is a complex task to second and foreign language learners to comprehend, paraphrase, and summarize written texts (Alagozlu, 2007 ; Goodwin, 2014 ). Evaluating and synthesizing sources into their own writing are the elements of critical thinking that students find challenging to express their own academic thoughts (Ahmad et al., 2014 ; Melles, 2009 ; Wette, 2010 ).

Fostering critical thinking skills is a challenging task nowadays since learners are exposed to an enormous information influx, such as the Internet (Klimova, 2013 ). They are offered pre-chewed chunks of ideas and opinions and often, they are not made to think about them. However, a critical thinker should be alerted and in his/ her inquisitive nature inquire, judge and evaluate all such sources critically. Hence, using inquiry-based learning in writing classes is helpful to foster students’ critical thinking skills.

Paul and Elder ( 2007 ) states that the conventional way of teaching, the product approach, is criticized in its inadequacy to prepare university graduates to deal with existing complex situations, because students are assumed to develop critical thinking skills depending on books, lecture notes, and handouts. It also led students learn with lack of interest on topics, receive rather than to think critically and search for knowledge. The students were not mostly motivated to observe their environment critically, inquire things, investigate problems, and create new knowledge (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2013 ; Graham, MacArthur, & Fitzgerald, 2013 ; Yen, 2014 ). However, in learning situations like inquiry-based learning where critical thinking is emphasized; students aim to understand ideas with range of explorations and follow new leads; learn with curiosity or interest of topics, and reach on implications.

Local researchers like Daniel ( 2004 ); Dawit and Yalew ( 2008 ) find out that conventional teaching methods are still in use though teachers are expected to use active learning methods. The lecture method, which is considered as the conventional method of teaching, is used in colleges that teachers usually focus on giving lectures, and students depend primarily on lecture where discovery is not that much encouraged. The researcher’s language teaching experience also shows that students were not that much learning to improve their critical thinking skills in writing classes. In other terms, the students’ papers were not adequately developed due to lack of interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation. However, there are no local studies conducted to investigate the effects of using inquiry-based writing instruction in EFL context. Therefore, the present study examines the effects of using inquiry-based learning on EFL students’ critical thinking skills since the method involves students in seeking, collecting, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information based on student interest.

Research question

This study was designed to answer the following research question:

What are the effects of using inquiry-based learning on EFL students’ critical thinking skills?

Research methodology

Design of the study.

The research design of the study was quasi-experimental that employs a time series design with single group participants. For the purpose of this study, the participants were given a series of three argumentative essay writing pretests before the intervention, inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction, and other three similar series of argumentative essay writing posttests.

Participants

In this study, a total of 20 EFL second year undergraduate university students who were enrolled for advanced writing skills course were selected using comprehensive sampling method. In the students’ university stay, Advanced Writing Skills Course is the final writing course given to them. Before this course, the students have taken both Communicative English Skills and Basic Writing Skills, and Intermediate Writing Skills Courses in their university stay. Earlier to these university courses, they have learned English language subject beginning from grade one to university.

Data gathering instruments

The data on the students’ critical thinking skills were gathered through tests, focus group discussion, and student-reflective journal.

The test that comprises both pretests and posttests was used to gather data on students’ critical thinking skills. Three consecutive argumentative essay writing pre-tests were given to understand the students’ existing critical thinking skills. Likewise, other three consecutive argumentative essay writing posttests were also given to determine the effects of the intervention, whether students’ critical thinking skills were improved. The tests were developed by the researchers considering the students’ local context and their background knowledge.

The critical thinking skills rubric was adapted from Facione ( 2015 ), “Critical Thinking: What It is and Why It Counts” (from APA Report: Expert Consensus Statement on Critical Thinking) incorporating common critical thinking skills including interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation. The rubric is a four point scale from one to four that refers to poor, good, very good, and excellent respectively. Two experienced EFL university teachers marked students’ argumentative essays independently based on the given criteria. Training on the use of the rubric was given to the raters. Inter-rater reliability was calculated with Pearson’s correlations (Pearson’s, r), and it was 0.75 which shows the reliability of the test.

Focus group discussion

The focus group discussion was needed to gather qualitative data on students’ critical thinking skills empowerment. The students were asked to forward their views on the relevance of inquiry-based learning to enhance their skills to interpret, analyze, evaluate, infer, explain, and self-regulate in writing argumentative essays.

Student-reflective journal

The Student-Reflective Journal was employed to collect data on the effectiveness of inquiry-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills. Accordingly, the participants were reported their feelings on the effectiveness of inquiry-based learning method and their critical thinking skills empowerment.

Procedure and data collection

In the data collection, first, a teaching material used to teach argumentative essay writing was prepared using the literature in accordance with inquiry-based learning method and critical thinking skills. In other terms, the teaching was developed in the way that enable the students to make observations; pose questions; examine sources; gather, analyze, interpret, and synthesize data; propose answers, explain and predict; communicate findings through discussion and reflection; apply their findings to the real situation, and follow up new questions that arise in the process because these are the focuses of inquiry-based learning. On the other hand, it also developed in the way that enable students to interpret, analyze, infer, evaluate, explain, and self-regulate which are the core critical thinking skills. In sum, the teaching material was prepared considering the components of inquiry-based learning, and critical thinking skills.

Then, three consecutive argumentative essay writing pre-tests were administered to the students to identify their critical thinking performance before the intervention. Following the pre-tests, the intervention was given.

The intervention was an inquiry-based argumentative essay writing instruction delivered for 4 weeks using the aforementioned teaching material. In the teaching-learning process students discover their own writing topics, generate ideas, evaluate what they have and what they need, gather and evaluate information from different sources, write up drafts with evidences, discuss with colleague and subject area experts for feedback, and write up essays related to their real life situation. When the intervention was given, the Student-Reflection Journal was collected from the students.

Next to the completion of the teaching-learning practice, the participants were given three consecutive argumentative essay writing post-tests which were identical with the pre-tests. The post-tests were needed to determine whether the inquiry-based essay writing instruction make improvements on students’ critical thinking skills. By the completion of the post-tests, the focus group discussion was conducted.

Data analysis methods

The quantitative data which were gathered through pre-tests and post-tests were analyzed using One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA , using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23 software program. One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA was used to examine whether there were differences on students’ critical thinking skills in writing argumentative essays before and after the intervention. On the other hand, the qualitative data which were collected through focus group discussion and student-reflective journal were analyzed through narration.

Result and discussion

Essay writing tests.

The students were given three essay writing pretests and other three essay writing posttests in order to measure their critical thinking skills before and after the intervention. Accordingly, this section presents the students’ test results gained from the pretests and posttests which were analyzed using One Way Repeated Measures ANOVA .

Table 1 indicates that the students’ Mean scores in Pretest-1, Pretest-2, and Pretest-3, were 38.15, 38.00, and 38.35, respectively. The table also depicts that the students’ Mean scores in Posttest-1, Posttest − 2, and Posttest − 3, were 65.90, 65.70, and 66.25, respectively. From these results, we can understand that the students’ Mean scores in the pretests were similar. Likewise, their Mean scores in the Posttests were also similar. However, when the Mean scores in the Pretests and Posttests were compared, they have differences. In other words, the students’ Mean scores in the posttests were greater than those of the pretests. It indicates that the intervention made the differences on the students’ pretest and posttest Mean scores. In sum, it can be understood that the inquiry-based argumentative essay writing instruction has positive effects on the students’ critical thinking skills.

The findings of this study imply that inquiry-based learning has improved EFL students’ critical thinking skills which includes interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and self-regulation. In line with this research finding, previous studies also show that inquiry-based learning has positive impacts on students’ critical thinking skills. Ash and Kluger-Bell ( 2012 ) find out that by using inquiry-based learning in writing lessons, students develop critical thinking skills, and learn how to generate and organize ideas through investigation or/and discussion to find out alternative ideas, and produce sound written papers. Inquiry-based learning is appropriate when deep discipline knowledge; higher-order thinking skills or strategies including reasoning skills; adequate motivational beliefs or attitude and value are intended as learning outcomes, rather than lower-order thinking skills like, to recall facts.

Table 2 shows the Within-Subjects Effects of the tests. In the table, the Sphericity Assumed indicated that 5 with-in subjects df, and 95 errors df . The Mean Square is 4632.348 with 8.468 F, and Significance value is .000. F (5, 95) = 547.065, p  < 0.005. It means that the students test scores have differences based on time, but the differences in all times are not the same.

Thus, in order to identify the difference among each of the test scores, Post Hoc analysis was run. The Post Hoc analysis for a repeated measures variable is a paired sample t-test.

Table 3 depicts that there were no difference between pretest-1 and pretest-2 (.603); pretest-1 and pretest-3 (.163); pretest-2 and pretest-3 (.273). In the same manner, there were no differences between posttest-1 and posttest-2 (.464); posttest-1 and posttest-3 (.376); posttest-2 and posttest-3 (.280). In contrast, there were differences in all of the remaining combinations (.000). It indicates that the differences were made due to the intervention given to the students. Thus, it can be concluded that the inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction improves the students’ critical thinking skills.

This finding shows that using inquiry-based learning in EFL classroom fosters students’ abilities to interpret, analyze, infer, evaluate, explain, and self-regulate which are the core critical thinking skills. In line with this research finding, Ghaemi and Mirsaeed ( 2017 ) revealed that doing inquiry-based activities in EFL classroom increased the critical thinking ability of the students which enable them to analyze, evaluate, and explain information. Thus, it shows that using inquiry-based writing instruction enhances students’ critical thinking skills.

The students’ focus group discussion result revealed that the use of inquiry-based learning in argumentative essay writing classes can enhance students’ critical thinking skills. Most of the focus group discussion participants reported that they had not wrote effective argumentative essays before they use inquiry-based learning method. However, after using this method of learning, they have developed their critical thinking skills including interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation. For instance, one of the participants reported that his critical thinking skills have been enhanced after learning argumentative essay writing through inquiry-based learning method because he has developed the way to interpret, analyze, and evaluate information. He can generate logical ideas which are better to persuade his audiences, and write essays without emotional feelings.

The other focus group discussion participant voiced that the learning method empowers her critical thinking skills because before using inquiry-based learning her writings were not appropriate for audience. However, after taking the lessons in the intervention, she knows what to write considering her purpose and audience, how to analyze information, and how to produce reasonable argumentative essays.

The other student also mentioned his performance as follows:

My critical thinking skills such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation are very good now. Especially, when I pick two points from these points, analysis and evaluation, I can analyze and evaluate written arguments because of the inquiry-based essay writing instruction. So now, I can easily interpret, analyze, and evaluate data, and even regulate myself to write my argumentative essay to persuade my audience.

In a similar manner, another participant also reported that in inquiry-based learning, she discovered her writing topic, searched for information, and evaluated, criticized and analyzed the collected data, and wrote drafts, incorporated necessary feedbacks, and produced effective essays in contrast to the previous methods. She further explained that during this process, her critical thinking skills were enhanced due to the instruction given through inquiry-based learning. Similarly, another respondent also said that after learning through inquiry-based learning, his critical thinking skills were enhanced. As he further elaborated, he could become to analyze and evaluate information in writing argumentative essays while using this method.

In addition, the students reported that the critical thinking skills that they enhanced in the teaching learning process were relevant to their real life situations. One of them stated that “every English language graduate person and critical thinking towards writing dependently go together. I am going to do two things in the future as an English graduate man. These are critically writing texts and critically evaluating what another person has written. So, I think, the critical thinking skills that I developed through inquiry-based writing instruction are helpful to the rest of my life”.

The students mentioned that critical thinking helps in their work life as university graduate students because it has a lot of things for them. According to their speech, they should be competitive enough to become successful in their work life. So, being a good critical thinker helps to think differently, and to be successful. They further voiced that skills can also help them to make good decisions in their real life situations apart from their working environment. In sum, the students’ focus group discussion results indicated that the students’ critical thinking skills including interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation were enhanced due to the inquiry-based writing instruction. In the same manner, Ghaemi and Mirsaeed ( 2017 ) revealed that most of the participants who used inquiry-based learning believed that their critical thinking abilities changed positively. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that there should be opportunities for students to have enough exposure to inquiry-based learning.

The data gained from the students’ reflective journal indicated that when the students used inquiry-based essay writing instruction, they have developed their critical thinking skills including interpretation, analysis, and evaluation, synthesize, inference, explanation, and self-regulation. They note that the strategies used in the teaching learning process and incorporated in the teaching material were effective to improve their critical thinking skills. The students reported that the way they learned argumentative writing has enhanced their critical thinking skills like interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation.

In line with this finding, a study conducted in Whittier College, USA to assess students’ feedback on the effectiveness of inquiry-based teaching in second language pedagogy shows that the method reinforced students’ understanding of the course material (Lee, 2014 ). In addition, McLean ( 2005 ); Abdullah ( 2014 ); Adege ( 2016 ) also revealed that empowering critical thinking skills among students in higher education especially in academic writing through the integration of critical thinking into the teaching learning process is essential in order to develop students’ problem solving, decision making and communication skills which are needed for their future carrier.

Therefore, based on the findings of the study, all together, it can be understood that using inquiry-based learning in argumentative essay writing class empowers students’ critical thinking skills including interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation. In other terms, when the students have used inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction, they comprehend and expressed the meaning of their writing issues and judgments in their argumentative essays. They recognized the then argumentative issues and described them in their essays. The students have collected data on their topics and constructed categories of protagonist and antagonist ideas for their argumentative essay development. They also paraphrased ideas taken from other sources in their own words. These indicate that the students have developed their interpretation skills which is one of the core critical thinking skills.

In the same vein, the students have enhanced their analysis skills through inquiry-based learning. In inquiry-based writing instruction, the students identified the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements to express beliefs in their argumentative writing. The students examined ideas, detected, and analyzed arguments in their writing. They identified the similarities and differences between opposing ideas in developing their persuasive essays. The students drafted the relationship of sentences or/and paragraphs to each other and the main purpose of their argumentative essays. They also constructed convincing reasons to support or criticize a given argumentative idea, and reach on a strong conclusion. Thus, it shows that the students have enhanced their analysis skills which is one of the core critical thinking skills.

The results revealed that the students have developed their evaluation skills using inquiry-based instruction. In other words, in the teaching-learning process, the students have determined the credibility of their source of information while they gathered data for their writing topics. They assessed and compared the logical strengths and weaknesses of opposing arguments. They also judged whether the evidence at their hands did not contradict each other, and support their conclusion. Finally, they judged if their arguments in their argumentative essays were relevant and applicable in an existing real-life situation. It implies that the students have developed their evaluation skills, one of the core critical thinking skills through inquiry-based learning.

The students have also enhanced their inference skills in writing their argumentative essays through inquiry. This means that the students have identified pertinent thoughts needed to draw reasonable conclusions in their essays. In doing so, they formed conjectures and hypotheses; considered the relevant information, and educed consequences flowing their data. They questioned their evidence, conjectured alternatives, and drawn conclusions when they developed argumentative essays through inquiry-based learning. They constructed meaning from their readings and formulated synthesis of related ideas into a coherent perspective to produce sound argumentative essays.

Beyond interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, the students explained what they think, and how they arrived at their judgments in developing their essays. In other terms, the students have developed their explanation skills due to the inquiry-based writing instruction. They have presented their argumentative essays in a cogent and coherent way. They stated and justified reasons in terms of their evidential and contextual considerations upon which their results were based. They presented their reasons in the form of persuasive arguments in their essays. They also reflected on the methods, procedures, and techniques (in the classroom) they used in writing their argumentative essays.

Finally, the data gained from the student-reflective journal and focus group discussion revealed that the students have developed their self-regulation skills, which is one of the core critical thinking skills, through using inquiry-based learning. Accordingly, the students confirmed that they self-consciously monitored or corrected their judgments in analyzing and evaluating contradictory ideas in producing their argumentative essays. They questioned themselves to examine, correct, and confirm their reasons for producing essays. They double-checked their reasons by recalculating their evidence. The students reconsidered their interpretations and judgments in the view of further analysis. They revised their answers in view of the errors they discovered in their argumentative essay writing. Even, they have changed some of their concluding ideas in view of the realization that they had misjudged the importance of certain factors when coming to their earlier decisions. Altogether, using inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction enhanced EFL students’ interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation skills which are the core critical thinking skills.

In sum, though the findings of this study are in line with previous studies, most of them have examined the enhancement of critical thinking skills through using inquiry-based learning in writing classes in general rather than showing the effects of the method in argumentative essay writing classes in particular. Thus, the present study exclusively revealed the effects of using inquiry-based argumentative essay writing instruction on EFL students’ critical thinking skills. In other terms, it contributed to the existing literature in disclosing the effects of using inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction on EFL students’ critical thinking skills. Besides, the present study can contribute to the field of English as a foreign language education by showing the effects of using inquiry-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills in the local context where this study has been conducted. This is because, in the study area, inquiry-based learning seems to have been a missing feature of English as a foreign language learning.

Conclusion and implication

The findings of the study revealed that the use of inquiry-based learning in foreign language learning classroom empowers students’ critical thinking skills. Inquiry-based learning has positive impacts on students’ critical thinking skills which include interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and self-regulation. In other terms, when the students have used inquiry-based argumentative essay writing instruction in their academic writing classes, they have comprehended and expressed their essay writing queries (interpretation); identified and examined arguments, reasons and claims (analysis); identified elements of claims, estimated alternatives, and drawn reasonable conclusions in writing their argumentative essays (inference). In the same manner, they also assessed the credibility of claims and quality of arguments made in their conclusions (evaluation); stated results, justified procedures, and presented arguments (explanation), and consciously monitored and corrected their writing activity (self-regulation) in producing argumentative essays. Thus, the students have developed their critical thinking skills by using inquiry-based argumentative writing instruction.

In inquiry-based writing instruction, the students discover writing topics; explore information on their topics; explain their discoveries, and elaborate their thinking through transforming their understanding into their real life situations. Thus, when the students came up through this distinct process in manipulating such tasks, their critical thinking skills enhance because this process develops the students’ abilities to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate various thoughts. Using inquiry-based learning in argumentative writing class enhance the students’ argumentative essay writing performance since the method enables them to discover their own writing topics, generate ideas, gather and evaluate information, write up drafts with evidences, discuss with colleagues and subject area experts, and produce sound argumentative essays.

When the students use inquiry-based learning in argumentative essay writing lessons, they generate and organize ideas through investigation and discussion, and later produce sound written texts. The students develop reasoning skills, collaborative working, and make connections to real life experiences when they learn through inquiry-based learning. The critical thinking skills that the EFL students develop through the inquiry-based writing instruction are relevant to their future working environment to write convincing texts and critically evaluate what other individuals have written. The abilities to interpret, analyze, evaluate, infer, explain, and self-regulate help the university students to be lifelong learners, and to be competitive enough in their future working life.

Therefore, inquiry-based writing instruction is suggested as a means to improve EFL students’ critical thinking skills because the method incorporates activity oriented learning, logical arguments, and collaboration. This is to imply the need to promote inquiry-based learning which is based on a discovery approach that mostly involve students in seeking, collecting, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information based on students’ interest. It is because using inquiry-based learning in writing classes promotes students’ academic performance and makes students active, problem solver, autonomous, and lifelong learners. Accordingly, EFL teachers should use inquiry-based learning in their language classrooms in order to develop students’ critical thinking skills. Similarly, teaching material developers need to consider the inquiry-based learning principles in developing language teaching materials so that students’ improve their critical thinking skills. Students should also use the inquiry-based learning techniques to produce effective argumentative texts, to be critical thinkers, and become lifelong learners.

Finally, the number of participants and the time given to the intervention were relatively small. However, it does not mean that the findings of the study are not representative since the selected participants have similarities with other students. In addition, it does not mean that the intervention is completely inadequate since the students practiced the whole inquiry process repeatedly. It is to mean that the findings of the study would have been more representatives and convincing if a greater number of participants had been included, and more time to the intervention had been used in the study. As a result, such future exploration would have contributed to the current study and is certainly an area ripe for future research. Furthermore, future studies should be also conducted on the effects of using inquiry-based learning on students’ speaking, reading, and listening skills to widen the use of inquiry-based learning in EFL instruction.

Availability of data and materials

Please contact corresponding author for data requests.

Abbreviations

English as a Foreign Language

Analysis of Variance

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

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Wale, B.D., Bishaw, K.S. Effects of using inquiry-based learning on EFL students’ critical thinking skills. Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ. 5 , 9 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-020-00090-2

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Teaching Writing to ESL/EFL Students: Tips and Activities for Any Level

• Linda D'Argenio
• August 19, 2022

Teaching writing to non-native speakers of a language presents a plethora of unique challenges and can feel overwhelming for new and seasoned teachers alike. However, teaching writing to ESL students can be dynamic and meaningful when approached with a bit of ingenuity.

If you’re new to teaching, you’ll want to get initial training and qualification with a TEFL certificate . You can explore our online TEFL courses to get started!

Why is it important to teach writing to ESL students?

In order to effectively participate as contributing members of society, individuals need to be able to communicate their thoughts in written form, whether they are using the English language as their vehicle or not.

Writing is an essential component of productive language, and ELs will need to demonstrate their ability to write in English if they hope to be competitive in a globalized world . Building competency in English-language writing supports reading comprehension, vocabulary expansion, and oral fluency , so there’s so much to be gained. And even if your students don’t plan to use the lingua franca on a regular basis, the skills gleaned from learning to write in another language transfer to all facets of life, making students more aware and more effective communicators in their native language(s) .

Teaching ESL writing aids in self-expression , which might be particularly meaningful for individuals who are hesitant to express themselves verbally. You might have the next Henry David Thoreau or Gabriel García Márquez in your class!

Why do ESL students struggle with writing?

Writing in another language is no easy feat, so it’s only natural that your ESL/ EFL students encounter difficulties when asked to do so.

First, it’s essential to recognize that writing conventions differ from one language group to another . Students from various linguistic backgrounds might declare that writing in English (particularly in an academic setting) is “boring,” something they perceive as formulaic. Often, these students come from backgrounds that value writing in a way that might seem “tangential” to native English readers.

In “Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education,” Robert B. Kaplan (1966) put forth a model for examining written discourse patterns, which illustrates how different thought patterns influence how speakers of other languages express themselves in written form.

You can observe that English is illustrated as being very straightforward, which aligns with the directness of spoken English. Kaplan poses here that other language groups tend to branch off in different directions in written form, pulling in supporting elements that might not be directly correlated to the main idea and that present as “off-topic” for native English speakers.

Secondly, it’s crucial to keep in mind that writing requires a vocabulary lexicon that can adequately support sharing . Often, even the most proficient English learners struggle to select the language they need to convey their point. When tackling writing instruction, make sure to consider how you’re supporting vocabulary development to support the conventions you’re teaching.

Lastly (and perhaps most importantly), writing is a form of self-expression, and self-expression through writing isn’t valued the same way in all cultures . There is a great deal of value placed on sharing one’s opinions in the U.S., for example, but this is not the reality all over the world. Some of your students might have been taught that they receive and process information, but that they are not in the position to make statements of their own or have the authority to teach others. Therefore, putting their thoughts down on paper might feel formal, high-stakes even, for your students.

What are some tips for teaching ESL writing?

Regardless of the age and proficiency level of your students, or whether you’re teaching writing in an ESL or EFL classroom, there is a myriad of strategies that you have at your disposal.

Don’t underestimate the value of conducting needs assessments

When it comes down to how to teach writing skills, even if you are teaching a group that is considered a certain proficiency level, recognize that there is always going to be a range of experience and ability present. Spend time getting to know what your students have been exposed to and in what ways before deciding on your approach. Teach to the middle to ensure no one is left behind.

Check out the following sample needs assessment to get started:

Think about how you can lower learners’ affective filters

A large portion of all successful teaching comes from relationship-building. In addition to getting a true sense of your learners’ experience and abilities, try to understand their attitudes towards writing as a process and any challenges that might be borne from those attitudes. How can you increase your students’ comfort level? How can you engage the individuals sitting in front of you?

Check out these 5 ways to build rapport with your students when teaching English.

Think about how the writing task can act as a building block for other assignments

Learning how to write in another language can be intimidating, and even more so if your students don’t enjoy writing in the first place. When wondering how to teach writing to ESL/EFL students, think about how you can integrate writing more often and more seamlessly into your lesson plans. Instead of approaching writing in isolation, teach writing skills alongside other “more engaging” activities that students tend to enjoy more. Have your students participate in role-playing and storytelling activities that require writing but don’t make writing the focus of the activity. This is your chance to be sneaky and get your students to build their writing skills without even knowing!

Present opportunities to examine authentic, written language

Providing students with examples of the target language is non-negotiable, but challenge yourself to move beyond the sample texts in your curriculum where possible. Students might feel bored by the selected works in their textbooks – they need to recognize that written language is all around them. Pull from authentic texts that cover an array of topics that you know matter to your students to keep them enticed.

Try incorporating pop culture into your ESL classroom to spice up writing activities!

Lead with function over form in instruction, and then alter your focus

Students can be discouraged to find their paper covered with red ink, highlighting their fallacies. While it is important to provide corrective feedback, consider the purpose of the assignment before marking up the composition. Was the output comprehensible? Did it touch upon everything that you asked for? Focusing on both function (the purpose of the assignment) and the accuracy in form simultaneously can feel overwhelming. Choose your objectives carefully, make them known to the learners, and provide corrective feedback accordingly .

Choose writing activities that pertain to your students’ learning goals. For example, the following clip, from a BridgeUniverse Expert Series webinar , covers how to teach Business English students to write an email in English:

Consider formative assessment and reflective strategies

Whenever possible, assess student work periodically, examining the process with various checkpoints and iterations throughout, instead of just evaluating the final product. Writing is an iterative process, and students benefit greatly when offered opportunities to reflect on their process. Create opportunities for students to participate in self- and peer-revision processes, which in turn will result in more conscientious and focused writers.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for beginners?

It can feel challenging to come up with writing activities for learners with beginner proficiency, but with proper scaffolding , writing can be inclusive and participatory.

Try group writing processes in class to get students comfortable

Writers with beginner proficiency might default to a deficit mindset, believing that writing is inaccessible for them due to a dearth of vocabulary or experience, so when you start to look at how to teach writing in the ESL/EFL classroom, your first job is to inspire confidence and get students into a growth mindset. To get them comfortable with the writing process, engage them in group writing activities.

• Choose a familiar topic (or have your students choose a topic together), and explain that you are going to “group-author” a paragraph.
• Have the students share what they know about the topic, and you, as the teacher, act as the scribe, jotting down their thoughts in a central location.
• Continue gathering their ideas until everyone has shared, remembering to emphasize that this is a process and that there is no wrong contribution.
• Examine the individual contributions and note overlap: How can a few thoughts be grouped together? In the process, ask students to elaborate on what they meant and provide examples.
• Organize these preliminary thoughts to the best of your ability, involving the students and getting them to notice organizational structures and decipher between the main idea and details.
• After celebrating what you can refer to as the “first draft,” provide specific and limited ways to improve the piece. Did they include everything they thought was relevant to the topic? Could the paragraph benefit from additional cohesive devices? Do the subjects and verbs agree? Provide ample support in the form of examples, formulas, and sentence frames alongside the piece. Invite students to examine the paragraph and seek out these common mistakes (in partners or individually).
• Create your “final draft” together, and ensure that it’s displayed prominently in the space.

By engaging them in the writing process in this way, you are instilling habits that will aid them in writing autonomously when the time comes.

Make the most of brainstorming – both individually and with others

Have you ever had students tell you that they don’t know what to write? Students, particularly those at the beginner level, need ample time to think about the content before diving into the actual writing process . Emphasize the importance of brainstorming as a way to collect their thoughts and aid them in their writing. Engage students in different kinds of brainstorming activities, going beyond “write down what comes to mind.”

Consider Think-Pair-Share as a framework for brainstorming, where students take time to think independently about the topic, share their ideas with their peers, and then share aloud to a larger group. Typically, the sharing is done orally, but you could also consider the independent writing portion of the activity as “sharing” with a larger audience, just in written form.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for intermediate and advanced students?

Facilitate a two-way journal experience with your students.

Create a way for individual students to exchange their ideas with you in an informal way with a two-way journal . Have the students maintain a writing journal that you periodically collect to write comments and ask questions. The objective of this exchange is not to formally evaluate your students’ writing, but to gather intel about your students’ progress and connect with them as individuals. Within these exchanges, not only are you building and sustaining rapport, but you are also augmenting critical thinking and meta-cognitive skills with strategies like noticing and annotation.

Cultivate peer revision routines

Learning to write in a non-native language is as much a social process as it is a cognitive process. Involving students in peer revision activities can be incredibly beneficial in that students can learn from their peers (potentially those who are stronger writers than themselves) and develop the ability to think more critically about their own writing. While getting students to effectively participate in peer revision activities requires a lot of frontloading and the establishing of routine, it is the gift that keeps on giving. If you’re interested in facilitating peer revision with your students, consider the following as general guidelines:

• Start by determining your focus for the activity. What are you asking the students to do? Make it clear to the students what you’re looking for, and provide supports that they can use in the process (e.g., a checklist or rubric).
• Demonstrate how students would use the rubric, and go through the revision process as a group.
• Provide sample pieces to examine, and engage the students in discussion around the samples.
• Make sure that students are aware of what is considered appropriate and useful feedback through modeling. Have them practice, and give them feedback on their feedback.
• Monitor the peer review sessions and jump in as needed, ensuring the quality of feedback for all involved parties.
• Reflect on the peer feedback activity in whole-group format, asking students to share what they got from reading their peers’ work, defining areas that they excelled in and areas for improvement.

Timed writing

Once your students feel comfortable with the writing process and the structure at hand, consider different contexts that they’ll be writing in. Perhaps they are planning to take the TOEFL or the Pearson Test of English (PTE) and hope to study abroad, or maybe they’re about to enter the workforce and work collaboratively with others.

In either case, your students will need to demonstrate their ability to communicate their ideas in written form while adhering to time constraints . Plan timed writing activities for your students on a variety of topics and with different parameters. In a standardized test prep context, have students write under the same conditions as the test that they’re preparing to sit for.

Take a Micro-credential course in Teaching TOEFL Test Prep or Teaching PTE Test Prep to help students ace these high-stakes exams.

In a workforce development setting, illustrate a scenario in which an email from management warrants an urgent (and polished) response. In either context, examine the output and discuss strategies that the students used. Student output from timed activities provides fertile ground for examining accuracy in form. Walk students through noticing activities, and challenge them to remember their tendencies in subsequent timed writing tasks.

Teaching writing to ESL/EFL students requires commitment and perhaps a bit of innovation on the part of the teacher, but if done well, it can prove immensely useful in a globalized world, aiding individuals in self-expression and beyond.

In addition to writing, there’s another subject that can sometimes fill teachers with dread: grammar! Here are 7 simple strategies for teaching grammar to English language learners , so you can tackle this topic with confidence .

Linda D'Argenio

Linda D'Argenio is a native of Naples, Italy. She is a world language teacher (English, Italian, and Mandarin Chinese,) translator, and writer. She has studied and worked in Italy, Germany, China, and the U.S. In 2003, Linda earned her doctoral degree in Classical Chinese Literature from Columbia University. She has taught students at both the school and college levels. Linda lives in Brooklyn, NY.

• Getting Started
• Introduction
• The Teacher
• The Learner

Foreign Language Teaching Methods: Writing

Overview of l2 writing.

• The Nature of L2 Writing
• Design Principles
• Different Orthographies
• Classroom Considerations
• Computer-Mediated Communication
• Review and Reflect

1. Writing is a __________________ skill.

2. Writing should be taught for its own sake in the foreign language classroom because:

it is a prevalent form of communication in real life as well.

it may be helpful for students cognitively to have more time to plan their output and review what they want to say.

writing, especially creative assignments, may lead to higher levels of motivation in the students.

all of the above

3. Which of these statements is NOT true?

L1 writing skills will transfer to L2 writing skills among literate adult populations.

L2 writing needs to be built up in activity sets to develop sub-skills necessary for writing.

L2 writing can serve the same wide range of communicative functions as L1 writing.

L2 writing is a complex process, whereby learners have to pull together their knowledge of L2 lexicon, grammar, among other aspects of language.

Clear Answers

• In your last language class, how often did students write for the sake of learning to write and how often did students write in order to practice vocabulary or grammar?
• Look at a chapter in your current textbook and identify how writing is taught. Do the activities primarily teach "writing" as a support skill or as expressive communication (or a mixture of both)?
• Have you ever included group-writing projects in your teaching? What was the learners' experience with that activity? How did you set up the task and how did you evaluate the group's work?
• What would be your policy if your beginning language learners sought out native (or more advanced) speakers to help them improve their essay? Would you approve of their seeking out outside help? Why?

Discuss your answers to these questions with a small group of your peers.

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The Mediating Role of Critical Thinking Abilities in the Relationship Between English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Writing Performance and Their Language Learning Strategies

Maryam esmaeil nejad.

1 Department of English Language Education, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan Branch, Zanjan, Iran

Siros Izadpanah

2 Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan Branch, Zanjan, Iran

Ehsan Namaziandost

3 Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Branch, Shahrekord, Iran

Behzad Rahbar

4 Assistant Professor of Linguistics, Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Recent developments in the field of education have led to a renewed interest in the mediating role of critical thinking abilities (CTA) in the relationship between language learning strategies and the intermediate English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ writing performance. Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was run to homogenize the participants, and 100 intermediate learners out of 235 were selected. Then, two valid questionnaires of Ricketts’ Critical Thinking Disposition and Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning were administered. Having administered the questionnaires, the researchers asked the participants to sit for a writing test. The data collected from the questionnaires and as well as the scores of their writing performances were analyzed through SPSS (25.00). The results showed a significant relationship between (a) learning strategies and learners’ writing performances, (b) the sub-sets of learning strategies and learners’ writing performances, and (c) CTA and learners’ learning strategies. However, CTA did not play a mediating role in the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and writing performance. Based on the results of the study, one might also conclude that strategies seemed to play a more important role in the performance of learners especially their writing performances. Therefore, this study had useful contributions for students, teachers, and curriculum designers. Findings of this research could assist teachers to be aware of learners’ strategies in learning writing and help their students to be responsive to using learning strategies in their learning process and create a satisfactory learning context for using learning strategies. Therefore, learners were able to become independent and feel responsibility for their own learning. Secondly, curriculum developers could take advantage of the findings to include learning strategies training into the curriculum. As a result, students were able to use strategies in their learning process more easily and finally, the results might pave the way for improving the research findings.

Introduction

This study examined the relationships between writing performance and language learning strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, social, affective, memory-related, and compensation). It also intended to determine the relationship between intermediate English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ critical thinking abilities and their writing performances. There are some factors which could affect language learning strategies by learners. According to some researchers’ different variables such as age, gender, language proficiency, motivation, anxiety, aptitude, and cultural background affect using language learning strategies by students (e.g., Berridge, 2018 ; Esteves et al., 2021 ). However, a quick review of the global literature shows that little attention is given to the role of critical thinking in learners’ choice of learning strategies as well as their writing performances.

Recent developments in the field of critical thinking abilities have also led to a renewed interest in EFL learners’ writing performance ( Renatovna and Renatovna, 2021 ). It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the role of critical thinking abilities ( Warsah et al., 2021 ). Recently, the focus of the teacher-oriented viewpoint has changed to a learner-centered perspective ( Reshadi and Aidinlou, 2012 ; Al Sharadgah, 2014 ; Yaralı and Aytar, 2021 ). Learners are now in charge of their learning more than ever. In other words, more learners take more responsibility to make the best use of language learning strategies (LLSs) and be conscious of their own individual needs ( Teng, 2020 ; Parra et al., 2021 ). New learning strategies are introduced to the learners to develop their personable attainments in the language learning process ( Sutiani et al., 2021 ).

Learning strategies are made up of mental processes – thoughts or behaviors – that help learners understand, learn, or sustain new information ( Panahandeh and Esfandiar, 2014 ; Jiang et al., 2021 ). The concept of learning strategies plays a crucial role in the study of second or foreign language learning. Even though many studies have been done to implement learning strategies, the idea of learning strategies is still obscure. Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) , Rajaee Pitenoee et al. (2017) , and Chang et al. (2021) assert that the opinion behind learning strategies has not been critically examined because the concepts and definitions have been inconsistent so far. Critical thinking abilities play a significant role in language learning and teaching. Choosing critical thinking abilities, among other skills and strategies, is to help students do writing performance difficulties and teachers who try to help do their students’ writing performances.

In addition, few studies have been carried on to compare the learning strategies of cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective, memory-related strategies with writing performances. Besides, no studies, to the best knowledge of the researchers, had ever embarked on investigating the mediating role of critical thinking abilities in the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ writing performance and their learning strategies. A quick review of the global literature shows that little attention is given to the role of critical thinking abilities in learners’ choice of learning strategies and their writing performances.

In a nutshell, this study aimed to evaluate the mediating role of critical thinking abilities in the relationship between EFL learners’ writing performance and their language learning strategies.

Review of Literature

Learning strategies and writing performance.

Learning strategies are defined as “proceedings or stages used by a learner to comfort the attainment, storage, detection or use of information” ( Rigney, 1978 cited in Aslan, 2009 , p. 45). O’Malley and Chamot (1990) defined learning strategies as the particular thoughts or compartments that everybody uses to understand, learn, or maintain new information. On the other hand, Chamot (2004) , Bagheri (2015) , and Zarrinabadi et al. (2021) claim that learning strategies are the purposive thoughts and behavior that students take to earn a learning goal. More importantly, successful learners have their unique techniques to learn. Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) have been the first scholars who analyze the idea of successful language learning. This idea makes us more curious to discover more about the nature of the learning and learning process. Consequently, the majority of the research performed until now has been focusing on the detection, explanation, and categorization of learning strategies ( Pradhan and Das, 2021 ; Tran and Tran, 2021 ).

The relationship between language learning strategies (LLS) and writing performance (WP) has been the subject of much research over the last 20 years ( Goudarzi et al., 2015 ; Wale and Bogale, 2021 ). According to Green and Oxford (1995) , the picture is not crystal clear because a lot of research has focused on overall strategy use only and not considered individual strategy use or variations. In a study done by Saricoban and Saricaoglu (2008) in Turkey, it was found that compensation strategies had a positive correlation with academic achievement (p. 172) while affective strategies were negatively correlated. Students who used affective strategies were less successful than others. Griffiths (2004) , in a study at a private language school in Auckland, found that “there was a significant relationship between strategy use and language proficiency” (p. 82). The study showed that the “Advanced students reported a higher average frequency of use of each strategy than did elementary students” (p. 78). These studies imply that we can raise levels of proficiency by teaching these strategies. These studies may not have shown a clear causality in any direction between language proficiency and strategy use; however, it can be logically concluded that there are significant relationships between the two.

According to Oxford (1990) , learning strategies are categorized into direct and indirect strategies. Also, each category is divided into subcategories which are placed under the labels. Learners directly use direct strategies in the learning process to produce the target language. These strategies include memory strategies which are responsible for retrieving and storing information, cognitive strategies which learners use to process new information; and learners use compensation strategies to compensate for lack of enough knowledge in the target language ( Goudarzi et al., 2015 ; García-Sánchez and García-Martín, 2021 ; Zarrinabadi et al., 2021 ). As Oxford (1990) states, these strategies assist students to be more independent, identify their learning strengths and weaknesses, and be self-reliant in their language learning process. Therefore, learning strategies help learners to become competent in using a language. Based on Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995) , strategies are techniques or behaviors used unconsciously by learners to improve their understanding and use the target language. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) proposed a very comprehensive classification of learning strategies. Their tri-faceted classification is as follows:

• 1. Metacognitive strategies: It includes supervisory processes in planning for learning, supervising one’s understanding and production, and assessing to what extent individuals have achieved a learning goal.
• 2. Cognitive strategies: Mentally speaking, manipulating the materials to be learned through interaction by visualizing mental pictures or connecting the material with the previously known items. Physically speaking, categorizing the things to be learned meaningfully or summarizing the essential items to be known.
• 3. Social-affective strategies: Learner’s interact with others to look for help in learning, such as posing questions for cooperation or using some affective to control learning.

Critical Thinking Abilities and Writing Performance

In modern society, even in everyday life, people frequently need to deal with complicated public and political issues, make decisions, and solve problems ( Bagheri, 2015 ; Zarrinabadi et al., 2021 ). To do this efficiently and effectively, citizens must evaluate critically what they see, hear, and read. Although a massive amount of printed material is available in all areas in the age of “information explosion,” it is still easy to feel overwhelmed. But the information piled up on people’s desks and in their minds is of no use due to the enormous amount of it. Thus, they need to read selectively and sort out the bits and pieces that are interesting and useful for them. To do so, strong critical reading and critical thinking skills are indispensable ( Morgan and Shermis, 1994 ).

Writing is a complex process that needs much effort to be completed. Numerous researchers believe that writing is a skill that requires learning and practicing ( Fathi et al., 2019 ; Neimaoui, 2019 ; Wale and Bogale, 2021 ). Also, Langan (1987) , Reid (1993) , and El-Freihat and Al-Shbeil (2021) , note that writing is a craft skill that can be taught and learned. For effective writing in EFL classrooms, ELT practitioners ( Badger and White, 2000 ; Paltridge, 2004 ; Rahayu, 2021 ) suggest three following approaches: product, process, and genre. According to Zamel (1983) , Liu and Hansen (2002) , and Indah (2017) , the process approach focuses on the composing process, whereby writers express their notions as they attempt to transfer the meaning. According to Gabrielatos (2002) and Hall (2017) , a product approach is a traditional approach, in which students are motivated to copy a model text while the genre approach is the newcomer and an outcome of the communicative language teaching approach. The readers are at the center of this approach since its readership must successfully accept it.

The word “writing” means the text in written form in the process of thinking, constructing, and coding language into such text ( Tabibian and Heidari-Shahreza, 2016 ; Irzawati et al., 2021 ; Namaziandost et al., 2021 ). Since writing is one of the skills in first and second language learning, all skills have a relationship. As an instance, Harmer (1991) , Rahimi and Karbalaei (2016) , Taghinezhad et al. (2018) , and Yan (2018) believe that one skill cannot be carried out without the other, and it is impossible to communicate without listening, and people seldom write without reading.

The relation between writing and thinking is that writing is thinking if one cannot think clearly, one cannot write clearly. Writing develops thinking skills. It improves the thinking process and contributes to the development of thinking skills because an individual has to clearly state ideas and lay out arguments in such a way as to cultivate higher order of thinking. Regarding the relationship between both, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (1956 in Errihani, 2012 ; Jiang et al., 2021 ; Wale and Bogale, 2021 ) is suggestive in the context of English as a Foreign Language as it contends that cognitive activity is determined by language. The cognitive activity can be reflected in written text and later be understood well by the audience determined by the strength of the language ( Díaz Larenas et al., 2017 ; Rahayu, 2021 ). Consequently, the primary concern of second language (L2) writers is primarily on linguistics, as noted by Errihani (2012) . Therefore, critical thinking ability reflects their linguistic skill represented by their writing, which reflects the background knowledge.

The Relationship Between Critical Thinking Abilities and Learning Strategies

Literature on the relationship between critical thinking and language learning strategies is not much. However, a number of studies have been conducted so far. In a survey conducted by Nikoopour et al. (2011) , they surveyed the relationship between CTA and the use of LLS by Iranian language learners. Their findings reveal a significant correlation between direct and indirect LLS such as cognitive, meta-cognitive, and social with critical thinking. At the same time, no relationship was discovered between CTA and memory, compensation, and affective strategies. In another study by Ku (2009) , they aimed to examine the role of meta-cognitive strategies in critical thinking. Based on the findings, “good critical thinkers” are more active in meta-cognitive activities.

Although critical thinking ability is not directly measurable and is not easy to teach, there is always a chance to enhance these strategies through deliberate teaching ( Willingham, 2007 ; Nikoopour et al., 2011 ; Mosley et al., 2016 ). Learning strategies can develop and improve it ( Loving and Wilson, 2000 ; Seymour et al., 2003 ). The teacher is responsible for its development ( Choy and Cheah, 2009 ). Willingham (2007) stated that one of the fundamental purposes of education is to enable students to think critically, but this goal is incompetently met. As the 21st century is the age of information technology, critical thinking abilities are a crucial requirement to select and evaluate the reliability of the information ( Grabau, 2007 ). Asian students lack the required skill as it is not commonly emphasized in schools ( Egege and Kutieleh, 2004 ; Djiwandono, 2013 ). Learning activities have been used to develop the critical thinking skills of the learners for years. Literature suggests cooperative learning is very fruitful for developing students’ social skills, language acquisition, and academic achievement and fostering critical thinking skills ( Ghaith, 2003 ; Sadeghi, 2012 ). Students who learn through strategies have a chance to develop their thinking. Students’ face-to-face interaction promotes critical thinking abilities ( Fahim and Eslamdoost, 2014 ). Group discussions effectively stimulate and develop ideas, which is the first requirement of critical thinking abilities ( Devi et al., 2015 ). The student’s critical thinking abilities can be enhanced through cooperative learning. In collaborative learning, students have a chance to group discussion, evaluate and synthesize the information, and consider the solution as students are responsible for their learning. Cooperative learning promotes interaction among students, which helps develop critical thinking abilities ( Devi et al., 2015 ; Mahmoodi and Dehghannezhad, 2015 ).

This study examined the relationships between writing performance and language learning strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, social, affective, memory-related, and compensation). This study also intended to determine the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking abilities and their writing performances. Based on the analysis, one might also conclude that strategies seemed to play a more important role in learners’ performance, especially their writing performances. Therefore, this study had valuable contributions for students, teachers, and curriculum designers.

All in all, reviewing the literature so far indicates that the impact of CTA on language skills and sub-skills has not received as much attention as warranted. Moreover, rare studies, if any, have been done in this regard Iranian context. Thus, to cover these gaps, the researchers aim to explore if CTA has any role in the relationship between language learning strategies and the intermediate EFL learners’ writing performance. To this purpose, the following research questions were proposed:

• 1. Is there any significant relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their writing performances?
• 2. Is there any significant relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ cognitive strategy (CS), metacognitive strategy (MS), social strategy (SS), affective strategy (AS), compensation strategy (CS), memory-related strategy (MS), and their writing performances?
• 3. Is there any significant relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking abilities and writing performances?
• 4. Is there any significant relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their critical thinking?
• 5. Does critical thinking ability play a mediating role in the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and writing performances?

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The participants of this study were 235 male and female Iranian EFL learners at different language institutes in Zanjan, Iran who were selected based on the convenience sampling method. Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was run to make the participants homogeneous, and 100 learners were selected as the final participants. According to the OPT, 37 people had advanced level scores and 98 people had elementary level scores who were excluded from the study. That is, low- and high-level average scores based on the OPT were summarized and included in the study [Mean (SD) = 37.5 ± 9.15]. The selected participants were all EFL intermediate learners at language institutes ranging from 18 to 35 years of age. More details about the participants can be seen in Table 1 .

Demographic characteristics of the participants.

Instruments

In line with the purposes of this research, three instruments were used:

• (1) OPT: To meet the purposes mentioned above, at first, a language skill test version 2, including 60 items matching cloze passages and multiple-choice questions were managed to sure the concord of the learners. The test items most focused on grammar and vocabulary. The participants were given 30 min to answer. Those learners whose scores fell between 30 and 39 were considered intermediate ones.
• (2) Critical Thinking Dispositions Questionnaire ( Ricketts, 2003 ) : Used to measure the intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking disposition. The questionnaire contained 33 statements on the Likert 5-point scale. The minimum mean and maximum scores that could be achieved were 33, 99, and 145. Three sub-components of the questionnaire are creativity with 11 sentences, sophistication with nine statements, and dedication with 13 statements. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the invention, sophistication, and commitment subcomponents are 0.64, 0.53, and 0.82, respectively. The reliability coefficient of the instrument was stated to be approximately 0.76 by PakMehr et al. (2010) .
• (3) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning Questionnaire ( Oxford, 1990 ) : The following inventory included in this analysis was the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire used to classify LLS students. The SILL questionnaire was developed by Oxford (1990) and was used without alteration in this research. It comprised 50 items that included six types of LLSs: recall strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. The questionnaire was a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from 1 ( Never or almost never true of me ), 2 ( Usually not true of me ), 3 ( somewhat true of me ), 2 ( usually true of me ), and 5 ( always or almost always true of me ).

Writing Performance

In order to measure the writing performance of the participants, they were asked to sit for a writing exam in the class. An argumentative topic titled “Using a computer every day can have more negative than positive effects on your children. Do you agree or disagree?” was introduced to the intermediate learners to compose a well-formed essay.

There were many different types of rubrics in the literature for assessing writings. One of the appropriate scales for rating the writing of learners was Cooper’s (1997) scale. This rubric includes different criteria for assessing learning writing performance. Cooper’s (1997) checklist is shown below:

Rating scales covered “Task Achievement,” “Coherence and Cohesion,” “Lexical Resource,” and “Grammatical Range and Accuracy.”

In the holistic grading method, as illustrated in Figure 1 , the reader assigns a single score from 0 to 6 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) to an essay based on overall writing quality.

Cooper’s classification of writing rating scale. 6, outstanding; 5, very good; 4, good; 3, adequate; 2, less than adequate; 1, poor; 0, no substantive response.

Each essay was scored based on the four scales of “Task Achievement,” “Coherence and Cohesion,” “Lexical Resource,” and “Grammatical Range,” and “Accuracy.” In the end, the average of the five scales showed the last score given to any essay by each rater. Subsequently, the average score given by the two raters represented the writer’s final score.

In order to obtain fair answers to the study questions alluded to above, the following steps have been taken. First, the OPT was spread among EFL students from different institutes in Zanjan to assess the participants’ homogeneity and choose advanced language learners. One hundred participants receiving scores from 30 to 39 were selected as the final sample. Second, the Critical Thinking Dispositions Questionnaire (CTDQ) ( Ricketts, 2003 ) was distributed among the intermediate EFL learners. The CTDQ questionnaire included 33 Likert items. Moreover, the Approach Inventory questionnaire ( Oxford, 1990 ) for language learning was administered to the selected intermediate learners. It was a 50-item questionnaire with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never applies to me) to 5 (always or almost always applies to me).

Afterward, the participants were asked to sit for an essay writing test. An argumentative topic entitled “Using a computer every day can have more negative than positive effects on your children. Do you agree or disagree?” was introduced to the intermediate earners to compose a well-formed essay on. Two raters scored all the essays based on Cooper’s (1997) rubric scale. The average score given by the two raters accounted for the learners’ final writing score. In the end, the scores of their writing performances and the data gathered from the SILL and Critical Thinking Disposition questionnaires were put into SPSS version 25 to be calculated.

The study was an ex-post-facto design since there were no treatments at all. Having collected the results, the researchers recorded the scores in computer files for statistical analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0. After homogenizing the students as intermediate, to measure the relationship between the variables (SILL and SILL components and writing performance), since the normality was met, seven Pearson correlation tests were conducted. In addition, another Pearson correlation test was run to find if there was a significant relationship between critical thinking abilities and writing performance. Furthermore, the Pearson correlation test was conducted to measure the relationship between learning strategies and intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking abilities as a whole. Finally, to figure out whether critical thinking abilities would play a mediating role in the relationship between learning strategies and writing performance, the Sobel test was used.

This study aimed at investigating the mediating role of critical thinking abilities in the relationship between learning strategies, including cognitive, meta-cognitive, memory-related, compensation, social, and affective strategies, and intermediate EFL learners’ writing performance. First of all, it was necessary to check the normality distribution. Thus, a One-Sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test was run.

Based on the statistics in Table 2 , all the p -values are higher than 0.05 ( p > 0.05), it, thus, can be concluded that all the variables benefit from a normal distribution. Accordingly, the researchers are allowed to utilize parametric analysis of the data. The research questions of this study are answered in this part. The related descriptive analysis of all variables will be discussed before defining the inferential analysis:

Normality tests: One-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test.

As Table 3 shows, regarding the number of participants ( N = 100), the mean and the SD of writing performance are 4.22 and 3.27, respectively. The means for critical thinking abilities and learning strategies are 112.56 and 195.20, respectively.

Descriptive statistics of the research variables.

First of all, regarding the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their writing performances, the results of Pearson correlation displayed in Table 4 [ r (98) = 0.865, p < 0.05 representing a large effect size] it can be concluded that there was a significant relationship between learning strategies and writing performance.

Pearson correlation: Learning strategies with writing performances.

Moreover, considering the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ CS, MS, SS, AS, CS, MS, and their writing performances, a Pearson correlation was run, which shows that there was a significant relationship between EFL learners’ CS, MS, SS, AS, CS, MS, and their writing performance ( p < 0.05) ( Table 5 ).

Pearson correlation: CS, MS, SS, AS, CS, and MS with writing performances.

In addition, to check the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking abilities and their writing performances, the Pearson correlation analysis in Table 6 [ r (98) = 0.843, p < 0.05] indicates that the relationship between critical thinking abilities and writing performance was significant.

Pearson correlation: CTA with writing performances.

Furthermore, regarding the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their critical thinking abilities, Pearson correlation results show a significant relationship ( p < 0.05) ( Table 7 ).

Pearson correlation: CTA with learning strategies.

Lastly, considering the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their writing performances, the following conceptual model was used to illustrate the direct impact of learning strategies on writing performance.

As it is shown, the direct impact of learning strategies on writing performance is 0.847, with the SD of 0.05. Regarding the fact that p < 0.05, it is believed that direct impact is significant. The conceptual model below shows the mediating role of critical thinking abilities in the relationship between learning strategies and writing performance:

As depicted above, the impact of the mediating role of CTA on writing performance was 0.035, with the SD of 0.024. Since p > 0.05, it is concluded that the impact of CTA on writing performance is not significant. As also illustrated above, the impact of learning strategies on CTA is 6.057, with the SD of 0.209. Because p < 0.05, it is concluded that the impact of learning strategies on CT is significant. Besides, the impact of learning strategies on writing performance, with the mediating role of CTA, is 0.638, SD = 0.152. Regarding the p -value, which is less than 0.05 ( p < 0.05), it is concluded that the impact of learning strategies on writing performance, with the mediating role of CTA, is not significant because the Z value of the Sobel test is 1.46 and p > 0.14. Thus, CTA does not play a mediating role in the relationship between learning strategies and writing performance.

As stated earlier, this study made an effort to find answers to all research questions concerning the relationship between the three variables CTA, learning strategies, and writing efficiency. Reasonable methods have been used to obtain the answers needed for each question. The study found that high CTA students outperformed low CTA students. Cognitive and metacognitive techniques are not independent; they operate together as learners undertake the process of writing.

Both learning strategies and CTA played an essential role in students’ writing performance. CTA is highly related to writing performance, and it was proved those with high CTA did better in their writing performance, especially when the subject was a bit controversial. Furthermore, it was shown that utilizing learning strategies would improve learners’ writing performance. In other words, the more use of strategies, the better scores in writing performance.

As seen before, the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their writing performance was significant. In addition, the relationships between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies subsets, including cognitive, metacognitive, affective, social, memory-related, and compensation strategies, and their writing strategies were all significant, meaning all the six subsets were significantly correlated with writing performances. The result of this study is in line with the studies done by Chamot (2004) , Berridge (2018) , Al-Jarrah et al. (2019) , Teng (2020) , Chang et al. (2021) , and Parra et al. (2021) in that metacognitive strategies together with its subsets of planning, organizing, and evaluating strategies are related to EFL learners’ writing performances. Besides, this study also confirmed the findings of Pradhan and Das (2021) and Tran and Tran (2021) that there was a positive correlation between English academic achievement and metacognition. In harmony with Teng (2020) and Jiang et al. (2021) , metacognitive strategies could yield the highest mean scores of EFL learners’ writing performances.

In congruence with the finding of Yan (2018) , García-Sánchez and García-Martín (2021) , and Parra et al. (2021) , this study showed a positive correlation between cognitive and metacognitive strategies of learners with their writing performances. Compatible with the findings of Díaz Larenas et al. (2017) and Rahayu (2021) , this study also showed that metacognitive and cognitive strategies would benefit EFL learners’ writing performance.

As Díaz Rodríguez (2014) asserts, this study also illustrated that cognitive and metacognitive strategies are not independent from one another; they work together while the learner is performing the task of writing. Following Rajaee Pitenoee et al.’s (2017) outcome, cognitive and metacognitive strategies would affect Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ writing performance. Meanwhile, in line with Azizi et al. (2017) , this study also confirmed that metacognitive strategies would contribute to higher proficiency in writing. In addition, as Tabrizi and Rajaee (2016) and Tran and Tran (2021) put forward, this study also concluded that cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies would help learners improve their writing. Besides, in agreement with Panahandeh and Esfandiar (2014) , this study showed that metacognitive strategies were positively correlated with writing performance.

However, as opposed to Rahimi and Karbalaei (2016) , who did not find any relationship between the use of metacognitive strategies and writing performance of EFL Iranian learners, this study concluded that metacognitive strategies were highly correlated with writing performance. Compatible with the findings of Goudarzi et al. (2015) and Wale and Bogale (2021) , the results of this study depicted that metacognitive awareness strategies highly affect achievement scores, and there was a significant correlation between metacognitive awareness strategies and their task performance.

Concerning the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ CTA and their writing performance’, it was revealed that intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking abilities were significantly correlated with writing version. As Neimaoui (2019) , Renatovna and Renatovna (2021) , and Saenab et al. (2021) claim, this study justified that critical thinking ability plays a significant role in EFL learners’ writing performances. Furthermore, consistent with the finding of Hall (2017) and Warsah et al. (2021) , this study concluded that critical thinking abilities could lead to an improvement in EFL learners’ writing performances. Moreover, in agreement with Indah (2017) and Yaralı and Aytar (2021) , this study also stated that EFL learners’ writing performance was influenced by critical thinking. Furthermore, in line with Al Sharadgah (2014) , this study also depicted that those benefiting from a high level of critical thinking abilities would show a more remarkable improvement in their writing. In line with Taghinezhad et al. (2018) , this study proved that critical thinking abilities would improve students’ writing performance. This study also corroborated Golpour’s (2014) finding that critical thinking abilities would play a crucial part in learners’ writing performance. In other words, high critical thinkers were better in writing compared to low critical thinkers.

Considering the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their critical thinking, it was shown that these two variables were significantly correlated. This study is in line with Bagheri (2015) and Zarrinabadi et al. (2021) , who reported a significant relationship between CTA and language learning strategies. Besides, this study also confirmed Nikoopour et al. (2011) . They surveyed the relationship between CTA and the use of language learning strategies by Iranian language learners. Their findings revealed a significant correlation between cognitive, meta-cognitive, and social strategies with critical thinking. However, as opposed to the results of this study, no relationship was discovered between CTA and memory, compensation, and affective strategies. Besides, congruent with the findings of Ku and Ho (2010) , this study found “good critical thinkers” are more active in meta-cognitive activities. Furthermore, this study proved Mahmoodi and Dehghannezhad’s (2015) findings that there was a significant and positive correlation between CTA and language learning strategies.

Regarding the mediating role of critical thinking abilities in the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their writing performances’, based on the statistical analysis, it was affirmed that CTA did not play a mediating role in the relationship between intermediate EFL learners’ learning strategies and their writing performances. As opposed to the researcher’s expectations, and as opposed to the fact that CTA was correlated with both learning strategies and writing performance, this study did not prove that CTA plays a significant role in the relationship between the other two variables. In other words, and surprisingly speaking, CTA does not guarantee the learners’ improvement in their writing performance.

In the present research, an effort was made to examine the importance of CTA to learners in general and their writing output in particular. As stated earlier, this analysis concluded that there was a significant association between CTA and the writing achievement of EFL intermediate learners. In addition, there was a significant association between learning methods and writing achievements. Furthermore, there was a significant association between the six subgroups of learning strategies and writing results. It was concluded that all the sub-sets of cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, social, affective, and compensation strategies were highly correlated with writing performance, meaning the use of these strategies would lead to a better performance in the task of writing. In addition, as opposed to what the researcher had envisaged, it was proved that although CTA had correlations with both writing performance and learning strategies, it did not play a mediating role in the relationship between learning strategies and writing performance of intermediate EFL learners.

The present study’s findings have shown that more concentration should be placed on critical thinking abilities to enhance students’ academic writing performance. Based on the outcomes of the study, it could be concluded that students benefiting from a very high level of CTA did better in their performances than those lacking such a high degree. The findings of this study demonstrate that the students could be more prosperous in their performances if they learn to think critically and if they are aware of the strategies. This attitude can be helpful for all Iranian English students who wish to be competent in perfect performances, especially in their writing performances.

The construction of CTA and learning methods has given rise to looking at teaching, training, and evaluation differently. Taking into account students’ needs, desires, and abilities, CTA pedagogy provides resources for authentic learning. The findings of this study depict that the students could be more successful writers if they boost their CTA and their learning strategy use. This can help all Iranian English students who long to be proficient in perfect performances in their writing tasks. In addition, educators can forecast effective language behaviors by defining CTA learner profiles at various stages of growth. Teachers must also understand that different CTA-level learners vary in their learning. Teachers might benefit from the study’s findings to realize their students’ levels of CTA, and their use of learning strategies would help them develop a sense of competence while being prepared for a performance. CTA is a vital tool that would alleviate writing performance and operate as a practical way to improve the quality of language learning.

In the first place, the results of this study can help teachers know learners’ plans in learning writing and assist their students in being responsive to use learning plans in their learning steps and creating a good learning context for using learning plans. Thus, students can become self-sufficient and accept responsibility for their learning. Secondly, curriculum developers may take advantage of the findings to include learning strategies training into the curriculum. As a result, students can use strategies in their learning process more efficiently. The current study can also assist in solving the problems of EFL teachers and learners in enhancing the level of cognitive and meta-cognitive abilities. The results may apprise educators that assisting learners in increasing their level of analysis and monitoring in learning is vital in learning.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Experiences Essay

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Teachers hold a critical but significantly undervalued purpose in modern society. With the wider availability of information and developing communication technology, the perception and role of teachers are rapidly changing. There are various challenges as well as rewards that are inherent to the job. In order to grow and improve as a teacher and a person, it is essential to reflect on my personal feelings and education practices that define them as a unique instructor.

Being a teacher is a lot of responsibility and accountability. Those with any experience of education realize that the job requires not only the mastery of the subject being taught but also an understanding of human psychology, necessity to maintain self-control, and upkeeping utmost organization. To be honest, it is overwhelming and exhausting at times. However, the job brings incredible satisfaction and tremendous pride in the profession. There is the excitement of planning and executing projects with your class or taking advantage of a new teaching method that a more experienced educator has shared. The most rewarding moment is seeing a student’s eyes light up after comprehending a complicated topic that they have struggled with and finally understanding how a concept works.

I have had a variety of teaching experiences, ranging from working as a tutor to coaching tennis. In each position, there were nuances and learning curves in the teaching process and approach to students. However, once I became accustomed to the job, it became a passion. The famous maxim attributed to Confucius, “choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life” applies to my experience with teaching. The profession fits with my identity of helping people and giving back to the community. Good teaching is more than a simple transfer of information and skill. It is based on empowerment and support for students, as a teacher can provide the opportunity and confidence to apply their knowledge. I believe that teaching fits perfectly with my caring and supportive character that seeks to empower others to achieve their objectives.

Through this course, I have been able to learn about a wide variety of practices for teaching English as a foreign language. Linguistics can be quite difficult, and it requires an approach that would maintain student interest and encourage participation. Some of the sessions in the course that focused on needs analysis and exploiting dialogue are techniques that can be tactically applied in a learning environment. They increase participation and student awareness of the practicality for their knowledge of English. The use of “do-it-yourself” grammar lessons that encourage independent thinking and utilization of learned knowledge is an effective method to support the difficult acquisition of English grammar. Furthermore, I would like to practice certain techniques such as gamification or the “teach-back” approach that would provide some diversification to traditional instruction methods and would be used to reinforce specific concepts.

I believe that there are no wrong teaching methods. In a real-life classroom situation, one can never know what particular approach can be helpful for individual students to understand a concept. However, there are some aspects that I believe would be inappropriate in teaching English as a foreign language. For example, relying on self-learning as the foundation for language learning (as it is commonly done in many college courses) is ineffective since it would discourage the systematic approach necessary in linguistics. Furthermore, I believe that placing students in situations where they would feel forced or uncomfortable to perform dialogues should be done with caution to prevent discouragement. Language acquisition is a long-term process which should occur naturally and supported by the classroom teaching methodology.

Overall, teaching is my passion, and I look forward to being able to practice it on a daily basis. Participation in the Peace Corps teaching program will also provide me with an opportunity to make a difference in the world and empower individuals with knowledge of critical language skills. Despite the possible challenges that come with the position, I remain optimistic as it will help to contribute to my personal growth as well.

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IvyPanda. (2021, June 26). Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Experiences. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-english-as-a-foreign-language-experiences/

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IvyPanda . 2021. "Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Experiences." June 26, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-english-as-a-foreign-language-experiences/.

1. IvyPanda . "Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Experiences." June 26, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-english-as-a-foreign-language-experiences/.

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IvyPanda . "Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Experiences." June 26, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/teaching-english-as-a-foreign-language-experiences/.

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Foreign Language IELTS Essay: IELTS Writing Task 2 Essay Samples

• Last Updated On July 30, 2024
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Writing Task 2 of the IELTS exam has displayed a large variety of questions over the years. However, there are still some general themes and topics that are often repeated in IELTS Writing Task 2. One of these recurring themes is the learning foreign language essay.

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In this theme, you can be asked to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of learning a different language belonging to any foreign country. Additionally, you can also be asked to express your own opinion on the topic. This blog shares detailed information about the Foreign Language IELTS essay, which is one of the widely asked essay topics for IELTS.

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Before we get deeper into the topic and start discussing model answers, let’s walk through some general tips that can help you leave a good impression on the examiner about your English language skills in IELTS writing task 2 topics.

Tips to Ace the Foreign Language Essay Writing Task 2 IELTS

Although you can find an endless number of relevant examples for the essay writing task in IELTS, there really is no fixed format that can guarantee you a good band score in the writing section. So, what really works in helping you get a good score in task 2?

• A strong introduction and conclusion that are in coherence with the topic assigned: This will immediately get your examiner hooked onto the paragraphs written inside your piece and will leave a great impression on them!
• Use of refined vocabulary along with excellent use of grammar: Making use of good (and sometimes complex) vocabulary accompanied by an accurate usage of the English grammar is a pre-requisite for getting a good score in writing. It shows the examiner that your own knowledge of the language is vast.
• Providing relevant examples from different parts of the world: Many aspirants miss out on supporting their arguments along with good examples from either their own country or a different country. This leads to them losing out on marks in task 2.

Following these three tips will really catapult your writing task 2 score, which will have a greater impact on your overall band score for the writing section. To make the application of these tips more clear, let’s take a look at some of the sample answers for the foreign language theme.

Foreign Language IELTS Essay Samples

Question – Some people believe that the only reason for learning a new/foreign language is for travelling or working in a foreign land. While others argue that there are many more reasons as why someone should learn a new language apart from their native language. You have to discuss both these arguments and give your own opinion on the following topic. Make sure to give reasons for your answers and provide examples. Minimum word limit – 250 words

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Sample Answer 1

Learning a second language or a foreign language is linked to many advantages that far surpass the sole reasons of learning a new language for travelling or working in a foreign land. However, for the sake of playing the devil’s advocate, I’ll say that some people belonging to a different school of thought consider better job opportunities and travelling to be the only motive behind learning a foreign language. I am of the opinion that there are other reasons like learning about a foreign culture, and the bright prospect of cognitive development that propel many monolingual people to study a new language. With ever-increasing globalization and the opening up of international barriers, more and more people choose to emigrate to new and foreign lands in the hope of better job prospects. This often requires them to learn a new tongue. For instance, many people prefer learning languages like English, Spanish, and French, rather than the Russian language because countries speaking the former tongues have shown more affinity towards emigrants and provide a multitude of better job opportunities. This makes many people believe that jobs and sometimes travel are the only driving forces for learning a new tongue, especially for a young learner. On the other hand, some people including myself have researched the pros and cons of learning a foreign language thoroughly and have found that the pros far outweigh the drawbacks. The onset of memory ailments like dementia can be slowed down by cognitive development that comes with learning a foreign language. Furthermore, multilingual people are more confident and can easily acclimate themselves to new and alien surroundings by the virtue of their communication skills that have been expanded and upscaled. They find it easy to overcome language barriers and truly become global citizens speaking the global language. In conclusion, to go through the tough process of honing effective communication skills in a third language or a second language, people realise that it is not just for the sake of travel or work that they are doing this process. Instead, it stems from a deeper love for the language and the confidence that speaking a new tongue instills in them. Question – When living in a foreign country where you have to speak a new language, you can face serious social and practical problems. To what extent do you agree or disagree? Give reasons and examples in your answer and write at least 250 words.

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Sample Answer 2

Language barriers arguably form the backbone of the biggest social and practical problems that people living in a foreign land have to face and overcome often. In my personal opinion, it can also spark serious problems in various countries, however, the widespread use of technology in curbing these issues to a certain extent over the past few decades. People belonging to different cultures can have issues in understanding each other because of speaking different languages and sometimes even because of different ways of pronunciation of the same words. Migration is not on the rise in the twenty-first century and people often move to distant lands in hopes of jobs, travel, and sometimes studying. In such a scenario not speaking the land’s language can become a basis for social problems like discrimination, racism, etc. Interestingly enough, technology has played a pivotal role in curbing the extent of practical problems faced by people when moving to a new land without being savvy with the foreign language. For instance, there are many web-based applications that do the translation job for people and save them the trouble of having to explain their point to the natives merely through vague hand gestures.

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By way of conclusion, I stand firm on the point that social problems can far exceed practical problems when migrating to a foreign land without being fluent in the foreign language and perhaps, some language learning could really help in becoming a part of the foreign culture quicker and better. Although, as far as practical problems are concerned, technology is a boon that is eliminating most of them.

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2. What is the ideal format for IELTS writing task 2?

Ans: There is no single ideal format for writing. As you practice you will notice that for different themes, you can have many different formats. You should use the one you’re most confident with in the exam.

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Incorporating AI in foreign language education: An investigation into ChatGPT’s effect on foreign language learners

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• Fatih Karataş   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9633-2939 1 ,
• Faramarz Yaşar Abedi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6740-3360 2   nAff3 ,
• Filiz Ozek Gunyel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3525-5137 4 ,
• Derya Karadeniz   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1495-7896 5 &
• Yasemin Kuzgun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2620-8427 6  

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ChatGPT, an artificial intelligence application, has emerged as a promising educational tool with a wide range of applications, attracting the attention of researchers and educators. This qualitative case study, chosen for its ability to provide an in-depth exploration of the nuanced effects of AI on the foreign language learning process within its real-world educational context, aimed to utilize ChatGPT in foreign language education, addressing a gap in existing research by offering insights into the potential, benefits, and drawbacks of this innovative approach. The study involved 13 preparatory class students studying at the School of Foreign Languages at a university in Turkey. The students were introduced to ChatGPT through learning experiences over a span of four weeks by the researcher as a language teacher. The qualitative data collected from the interviews were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings suggest that ChatGPT positively affects students’ learning experiences, especially in writing, grammar, and vocabulary acquisition, and enhances motivation and engagement through its versatile and accessible nature in various learning activities. These insights contribute to understanding the utility and constraints of employing ChatGPT technology in foreign language instruction and can inform educators and researchers in developing effective teaching strategies and in designing curricula.

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1 Introduction

Unveiled in November 2022, ChatGPT is an advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) language model developed by OpenAI (OpenAI, 2023 ). It is built upon the foundation of the Generative Pre-trained Transformer-3 (GPT-3) (Korngiebel & Mooney, 2021 ). As a large language model (LLM), it boasts a staggering 175 billion parameters (Cotton et al., 2023 ; Topsakal & Topsakal, 2022 ; Wenzlaff & Spaeth, 2022 ; Zhai, 2022 ), enabling the generation of text responses akin to human-composed writing (Shen et al., 2023 ). Leveraging deep learning techniques like deep neural networks and deep belief networks, as well as cortical algorithms that outperform deep belief networks, ChatGPT uses advanced architectures and algorithms to efficiently train on large datasets, enabling complex hierarchical representations and transformations that power its capabilities across voice recognition, chatbots, search, and computer vision (Moshayedi et al., 2022 ; Rizk et al., 2019 ; Shrestha & Mahmood, 2019 ). Owing to these capacities, ChatGPT can exhibit a plethora of natural language-processing capabilities, which include resolving queries, spinning narratives, conducting logical assessments, debugging programming codes, and facilitating machine translation (Ouyang et al., 2022 ). Functioning as a general-purpose conversational agent, ChatGPT and other large language models have the potential to be indispensable tech-tools in various fields, including but not limited to education, healthcare, software engineering, content creation, translation, business, cost reduction, and customer service (Aljanabi, 2023 ; Brown et al., 2020 ; Gunawan, 2023 ).

The existing literature unveils an ever-growing curiosity about the influence of AI, notably ChatGPT, on language acquisition. The integration of these technologies into language teaching exhibits varied strategies and perceptions, indicating both benefits and limitations, especially in processing certain languages (Bao & Li, 2023 ; Moorhouse, 2024 ) and challenges in addressing deeper linguistic issues (Algaraady & Mahyoob, 2023 ).

Teacher and student perceptions of AI in language-learning environments present a nuanced picture. AI’s potential to enhance educational experience, as seen in studies by Guo and Wang ( 2023 ) and de Vicente Yagüe Jara et al. ( 2023 ), which emphasizes AI’s role in providing comprehensive feedback and fostering language skills, and varied opinions among faculty on its effectiveness (Mohamed, 2023 ) suggest a landscape of cautious optimism tempered by skepticism. Sociocultural factors significantly influence learners’ attitudes toward AI, as observed in studies of Korean middle school students (Kim & Lee, 2023 ), emphasizing the importance of contextual considerations in the adoption and integration of AI in educational settings.

The integration of AI into curriculum design and teaching methods suggests potential for innovation. Proposals for employing natural language processing and peer feedback within digital environments (Bauer et al., 2023 ) and the exploration of student-AI collaboration (Kim et al., 2022 ) indicate forward-thinking approaches to curriculum development. These strategies underscore the need for AI education and supportive environments to maximize the benefits of AI in language learning. In terms of language assessment and feedback, AI shows promise for enhancing core language skills (Ayotunde et al., 2023 ). Lee et al. ( 2023 ) highlighted the effectiveness of combining ChatGPT with prompt engineering in automatic question generation, suggesting a new avenue for creating educational content in English learning. However, limitations in identifying deep structural and pragmatic errors in learners’ writing (Algaraady & Mahyoob, 2023 ) call for a balanced approach that leverages AI capabilities, while recognizing the indispensable role of human expertise. Yang et al. ( 2023 ) delved into the dynamics of AI-generated feedback interaction, noting that Chinese EFL students prioritize error correction, a finding that complements discussions on feedback mechanisms in language learning. Similarly, Zaki et al. ( 2023 ) introduced an AI-based system for mapping learning outcomes, reinforcing AI’s utility beyond teaching and administrative tasks such as quality assurance in education.

Challenges and ethical considerations are significant to the discourse on AI in education. Concerns regarding academic integrity, the pedagogical implications of AI-generated texts (Barrot, 2023 ; Rawas, 2023 ), and the difficulties faced by ESL instructors in identifying AI-generated content (Alexander et al., 2023 ) highlight the complexities of incorporating AI into language learning frameworks. Furthermore, the potential impact of AI on job devaluation among language service providers necessitates a strategic approach for its adoption (Tavares et al., 2023 ).

Finally, the potential and limitations of AI, including generative tools such as ChatGPT, in enhancing language skills are evident. While such technologies offer valuable research applications and can improve writing quality (Marzuki et al., 2023 ), ethical concerns and the balance between innovation and responsible use remain critical considerations (Pack & Maloney, 2023 ). The literature thus delineates a landscape where AI’s contributions to language learning are significant, yet circumscribed by challenges that require careful navigation to ensure ethical, effective, and inclusive educational practices.

This study narrows down its lens to examine the employment of ChatGPT in the domain of foreign language learning. In doing so, it aims to fill an existing research gap, offering new insights regarding the possibilities, advantages, and challenges tied to ChatGPT. Tlili et al. ( 2023 ) states that while the use of ChatGPT within the educational field sparks debate, its proficiency in creating summaries, quizzes, and flashcards could bolster learning experiences (Khan et al., 2023 ). While ChatGPT can generate seemingly accurate and coherent text, concerns remain about the reliability and ethical use of its output, especially in academic contexts where it may enable plagiarism and undermine learning. (AlAfnan et al., 2023 ; Kung et al., 2023 ; Perkins, 2023 ). Therefore, this study investigated the effects of ChatGPT on students’ language learning experiences as well as their views on the various benefits and limitations of ChatGPT in foreign language education. Our study also explored the positive and negative aspects of ChatGPT’s implementation in the language class. By examining the students’ views on both the advantages and drawbacks of ChatGPT’s utilisation, our study provided an in-depth knowledge on the applicability and effectiveness of AI use in foreign language education. To comprehensively investigate the role of ChatGPT in foreign language learning, the study was guided by the following research questions:

How does the implementation of ChatGPT in foreign language learning affect students’ learning experiences?

This question aims to explore the impact of ChatGPT on various aspects of the foreign language learning process, including students’ engagement, motivation, and skill acquisition.

What strengths, challenges, and recommendations emerge from student perspectives on the use of ChatGPT for foreign language learning?

Through this question, the study seeks to gather insights on the perceived advantages and limitations of ChatGPT from the learners’ viewpoint, as well as suggestions for its effective integration into language education.

Ultimately, the findings from this study will illuminate the benefits and drawbacks of ChatGPT in foreign language instruction, guiding educators and researchers in the development of effective language teaching strategies.

2 Methodology

2.1 research design.

A qualitative case study design was used in this study. According to Yin ( 2009 ), a case study design is preferred for several reasons, such as: (1) conducting an in-depth examination of a situation within its actual context and temporal setting; (2) utilizing it to gain insights into new approaches, theories, or models for understanding cases. Cases are treated as a unit of analysis in the research, with the design process determining what constitutes a case (Patton, 2002 ). In this study, “students from different programs and with different language levels” were considered cases. In this context, the researchers examined ChatGPT’s effects on students’ language learning experiences. Additionally, they explored the tool’s advantages and drawbacks in foreign language education. Figure  1 illustrates the overall design and flow of the research.

Research design and flow

2.2 Study group

The study group consisted of 13 preparatory class students studying at the School of Foreign Languages at a foundation university in Ankara, Turkey. In the school of foreign languages, where the research was conducted, students take exams (formative assessments) every two months. This study used the scores from those regular exams instead of creating new ones. To this aim, a purposive sampling method—specifically, maximum variation sampling—was employed. According to Patton ( 2002 ), maximum variation sampling aims to reach common judgements and experiences starting from diversity. The reasoning is that students from various departments would enrich and diversify the data of the study. In addition, the diversity of the participants in terms of language proficiency was clearly emphasised by representing participants from all levels in the A2-B2 range in the sample. Since ChatGPT is an emerging technology, administrators at the university where the research was conducted were concerned about its implementation in classes. Consequently, they allowed researchers to use it only in a single classroom. Therefore, the research was conducted with volunteers from one researcher’s class. The reason for the online class was the state of emergency distance education after a massive earthquake hit Turkey on 6 February 2023. The demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table  1 .

As shown in Table  1 , the study group of the research included 10 female and 3 male students. All of the participants were aged between 18 and 20. Students from different departments, ranging from gastronomy to dentistry, constituted the study group. The students’ language levels ranged from A2 to B2 as described in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Additionally, while the personal information form did not include a question concerning the students’ previous experiences with using ChatGPT for learning a foreign language, most students reported using the tool for the first time for this purpose during face-to-face interviews.

2.3 Program description

The program aimed to actively engage students in online classes using ChatGPT while also guiding them in how to use the tool effectively for foreign language learning. ChatGPT was integrated into online reading, writing, grammar, and vocabulary classes, each lasting 45 min. Four lesson plans were tailored based on the four units of Reading Explorer 2 by National Geographic Publishing , which was used as the coursebook in Reading and Writing classes in the Foreign Languages Department of the university where the study was conducted. Additionally, teaching activities were designed by the researchers to empower students in enhancing their writing and grammar skills through the effective use of ChatGPT.

2.4 Teaching materials

During the four-week research period, the teaching materials included tailored lesson plans, slides, and ChatGPT. For the Reading and Writing lessons, the lesson plans were composed of the themes of “ City Life, Backyard Discoveries, When Dinosaurs Ruled , and The Brothers Grimm” . The students were encouraged to exploit ChatGPT to create ideas, make stories, or write sentences related to the reading topics or newly learned vocabulary. In writing classes, students were taught how to write a ChatGPT-assisted classification and a cause-and-effect essay through brainstorming ideas, making plans, and receiving written feedback. Finally, in ChatGPT-assisted grammar classes, students had the opportunity to practise past tenses, modals of deduction, reported speech, and noun clauses for fun grammar practice and for the consolidation of grammar presentations.

2.5 Language learning activities

The four-week ChatGPT-assisted English course encouraged students to effectively use the tool in online English lessons. The reading and writing lesson plans comprised of ChatGPT-assisted warm-up, pre-reading, reading comprehension, vocabulary practice, and wrap-up activities. ChatGPT was integrated into four lesson plans, and Fig.  2 shows the various ways students engaged with ChatGPT in different language learning activities.

ChatGPT integration in language learning activities

As Fig.  2 illustrates, students engaged with ChatGPT in various language learning activities. For example, in the first week, students used it to create social media posts for the “global cities” theme and to generate hashtags and captions. Figure  3 depicts the social media posts and hashtags two participants created for London and Brussels.

Social posts and hashtags created with ChatGPT

Similar to the activity presented in Fig.  3 , the students also used the tool to generate answers for questions related to target vocabulary to discuss with peers in breakout rooms. Similarly, as a wrap-up activity, the students worked in groups of two on a ChatGPT-assisted creative writing exercise. Each student in the group was given a prompt by the teacher, which they pasted into the ChatGPT to brainstorm, plan, and write a story. The students took notes on the story provided by ChatGPT and shared their stories with their partners in the breakout rooms in the online class. The students were encouraged to ask questions and engage in discussion about each other’s stories. In terms of prompts, the teacher provided students with prompts in the first week. However, in the following weeks, the students were encouraged to write their own prompts to foster independence and creativity. Moreover, regarding the use of ChatGPT, students were encouraged to use ChatGPT’s answers while also being guided to include original and responsible ideas in their responses.

2.6 Data collection and analysis process

The study conducted to examine the effectiveness of ChatGPT-assisted language learning on students’ learning experiences was granted an ethical approval by the Ethics Committee of the university where the research was conducted. Following this, the course instructor clearly explained the study’s purpose and data confidentiality to the students and obtained their consent. Thereafter, the students in the study group were subjected to a four-week series of activities implemented by the course instructor.

An abrupt shift from in-person classes to emergency distance education was mandated by the Council of Higher Education due to a devastating earthquake in Turkey. Therefore, this study and interviews were conducted online. Students participated in online classes using Microsoft Teams, while interview sessions were conducted using Zoom.

To schedule the interviews, participants were initially asked to fill out a Google Form to indicate their preferences. The interviews were then conducted in accordance with the time slots selected by the participants. Participants were provided with an overview of the research’s objectives, and their consent was obtained for their voluntary participation in the interview process, including video recording. Each interview lasted about 15–20 min, and there were no issues with video, audio, or presentation screens during the interviews.

The semi-structured interview form questions were developed and subsequently analysed within the framework of Yin’s ( 2011 ) understanding of case studies. Accordingly, (1) semi-structured interview questions were formulated in accordance with the research questions. Within the framework of the research questions, two review articles (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019 ; Yang & Kyun, 2022 ) that provide a broad perspective on artificial intelligence applications in foreign language learning were examined in detail in the formulation of semi-structured interview questions. Based on these studies, interview questions were developed around the themes of ‘ChatGPT in Foreign Language Learning’ encompassing its applications, impacts, benefits, drawbacks, and optimization in language learning (see Appendix 1 ). Moreover, they were asked for suggestions and recommendations on how to use ChatGPT more effectively in language classrooms. After the interviews, (2) the audio recorded interviews were transcribed in written forms, (3) multiple researchers were included in the analysis to establish a coding and category system suitable for the research questions (e.g., code: Limited aspects of ChatGPT. Category: Encourages taking the easy way out by providing information ready-made), (4) each researcher independently assigned the codes obtained from the transcription to the code-category system, (5) similarities and differences among the assigned codes were examined, (6) to ensure agreement between the two researchers doing the analysis, their coding systems were combined and any differences were reviewed and analyzed on a Microsoft Word file until they reached a common understanding, and (7) findings were reported.

2.7 Validity and reliability

Validity illustrates the extent to which research data is consistent with real life and is examined in two main categories: internal validity and external validity (Lucas, 2003 ). In qualitative research, credibility is the favored term for internal validity, while transferability is used for external validity. Credibility measures if the research findings are accurate and correct. Contrarily, external validity, or transferability, concerns the extent to which the research findings can be generalised to diverse contexts (Merriam, 2009 ).

To corroborate the credibility of the research, the preparatory class students forming the study group were introduced to ChatGPT through activities conducted over a span of four weeks by a researcher adept in the field of language education. Following this, four researchers with experience in language education prepared the semi-structured interview form based on experiences and feedback derived from the conducted training. The questions were reviewed for clarity and language by a panel of five experts, comprising three language educators and two specialists in education, resulting in necessary amendments.

During the preliminary application, post-interview observations confirmed no issues in understanding the research questions. Since no modifications were required for the questions, the data procured from the preliminary application interview was incorporated into the final application. After engaging in a prolonged interaction with ChatGPT, the students expressed their experiences and views via the interview form. Additionally, the researcher’s extended presence in the field facilitated critical interpretation from the participants’ perspectives while presenting the findings, thereby revealing patterns in a comprehensive manner.

The transferability of the research was secured through the application of the maximum variation sampling method, a purposeful sampling technique. Consequently, an examination of preparatory class students from various departments’ experiences regarding ChatGPT was conducted, intending to reflect diversity in the data by presenting disparate perspectives. The codes and themes are clearly exhibited to aid researchers working on similar topics. Moreover, the findings are meticulously depicted with direct quotations derived from the interview data.

In qualitative research, reliability refers to the consistency between the phenomena occurring in the real environment and the data researchers have acquired: in other words, the consistency between the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the data (Bogdan & Biklen, 2006 ). The data should be context-specific and articulated in a detailed and in-depth manner (Cohen et al., 2017 ). In this research, interviews were conducted immediately after the ChatGPT training sessions with participants to minimise the chances of their thoughts regarding ChatGPT deviating from the context and situation. Accordingly, researchers adopted a similar approach, posing identical questions to each participant. Moreover, all interviews were recorded for future verification of the data. Measures were taken to ensure students’ participation throughout the activities and interviews, and potential impacts from external factors were minimised through appropriate control measures. To enhance the internal reliability of the qualitative data collection process, the data was evaluated through inter-coder reliability (ICR). For this purpose, the data was independently coded by two researchers.

In this research, two researchers, who received their doctoral theses in curriculum & instruction and specialized in foreign language education, demonstrated their proficiency in qualitative data analysis methods and data coding and interpretation. Leveraging their deep expertise in qualitative data analysis, they thoroughly interpreted the collected data. Utilizing the ‘simple percentage agreement’ formula by Miles et al. ( 2019 ), they achieved an impressive 86% consensus level. The researchers engaged in a meticulous thematic analysis for Tables 2 and 3 , independently coding interview responses to unearth emergent patterns and commonalities. For instance, the “Impact on specific language skills” section in Table 2 highlighted varied student perceptions, such as one student (L3) emphasizing ChatGPT’s role in contextual vocabulary learning and another (L5) appreciating the immediate feedback on word usage. Table 3 ’s categories, encompassing students’ views on strengths, challenges, and recommendations for language learning, were directly shaped by the research question to maintain relevance and coherence. This methodological rigor ensured a robust, grounded interpretation of the qualitative data, aligning closely with the students’ perspectives and the research inquiry.

The study investigated the effectiveness of ChatGPT-assisted language learning on students’ learning experiences and explored their views about its benefits and limitations in foreign language learning. The study also explored the positive and negative aspects of ChatGPT’s implementation. Thirteen students were interviewed. Anonymity was ensured by using code names for the students (for example, L1, L2, L3.etc.), which are consistently used across all tables. Students’ views on ChatGPT were analysed and organised into three main themes and presented under these themes with detailed subheadings.

3.1 The impact of ChatGPT on students’ foreign language learning experiences

A qualitative analysis was conducted to answer the first research question. Patterns of the students’ views on the impact of ChatGPT implementation on students’ learning experiences have been identified and presented in Table  2 .

The findings suggest that ChatGPT-assisted language learning has a positive impact on certain language skills, particularly on writing and grammar skills, as well as on new vocabulary acquisition (L1, L3, L4, L5, L6, L8, L10, L11, L12). One student (L3) highlighted this by stating, “ ChatGPT helped me learn new words in context, making it easier to remember them. ” However, it may have limited impact on speaking skills (L4, L12) and no impact on listening skills (L8). According to the participants, ChatGPT improves students’ motivation and learning engagement, contributing to a more engaging learning experience (L1, L7, L8, L9, L10, L12). For instance, a student (L7) appreciated the tool for its instant feedback, mentioning, “ It corrected my word usage instantly, which was very helpful. ” Additionally, the participants emphasised ChatGPT’s adaptability for various learning experiences, such as interactive learning, creative writing, and exploring different cultures, as well as its ease of access and quick feedback (L3, L2, L5, L9, L10). However, a few students mentioned technical difficulties faced with ChatGPT and finally its limited assistance in making language learning easier, suggesting these as potential areas for enhancement (L4, L7). It can therefore be assumed that ChatGPT carries the potential to enhance language competency while fostering motivation and engagement amongst learners. However, it remains essential to continue refining the system to mitigate its constraints and enhance the language acquisition process.

3.2 Student views on using ChatGPT for foreign language learning: Strengths, challenges, and suggestions

Diving into the second point of our inquiry, we delved into student perspectives on the strengths, challenges, and suggestions of ChatGPT as a tool in the language learning process, in addition to their propositions on how its performance could be upgraded. The key points of these conversations can be found in Table  3 . Table  3 illustrates the numerous perspectives from which ChatGPT can be regarded in relation to foreign language learning.

Students’ perspectives underscored the positive impacts of ChatGPT in foreign language learning. The students praised how ChatGPT enhanced their writing skills, as expressed by one student (L9): “ I realized that I can express myself better in writing thanks to ChatGPT. ” They also appreciated how ChatGPT expedited research processes by being time-saving and efficient (L1, L3, L4, L13), with a student (L1) noting, “ I can access the information I need faster. ” The tool also provided comprehensive knowledge (L1, L2, L10) and contributed to cultural and creative activities (L1, L2, L10), with one student (L10) observing, “ It even gives me cultural information about the words. ” Additionally, they mentioned the improvement of vocabulary and sentence structures (L2, L5, L8, L9, L11) and the enhancement of grammar skills through practical examples (L3, L4, L6, L7, L8). Some students found the tool useful for games or flexible uses (L1, L5).

Despite these positive aspects, students also identified some challenges and potential drawbacks of using ChatGPT. There were concerns about possible over-reliance on ChatGPT (L1, L2), with a student (L1) expressing, “ I am afraid I will get used to it too much and my English will deteriorate. ”

Other concerns included occasional connection issues and errors (L1, L3), encouragement of shortcuts in learning (L1, L2, L3), and limited effectiveness for speaking practice (L11). Students also highlighted potential misuse during assignments or exams (L3) and called for improved responses to emotions and personal expressions (L3). Some students pointed out issues of inaccessibility due to high traffic (L5).

Students also offered several recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness of ChatGPT in language learning. They called for technical enhancements and increased accessibility (L1, L4, L5) and integration with real-life situations and interactive learning experiences (L2, L5). The students saw value in the tool’s novelty and engagement (L2, L5) and urged for its better efficiency and time-saving capabilities (L3, L13). Furthermore, they called attention to potential misuse and limitations (L2, L3) and suggested improved communication and personalization, such as more natural and human-like responses (L3, L4).

4 Discussion

4.1 the impact of chatgpt on students’ foreign language learning experiences.

The result indicates that ChatGPT positively impacts language skills, particularly in writing, grammar, and vocabulary acquisition, and increases motivation and engagement among students for its versatility and accessibility in various learning activities. Studies on ChatGPT-assisted language learning, as well as systematic reviews on the effectiveness of AI-powered language learning tools, confirm the significance of these technologies in enhancing linguistic competencies and learner engagement (Shadiev & Liang, 2023 ). They reported learners experiencing positive learning outcomes, increased motivation, engagement, and confidence, despite some identified challenges. Such advancements are crucial in language acquisition, providing a foundation for more advanced linguistic competencies. In another study, Song and Song ( 2023 ) found that AI-assisted instruction using ChatGPT led to significant improvements in EFL students’ writing skills, motivation, organization, coherence, grammar, and vocabulary compared to traditional instruction. Similarly, Nugroho et al. ( 2023 ) highlighted that ChatGPT could stimulate authentic interactions and boost student productivity and engagement in language learning activities. Rawas ( 2023 ) also highlighted ChatGPT’s potential to enhance personalization and collaboration in higher education, though ethical and implementation challenges exist. Additionally, Klayklung et al. ( 2023 ) emphasized ChatGPT’s ability to provide personalized learning experiences and facilitate meaningful interactions, highlighting its potential in language learning. These perspectives complement our observation of increased motivation and engagement among students for ChatGPT’s accessibility in learning activities. The findings of the current study are also consistent with previous research (Ali et al., 2023 ; Habeb Al-Obaydi et al., 2023 ; Kim et al., 2023 ; Kohnke et al., 2023 ; Leunard et al., 2023 ; Niyozov et al., 2023 ; Tipayavaravan et al., 2023 ; Yan, 2023 ) which support the effectiveness of ChatGPT in language learning and its potential to create an enhanced language learning experience and to revolutionize language pedagogy, although further investigation is needed to fully understand its impact and potential in various learning environments. Guo and Wang ( 2023 ) observed that ChatGPT offers more comprehensive feedback in EFL writing than human teachers, albeit with mixed teacher perceptions. Further supporting this, Hwang et al. ( 2023 ) demonstrated significant improvements in EFL writing through AI-Generated Sample Sentences (AI-SS) and AI-Writing Feedback (AI-WF), which resonates with our findings on ChatGPT’s role in improving writing skills. The interactive and feedback-oriented nature of ChatGPT evidently aligns with these emerging pedagogical tools, suggesting a broader trend in the effective use of AI in language education. Furthermore, Topsakal and Topsakal ( 2022 ) emphasized the potential of ChatGPT in creating interactive dialogs and content, suggesting its applicability in language learning environments. Although ChatGPT provides an interactive learning experience, it lacks the benefits of communicative practice, such as spoken conversation in a cultural context and emotional support. McCallum ( 2023 ) discussed the use of ChatGPT in designing culture-focused telecollaboration tasks, highlighting the tool’s potential in developing intercultural communicative competence. This aspect is particularly relevant in the context of foreign language learning, where cultural understanding plays a key role.

4.2 Students’ perspectives on the advantages and disadvantages of ChatGPT in foreign language learning

The results highlight some advantages of ChatGPT-assisted language learning. Firstly, ChatGPT could improve the participants’ English writing skills by providing them ideas, feedback, and introducing them to different grammatical structures and wordlists. This finding is supported by the previous studies emphasising the contribution of AI language models on vocabulary skills development (Alsadoon, 2021 ) and writing feedback provision (Dai et al., 2023 ). Akopiants ( 2023 ) emphasizes the potential of ChatGPT in enhancing vocabulary skills in English language learners. These results underscore the potential of ChatGPT in augmenting traditional language learning methods, particularly in writing skill development. Rospigliosi ( 2023 ) also concluded that ChatGPT fosters learner-centered teaching and enhances creativity, problem-solving abilities, and vocabulary development in students. Additionally, Song and Song ( 2023 ) revealed significant improvements in various aspects of writing, including vocabulary, among students who received AI-assisted instruction compared to those with traditional instruction. As a second result, ChatGPT was reported to ease the research by saving the students’ time. The previous studies support this finding as ChatGPT-assisted language learning served as an efficient tool to provide useful information and enables the students to access information effectively, to generate lesson plans and save time by creating teaching materials, worksheets, and assessments (Farrokhnia et al., 2023 ; Fauzi et al., 2023 ; Firat, 2023 ; Stepanechko & Kozub, 2023 ). Such efficiency not only streamlines the learning process but also encourages students to engage more deeply with the language learning content. Thirdly, ChatGPT-assisted language learning was reported to provide an opportunity to engage in cultural and creative learning experiences. Michalon and Camacho-Zúñiga ( 2023 ) and McCallum ( 2023 ) suggest that ChatGPT can significantly aid in developing critical thinking and communication skills, as well as intercultural competencies, which are vital in language learning. This supports our findings on ChatGPT’s effectiveness in improving writing skills and fostering creative and cultural learning experiences. The participants mentioned that ChatGPT-assisted language learning helped them to be more creative by generating different and creative story endings. This result is well-supported by the findings of Zhai ( 2022 ), who mentions that ChatGPT is essential to improving creativity in teaching and learning process.

Regarding the disadvantages of ChatGPT-assisted language learning, the first major concern raised by participants was the possible over-reliance on the tool. This apprehension about becoming too dependent on ChatGPT aligns with concerns documented in existing literature. Graves ( 2023 ) cautions about the potential risks associated with the normative standards of language and performance in AI-assisted learning environments. Emphasizing the importance of maintaining strong teacher-student relationships and advocating for the use of AI as a supplement to traditional teaching methods, Mohamed ( 2023 ) recommends that teachers should continue to play a vital role in the language learning process and exercise caution in their integration of AI technology. This is to avoid the risk of students becoming overly reliant on AI systems and to ensure that students benefit from a balanced approach that incorporates both technology and human interaction. This concern is further echoed by Sampson and Yoshida ( 2020 ), who highlight the significance of considering the emotional and psychological aspects of language learning facilitated by technology. Additionally, Sun and Hoelscher’s study ( 2023 ) mentions that while helping learners develop reflective and critical thinking, this situation may impede the development of critical thinking skills and learner autonomy. Mohammad et al. ( 2023 ) also emphasized ChatGPT`s, generation of incorrect information, biases, potential to undermine critical thinking skills, ethical concerns such as cheating, and privacy issues. This is also supported by Vaccino-Salvadore ( 2023 ) who discussed the ethical dimensions of using ChatGPT in language learning, including privacy, bias, reliability, accessibility, authenticity, and academic integrity concerns. Therefore, the students should be informed to be cautious against the drawbacks of ChatGPT in the learning process. Finally, the students indicated a few occasional technical problems such as connection issues. This finding is supported by the previous studies highlighting technical drawbacks of using chatbots (Crawford et al., 2023 ; Huang et al., 2022 ). These insights suggest that while ChatGPT and similar AI tools offer significant benefits, their role should be viewed as complementary to traditional teaching methods, ensuring a balanced and holistic approach to language education.

4.3 Limitations and recommendations for future research

One of the most significant limitations of the study is the reliance on a limited and homogeneous group of 13 students. This may mean that the findings are not generalizable across different age groups, cultures, and educational levels. The results of the study may not comprehensively represent a broader student population and various learning styles. In this context, future research should be conducted with larger and more diverse sample groups. Additionally, technological access and internet connectivity issues may have prevented students from utilizing ChatGPT to its full capacity. The fact that students used the free version of ChatGPT (ChatGPT 3.5) also raises questions about whether the performance and impact on foreign language learning might differ with the premium version (ChatGPT 4). At this point, as Mohamed ( 2023 ) also recommends, guidelines and protocols for the ethical and responsible use of ChatGPT in EFL teaching and learning should be developed. The qualitative data reflecting participants’ personal opinions could complicate objective inferences; therefore, future research involving more extended quantitative studies to investigate the effectiveness of ChatGPT in influencing learners’ academic success, motivation, and belief in foreign language learning and attitudes toward the use of artificial intelligence in foreign language education would support participant bias in a more valid, reliable, and generalizable manner.

4.4 Pedagogical implications

The outcomes of this study hold significant pedagogical implications for EFL students. (i) ChatGPT presents language learners with the opportunity to personalize and manage their learning processes, allowing them to follow their own pace and styles. This affords students the chance to explore and craft their own language learning journeys. (ii) Furthermore, the interactive nature of ChatGPT fosters more active and motivated engagement in the language learning process. By offering opportunities for writing, reading, and grammar practice, ChatGPT aids in enhancing students’ language skills in various ways while also providing different perspectives on creative writing and language usage, thus making the language learning process more creative and interactive. Aligning with these findings, the research conducted by Karataş ( 2023 ) revealed that participants recognized the significant benefits of ChatGPT, particularly in its role in facilitating the creation of learning materials, engaging students through interactive questioning, and overall enrichment of the teaching process. However, it is observed that ChatGPT has not yet been effective in improving speaking skills, whereas other AI-based language learning applications like “Elsa Speak” have been shown to be beneficial in developing speaking skills, particularly pronunciation ability (Akhmad & Munawir, 2022 ). (iii) On the other hand, thanks to the variety of content and learning materials provided by ChatGPT, students can also gain insights into different cultures and linguistic structures. (iv) Teachers are suggested to incorporate ChatGPT into their curriculum as a supplementary support and to make sure their students are exposed to authentic and real-life communicative language practice. Therefore, it is essential to balance the use of ChatGPT and the development of learner autonomy to prevent the possible deterioration of language skills, higher-level thinking skills, and the over-reliance on ChatGPT.

4.5 Theoretical implications

The integration of ChatGPT into the foreign language learning process presents various theoretical implications for language education. (i) Firstly, ChatGPT appears to be compatible with personalized learning approaches. According to the personalized learning principles highlighted by Walkington and Bernacki ( 2020 ), ChatGPT can offer individualized feedback and guidance by providing responses tailored to individual prompts. This can lead to a more meaningful and effective learning experience. (ii) In line with the Self-Regulated Learning theory developed by Zimmerman and Pons ( 1986 ), ChatGPT can guide students in learning strategies and time management. (iii) Within the context of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (Sweller, 1988 ), the adaptable nature of ChatGPT can optimize cognitive processing by ensuring that the information presented is neither too complex nor overly simplified. (iv) Lastly, under the Engagement Theory proposed by Kearsley and Shneiderman ( 1998 ), the interactive nature of ChatGPT, by providing prompt feedback and interactive learning experiences, can enhance students’ active participation in the learning process.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, we explored the impact of ChatGPT-assisted foreign language learning experiences through the views of university students on the opportunities and challenges of ChatGPT-assisted language learning. The findings revealed ChatGPT`s positive impact on writing and a limited effect on speaking skills, developing grammar and word skills, motivating the participants in online classes, and promoting interactive language learning experiences. Moreover, ChatGPT was found to contribute to the participants’ vision of diverse cultures and fostered their creative thinking skills during classroom activities. However, a significant concern that emerged from the results was the potential over-reliance on ChatGPT. This concern aligns with existing literature indicating that over-reliance on AI tools may lead to skill deterioration and hinder the development of critical thinking and learner autonomy. The participants’ apprehensions underscore the need for a balanced approach in integrating AI technologies like ChatGPT into language learning curricula. Reflecting on these insights, the conclusion extends to emphasize the importance of educators’ role in ensuring that AI tools are used judiciously, complementing rather than replacing the facilitator role of teachers. On the other hand, encountering technical problems in connection and drawbacks in addressing human emotions and personal expressions are additional disadvantages of the tool. To improve ChatGPT-assisted language learning process, suggestions including improving ChatGPT’s technical capabilities, accommodating multiple simultaneous users, and incorporating ChatGPT into real-life scenarios for active participation and effective knowledge transfer were made. The limitation of this research is that it was conducted with 13 participants since the necessary permission to conduct the research only allowed the study to be conducted in a single classroom, due to concerns of the administration of the foreign languages department about using ChatGPT in online classes. Despite its limitations, the study contributes to our understanding of the impact of ChatGPT on students’ foreign language learning experiences from students’ perspectives.

Data availability

The authors confirm that data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.  Raw data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: CLT, TPR

Teaching a foreign language can be a challenging but rewarding job that opens up entirely new paths of communication to students. It’s beneficial for teachers to have knowledge of the many different language learning techniques including ESL teaching methods so they can be flexible in their instruction methods, adapting them when needed.

Keep on reading for all the details you need to know about the most popular foreign language teaching methods. Some of the ESL pedagogy ideas covered are the communicative approach, total physical response, the direct method, task-based language learning, suggestopedia, grammar-translation, the audio-lingual approach and more.

Language teaching methods

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Here’s a helpful rundown of the most common language teaching methods and ESL teaching methods. You may also want to take a look at this: Foreign language teaching philosophies .

#1: The Direct Method

In the direct method ESL, all teaching occurs in the target language, encouraging the learner to think in that language. The learner does not practice translation or use their native language in the classroom. Practitioners of this method believe that learners should experience a second language without any interference from their native tongue.

Instructors do not stress rigid grammar rules but teach it indirectly through induction. This means that learners figure out grammar rules on their own by practicing the language. The goal for students is to develop connections between experience and language. They do this by concentrating on good pronunciation and the development of oral skills.

This method improves understanding, fluency , reading, and listening skills in our students. Standard techniques are question and answer, conversation, reading aloud, writing, and student self-correction for this language learning method. Learn more about this method of foreign language teaching in this video: 

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#2: Grammar-Translation

With this method, the student learns primarily by translating to and from the target language. Instructors encourage the learner to memorize grammar rules and vocabulary lists. There is little or no focus on speaking and listening. Teachers conduct classes in the student’s native language with this ESL teaching method.

This method’s two primary goals are to progress the learner’s reading ability to understand literature in the second language and promote the learner’s overall intellectual development. Grammar drills are a common approach. Another popular activity is translation exercises that emphasize the form of the writing instead of the content.

Although the grammar-translation approach was one of the most popular language teaching methods in the past, it has significant drawbacks that have caused it to fall out of favour in modern schools . Principally, students often have trouble conversing in the second language because they receive no instruction in oral skills.

#3: Audio-Lingual

The audio-lingual approach encourages students to develop habits that support language learning. Students learn primarily through pattern drills, particularly dialogues, which the teacher uses to help students practice and memorize the language. These dialogues follow standard configurations of communication.

There are four types of dialogues utilized in this method:

• Repetition, in which the student repeats the teacher’s statement exactly
• Inflection, where one of the words appears in a different form from the previous sentence (for example, a word may change from the singular to the plural)
• Replacement, which involves one word being replaced with another while the sentence construction remains the same
• Restatement, where the learner rephrases the teacher’s statement

This technique’s name comes from the order it uses to teach language skills. It starts with listening and speaking, followed by reading and writing, meaning that it emphasizes hearing and speaking the language before experiencing its written form. Because of this, teachers use only the target language in the classroom with this TESOL method.

Many of the current online language learning apps and programs closely follow the audio-lingual language teaching approach. It is a nice option for language learning remotely and/or alone, even though it’s an older ESL teaching method.

#4: Structural Approach

Proponents of the structural approach understand language as a set of grammatical rules that should be learned one at a time in a specific order. It focuses on mastering these structures, building one skill on top of another, instead of memorizing vocabulary. This is similar to how young children learn a new language naturally.

An example of the structural approach is teaching the present tense of a verb, like “to be,” before progressing to more advanced verb tenses, like the present continuous tense that uses “to be” as an auxiliary.

The structural approach teaches all four central language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It’s a technique that teachers can implement with many other language teaching methods.

Most ESL textbooks take this approach into account. The easier-to-grasp grammatical concepts are taught before the more difficult ones. This is one of the modern language teaching methods.

Most popular methods and approaches and language teaching

#5: Total Physical Response (TPR)

The total physical response method highlights aural comprehension by allowing the learner to respond to basic commands, like “open the door” or “sit down.” It combines language and physical movements for a comprehensive learning experience.

In an ordinary TPR class, the teacher would give verbal commands in the target language with a physical movement. The student would respond by following the command with a physical action of their own. It helps students actively connect meaning to the language and passively recognize the language’s structure.

Many instructors use TPR alongside other methods of language learning. While TPR can help learners of all ages, it is used most often with young students and beginners. It’s a nice option for an English teaching method to use alongside some of the other ones on this list. 

An example of a game that could fall under TPR is Simon Says. Or, do the following as a simple review activity. After teaching classroom vocabulary, or prepositions, instruct students to do the following:

• Pick up your pencil.
• Stand behind someone.
• Put your water bottle under your chair.

Are you on your feet all day teaching young learners? Consider picking up some of these teacher shoes .

#6: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

These days, CLT is by far one of the most popular approaches and methods in language teaching. Keep reading to find out more about it.

This method stresses interaction and communication to teach a second language effectively. Students participate in everyday situations they are likely to encounter in the target language. For example, learners may practice introductory conversations, offering suggestions, making invitations, complaining, or expressing time or location.

Instructors also incorporate learning topics outside of conventional grammar so that students develop the ability to respond in diverse situations.

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CLT teachers focus on being facilitators rather than straightforward instructors. Doing so helps students achieve CLT’s primary goal, learning to communicate in the target language instead of emphasizing the mastery of grammar.

Role-play , interviews, group work, and opinion sharing are popular activities practiced in communicative language teaching, along with games like scavenger hunts and information gap exercises that promote student interaction.

Most modern-day ESL teaching textbooks like Four Corners, Smart Choice, or Touchstone are heavy on communicative activities.

#7: Natural Approach

This approach aims to mimic natural language learning with a focus on communication and instruction through exposure. It de-emphasizes formal grammar training. Instead, instructors concentrate on creating a stress-free environment and avoiding forced language production from students.

Teachers also do not explicitly correct student mistakes. The goal is to reduce student anxiety and encourage them to engage with the second language spontaneously.

Classroom procedures commonly used in the natural approach are problem-solving activities, learning games , affective-humanistic tasks that involve the students’ own ideas, and content practices that synthesize various subject matter, like culture.

#8: Task-Based Language Teaching (TBL)

With this method, students complete real-world tasks using their target language. This technique encourages fluency by boosting the learner’s confidence with each task accomplished and reducing direct mistake correction.

Tasks fall under three categories:

• Information gap, or activities that involve the transfer of information from one person, place, or form to another.
• Reasoning gap tasks that ask a student to discover new knowledge from a given set of information using inference, reasoning, perception, and deduction.
• Opinion gap activities, in which students react to a particular situation by expressing their feelings or opinions.

Popular classroom tasks practiced in task-based learning include presentations on an assigned topic and conducting interviews with peers or adults in the target language. Or, having students work together to make a poster and then do a short presentation about a current event. These are just a couple of examples and there are literally thousands of things you can do in the classroom. In terms of ESL pedagogy, this is one of the most popular modern language teaching methods. 

It’s considered to be a modern method of teaching English. I personally try to do at least 1-2 task-based projects in all my classes each semester. It’s a nice change of pace from my usually very communicative-focused activities.

One huge advantage of TBL is that students have some degree of freedom to learn the language they want to learn. Also, they can learn some self-reflection and teamwork skills as well. 

#9: Suggestopedia Language Learning Method

This approach and method in language teaching was developed in the 1970s by psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is sometimes also known as the positive suggestion method but it later became sometimes known as desuggestopedia.

Apart from using physical surroundings and a good classroom atmosphere to make students feel comfortable, here are some of the main tenants of this second language teaching method:

• Deciphering, where the teacher introduces new grammar and vocabulary.
• Concert sessions, where the teacher reads a text and the students follow along with music in the background. This can be both active and passive.
• Elaboration where students finish what they’ve learned with dramas, songs, or games.
• Introduction in which the teacher introduces new things in a playful manner.
• Production, where students speak and interact without correction or interruption.

TESOL methods and approaches

#10: The Silent Way

The silent way is an interesting ESL teaching method that isn’t that common but it does have some solid footing. After all, the goal in most language classes is to make them as student-centred as possible.

In the Silent Way, the teacher talks as little as possible, with the idea that students learn best when discovering things on their own. Learners are encouraged to be independent and to discover and figure out language on their own.

Instead of talking, the teacher uses gestures and facial expressions to communicate, as well as props, including the famous Cuisenaire Rods. These are rods of different colours and lengths.

Although it’s not practical to teach an entire course using the silent way, it does certainly have some value as a language teaching approach to remind teachers to talk less and get students talking more!

#11: Functional-Notional Approach

This English teaching method first of all recognizes that language is purposeful communication. The reason people talk is that they want to communicate something to someone else.

Parts of speech like nouns and verbs exist to express language functions and notions. People speak to inform, agree, question, persuade, evaluate, and perform various other functions. Language is also used to talk about concepts or notions like time, events, places, etc.

The role of the teacher in this second language teaching method is to evaluate how students will use the language. This will serve as a guide for what should be taught in class. Teaching specific grammar patterns or vocabulary sets does play a role but the purpose for which students need to know these things should always be kept in mind with the functional-notional Approach to English teaching.

#12: The Bilingual Method

The bilingual method uses two languages in the classroom, the mother tongue and the target language. The mother tongue is briefly used for grammar and vocabulary explanations. Then, the rest of the class is conducted in English. Check out this video for some of the pros and cons of this method:

#13: The Test Teach Test Approach (TTT)

This style of language teaching is ideal for directly targeting students’ needs. It’s best for intermediate and advanced learners. Definitely don’t use it for total beginners!

There are three stages:

• A test or task of some kind that requires students to use the target language.
• Explicit teaching or focus on accuracy with controlled practice exercises.
• Another test or task is to see if students have improved in their use of the target language.

Want to give it a try? Find out what you need to know here:

Test Teach Test TTT .

#14: Community Language Learning

In Community Language Learning, the class is considered to be one unit. They learn together. In this style of class, the teacher is not a lecturer but is more of a counsellor or guide.

In general, there is no set lesson for the day. Instead, students decide what they want to talk about. They sit in the a circle, and decide on what they want to talk about. They may ask the teacher for a translation or for advice on pronunciation or how to say something.

The conversations are recorded, and then transcribed. Students and teacher can analyze the grammar and vocabulary, as well as subject related content.

While community language learning may not comprehensively cover the English language, students will be learning what they want to learn. It’s also student-centred to the max. It’s perhaps a nice change of pace from the usual teacher-led classes, but it’s not often seen these days as the only method of teaching a class.M

#15: The Situational Approach

This approach loosely falls under the behaviourism view of language as habit formation. The situational approach to teaching English was popular in England, starting in the 1930s. Find out more about it:

Language Teaching Approaches FAQs

There are a number of common questions that people have about second or foreign language teaching and learning. Here are the answers to some of the most popular ones.

What is language teaching approaches?

A language teaching approach is a way of thinking about teaching and learning. An approach produces methods, which is the way of teaching something, in this case, a second or foreign language using techniques or activities.

What are method and approach?

Method and approach are similar but there are some key differences. An approach is the way of dealing with something while a method involves the process or steps taken to handle the issue or task.

What is presentation practice production?

How many approaches are there in language learning.

Throughout history, there have been just over 30 popular approaches to language learning. However, there are around 10 that are most widely known including task-based learning, the communicative approach, grammar-translation and the audio-lingual approach. These days, the communicative approach is all the rage.

What is the best method of English language teaching?

It’s difficult to choose the best single approach or method for English language teaching as the one used depends on the age and level of the students as well as the material being taught. Most teachers find that a mix of the communicative approach, audio-lingual approach and task-based teaching works well in most cases.

What is micro teaching?

What are the most effective methods of learning a language.

The most effective methods for learning a language really depends on the person, but in general, here are some of the best options: total immersion, the communicative approach, extensive reading, extensive listening, and spaced repetition.

The Modern Methods of Teaching English

There are several modern methods of teaching English that focus on engaging students and making learning more interactive and effective. Some of these methods include:

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

This approach emphasizes communication and interaction as the main goals of language learning. It focuses on real-life situations and encourages students to use English in meaningful contexts.

Task-Based Learning (TBL)

TBL involves designing activities or tasks that require students to use English to complete a specific goal or objective. This approach helps students develop language skills while focusing on the task at hand.

Technology-Enhanced Learning

Using technology such as computers, tablets, and smartphones can make learning more engaging and interactive. Online resources, apps, and educational games can be used to supplement traditional teaching methods.

Flipped Classroom

In a flipped classroom, students learn new material at home through videos or online resources, and then use class time for activities, discussions, and practice exercises. This approach allows for more individualized learning and interaction in the classroom.

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

PBL involves students working on projects or tasks that require them to use English in a real-world context. This approach helps students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills while improving their language abilities.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

CLIL involves teaching subjects such as science or history in English, rather than teaching English as a separate subject. This approach helps students learn English while also learning about other subjects.

Gamification

Using game elements such as points, badges, and leaderboards can make learning English more fun and engaging. Educational games can help students practice language skills in a playful and interactive way.

These modern methods of teaching English focus on making learning more student-centered, interactive, and engaging, leading to better outcomes for students.

Have your say about Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

What’s your top pick for a language teaching method? Is it one of the options from this list or do you have another one that you’d like to mention? Leave a comment below and let us know what you think. We’d love to hear from you. And whatever approach or method you use, you’ll want to check out these top 1o tips for new English teachers .

Also, be sure to give this article a share on Facebook, Pinterest, or Twitter. It’ll help other busy teachers, like yourself, find this useful information about approaches and methods in language teaching and learning.

Last update on 2024-08-04 / Affiliate links / Images from Amazon Product Advertising API

About Jackie

Jackie Bolen has been teaching English for more than 20 years to students in South Korea and Canada. She's taught all ages, levels and kinds of TEFL classes. She holds an MA degree, along with the Celta and Delta English teaching certifications.

Jackie is the author of more than 100 books for English teachers and English learners, including 101 ESL Activities for Teenagers and Adults , Great Debates for ESL/EFL , and 1001 English Expressions and Phrases . She loves to share her ESL games, activities, teaching tips, and more with other teachers throughout the world.

You can find her on social media at: YouTube Facebook Pinterest Instagram

This is wonderful, I have learned a lot!

You’re welcome!

What year did you publish this please?

Recently! Only a few months ago.

Wonderful! Thank you for sharing such useful information. I have learned a lot from them. Thank you!

I am so grateful. Thanks for sharing your kmowledge.

Hi thank you so much for this amazing article. I just wanted to confirm/ask is PPP one of the methods of teaching ESL if so was there a reason it wasn’t included in the article(outdated, not effective etc.?).

PPP is more of a subset of these other ones and not an approach or method in itself.

Good explanation, understandable and clear. Congratulations

That’s good, very short but clear…👏🏾👏🏾👏🏾👏🏾👏🏾

I meant the naturalistic approach

This is amazing! Thank you for writing this article, it helped me a lot. I hoped this will reach more people so I will definitely recommend this to others.

Thank you, sir! I just used this article in my PPT presentation at my Post Grad School. More articles from you!

I think this useful because it is teaching me a lot about english. Thank you bro! 😀👍

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ESL Essay Writing: 7 Important Tips

“Every good story has a beginning, a middle and an end.”

This is true for a good essay, too.

An essay needs a coherent structure to successfully articulate its arguments. Strong preparation and planning is crucial to providing that structure.

Of course, essay writing can be challenging for ESL students. They must order their thoughts and construct their arguments—all in their second language.

So, here are seven ESL essay writing tips that will allow your students to weave together a coherent and persuasive essay, plus teacher resources for writing activities, prompts and lessons!

1. Build the Essay Around a Central Question

2. use the traditional 5-paragraph essay structure, 3. plan the essay carefully before writing, 4. encourage research and rewriting, 5. practice utilizing repetition, 6. aim to write a “full circle” essay, 7. edit the essay to the end, esl essay writing resources.

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

Encourage your students to build all their writing around one central question.

That central question is the engine of the writing—it should drive everything!

If a word or sentence is not assisting that forward motion toward the explication of that question and its possible answers, then it needs to be reworded, rephrased or just plain cut out and discarded.

Lean writing is merciless. Focusing on a central question throughout the prewriting, writing and rewriting stages helps develop the critical faculties required to discern what to keep and what to throw away.

Providing a clear structure for the student to approach essay writing can do a lot to build their confidence. The 5-paragraph essay, or “hamburger” essay, provides that clear structure for ESL writers.

Generally, this structure employs five separate paragraphs for the entire essay. Each paragraph serves a specific purpose, melding together to form a coherent whole:

• Paragraph 1: The introductory paragraph. This includes the thesis statement, orientating the reader to the purpose of the essay.
• Paragraphs 2 to 4: The body paragraphs. These make individual points that are further backed up by various forms of evidence.
• Paragraph 5:  The conclusion paragraph. This provides a summation of the arguments and a final statement of the thesis.

While students do not need to rigidly follow this format forever, the simple structure outlined above can serve as excellent training wheels for your writers.

Using the 5-paragraph structure as outlined above makes planning clear cut.

Once they have their theses and are planning their paragraphs, share with the students the ridiculously useful acronym P.E.E. This stands for Point, Explanation and Evidence.

Each body paragraph should make a point or argument in favor of the central thesis, followed by an explanation of this point and relevant evidence to back it up.

Students can make note of all their points, explanations and evidence before they start writing them in essay form. This helps take away some of the pressure ESL writers feel when faced with a blank page.

Extol the necessity for students to constantly refer to their planning. The mind-mapping techniques popularized by Tony Buzan can be useful at the planning stage and make for easy reference points to ensure focus is maintained throughout the essay.

Having a visual reference such as this can help ensure that your student-writers see each piece of the whole as well as that elusive “bigger picture,” so it becomes a case of seeing the forest and the trees!

Just as planning is crucial, so too is research.

Often ideas or connections do not occur until the writing process has begun. This is a good thing! Essay writing is a creative act, so students can have more ideas along the way and work them in as they go.

The key is to always be able to back up these ideas. Students who have done their research on their subject will be much more confident and articulate in expressing their arguments in their writing.

One way you can help students with context and research is to show relevant video content via FluentU . This language learning program uses authentic videos made by and for native speakers to help students learn English.

You can watch videos as a class or assign them directly to students for individual viewing. Videos come equipped with interactive bilingual subtitles and other learning tools such as multimedia flashcards and personalized quizzes so you can see how each student is doing.

No matter how your students do their research, the important thing is that they explore and understand their topic area before beginning the big task of writing their essay.

Even with thorough planning and research, writing oneself into a linguistic cul-de-sac is a common error. Especially with higher-level students, unforeseen currents can pull the student-writer off course.

Sometimes abandoning such a sentence helps. Going back to the drawing board and rewriting it is often best.

Students can be creative with their sentence structures   when expressing simpler ideas and arguments. However, when it comes to more complex concepts, help them learn to use shorter sentences to break their arguments into smaller, more digestible chunks.

Essay writing falls firmly in the camp of non-fiction. However, that doesn’t mean that essay writers can’t use some of the techniques more traditionally associated with fiction, poetry and drama .

One technique that’s particularly useful in essay writing is repetition. Just as poetry relies heavily on rhythm, so too does argument. Repetition can provide that sense of rhythm.

This is because written language has its origins in oral language. Think of the great orators and demagogues and their use of repetition. Speechwriters, too, are well aware of the power of repetition.

The writing principle of the “rule of 3” states that ideas expressed in these terms are more convincing and memorable. This is true of both spoken and written words and the ideas they express. Teach your students to use this method in their essay writing.

The very structure of the 5-paragraph essay lends itself to planning for this repetition, in fact. Each idea that is explored in a body paragraph should be outlined first in the introductory paragraph.

Then, the single body paragraph devoted to the idea will explore it at greater length, supported by evidence. And the third rap of the hammer occurs in the summation of the concluding paragraph, driving the point securely and convincingly home.

As mentioned at the start of this post, every good essay has a beginning, a middle and an end.

Each point made, explained and supported by evidence is a step toward what the writing teacher Roy Peter Clark calls “closing the circle of meaning.”

In planning for the conclusion of the essay, the students should take the opportunity to reaffirm their position. By referring to the points outlined in the introduction and driving them home one last time, the student-writer is bringing the essay to a satisfying full circle.

This may be accomplished by employing various strategies: an apt quotation, referring to future consequences or attempting to inspire and mobilize the reader.

Ending with a succinct quotation has the double benefit of lending some authoritative weight to the argument while also allowing the student to select a well-written, distilled expression of their central thesis. This can make for a strong ending, particularly for ESL students.

Often the essay thesis will suggest its own ending. If the essay is structured around a problem, it’s frequently appropriate to end the essay by offering solutions to the problem and outlining potential consequences if those solutions are not followed.

In the more polemical type of essay, the student may end with a call to arms, a plea for action on the part of the reader.

The strategy chosen by the student will depend largely on what fits the central thesis of their essay best.

For the ESL student, the final edit is especially important.

It offers a final chance to check form and meaning. For all writers, this process can be daunting, but more so for language students.

Often, ESL students will use the same words over and over again due to a limited vocabulary. Encourage your students to employ a thesaurus in the final draft before submission. This will freshen up their work, making it more readable, and will also increase their active vocabulary in the long run!

Another useful strategy at this stage is to encourage students to read their work aloud before handing it in.

This can be good pronunciation practice , but it also provides an opportunity to listen for grammatical errors. Further, it helps students hear where punctuation is required in the text, helping the overall rhythm and readability of the writing.

To really help your students become master essay writers, you’ll want to provide them with plenty of opportunities to test and flex their skills.

Writing prompts and exercises are a good place to start:

Descriptive writing activities encourage students to get creative and use their five senses, literary devices and diverse vocabulary. Read on for eight descriptive writing…

Giving good ESL writing prompts is important because inspiring prompts inspire students to write more and writing more is how they improve. Read this post to learn 50…

You’ll likely also want to teach them more about the mechanics of writing :

Are you looking for ESL writing skills to share with your ESL students? In this guide, you’ll find different ESL writing techniques, such as helping students understand…

Introducing ESL journal writing to your students is a great way to get them practicing their English skills. Here are nine essential tips to make this activity creative,…

Essays are a great way not only for students to learn how the language works, but also to learn about themselves.

Formulating thoughts and arguments about various subjects is good exercise for not only the students’ linguistic faculties, but also for understanding who they are and how they see the world.

Related posts:

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METHODS AND APPROACHES in TEACHING ENGLISH AS A second LANGUAGE

Aug 23, 2014

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METHODS AND APPROACHES in TEACHING ENGLISH AS A second LANGUAGE. Before clt …. Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques.

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• native speaker
• foreign language learning
• teaching sequence
• firthian linguistics
• language pedagogy
• ppp procedure

Presentation Transcript

METHODS AND APPROACHES inTEACHING ENGLISH AS Asecond LANGUAGE

Before clt…

Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques • Approach:this refers to “theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching”. • It offers a model of language competence. • An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge of the language and makes statements about conditions which will promote successful language learning.

Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques • Method:a method is the practical realization of an approach. Methods include various procedures and techniques as part of their standard fare. • Procedure:a procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques. A procedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that… Smaller than a method and bigger than technique.

Technique: • Is a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest of the four concepts • Some examples: dictation, imitation , and repetition • a common technique when using video material is called “silent viewing”. This is where the teacher plays the video with no sound. Silent viewing is a single activity rather than a sequence, and as such is a technique rather than a whole procedure.

A term that is also used in discussions about teaching is “model” – used to describe typical procedures, usually for teachers in training. Such models offer abstractions of these procedures, designed to guide teaching practice.

The Grammar – Translation Approach/Method • This is a method that has been used by language teachers for many years. • At one time it was called Classical Method,since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages,Latin and Greek. • Earlier in this century,it was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature.

The Grammar – Translation Method • Classes are taught in the students mother tongue,with little active use of the target language; • Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists; • Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided; • Reading of difficult text is begun early in the course of study; • Little attention is paid to the content of text,which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

Direct Approach • A reaction to the Grammar Translation Approach and its failure to produce learners who could communicate in the foreign language they had been studying; • No use of the mother tongue is permitted; • Lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style; • Actions and pictures are used to make meanings clear; • Grammar is learned inductively.

Direct Approach • Literary texts are read for pleasure and are not analyzed grammatically; • The target culture is also taught inductively; • The teacher must be a native speaker or have nativelike proficiency in the target language;

Reading Approach • A reaction to the problems experienced in implementing the Direct Approach; • Reading was viewed as the most usable skill to have in foreign language since not many people traveled abroad at that time; • Also few teachers could use their foreign language well enough to use direct approach effectively in class.

Reading Approach • Only the grammar useful for reading comprehension is taught; • Vocabulary is controlled at first and then expanded; • Translation is once more a respectable classroom procedure. • Reading comprehension is the only language skill emphasized; • The teacher does not need to have good oral proficiency in the target language.

Audiolingualism or the Audio-lingual Approach • Audio-lingual methodology owes its existence to the Behaviourist modelsof learning using the Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement model, it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners. • Audio-lingualism relied heavily on drills like substitution to form these habits. • Habit-forming drills have remained popular among teachers and students, and teachers who feel confident with the linguistic restriction of such procedures

Presentation, Practice, and Production • A variation on Audio-lingualism in British-based teaching and elsewhere is the procedure most often referred to as PPP, which stands for Presentation, Practice, and Production. In this procedure the teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the language to be taught. The students now practice the language using accurate reproduction techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition, and cue-response drills.

PPP and alternatives to PPP • The PPP procedure came under a sustained attack in the 1990s. • Michael Lewis suggested that PPP was inadequate because it reflected neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. • Jim Scrivener advanced what is perhaps the most worrying aspect of PPP,the fact that it only describes one kind of lesson;it is inadequate as a general proposal concerning approaches to language in the classroom. • In response to these criticism many people have offered variations on PPP and alternative to it: ARC, OHE/III, ESA.

ARC • put forward by Jim Scrivener • stands for Authentic use, Restricted use and Clarification and focus • Communicative activity will demonstrate authentic use; elicted dialogue or guided writing will provoke restricted use of language by students; finally clarification language is that which the teacher and students use to explain grammar,give examples,analyse errors,elict or repeat things.

OHE/III • Michael Lewis claims that students should be allowed to Observe (read or listen to language) which will then provoke them to Hypothesize about how the language works before going on to the Experiment on the basis of that hypothesis.

ESA • In the ESA model three components will usually be present in any teaching sequence,whether of five,fifty or a hundred minutes • E stands for Engage - students have to be engaged emotionally • S stands for Study • A stands for Activate - any stage at which students are encouraged to use all and/or any of the language they know

Oral – situational Approach • A reaction to the Reading Approach and its lack of emphasis on oral-aural skills; • Was dominant in Britain during the 1940’s, 1950’s and 1960’s; • It draws from the Reform Movement and the Direct Approach but adds features from Firthian linguistics and the emerging professional field of language pedagogy.

Oral – situational Approach • The spoken language is primary; • All language material is practiced orally before being presented in written form; • Only the target language should be used in the classroom. • Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are presented;

Oral – situational Approach • Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex; • New items are introduced and practiced situationally (e.g., at the post office, at the bank, at the dinner table)

Cognitive Approach • A reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual Approach; • Influenced by cognitive psychology (Neisser 1967) and Chomskyan linguistics (Chomsky 1959, 1965); • Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation; • Instruction is often individualized; learners are responsible for their own learning;

Cognitive Approach • Grammar must be taught but it can be taught deductively (rules first; practice later) and/or inductively (rules can either be stated after practice or left as implicit information for the learners to process on their own); • Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as unrealistic and unattainable; • Reading and writing are once again important as listening and speaking;

Cognitive Approach • Vocabulary instruction is once again important, especially at intermediate and advanced levels; • Errors are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process; • The teacher is expected to have good general proficiency in the target language as well as an ability to analyze the target language;

Affective-Humanistic Approach • A reaction to the general lack of affective considerations in both Audiolingualism and the Cognitive Approach; e.g., Moskowitz 1978 and Curran 1976; • Respect is emphasized for the individual ( each student, the teacher) and for his or her feelings; • Communication that is meaningful to the learner is emphasized

Affective-Humanistic Approach • Instruction involves much work in pairs and small groups; • Class atmosphere is viewed as more important than materials or methods; • Peer support and interaction are viewed as a self-realization experience; • The teacher is a counselor or facilitator;

Affective-Humanistic Approach • The teacher should be proficient in the target language and the student’s native language since translation may be used heavily in the initial stages to help students feel at ease; later it is gradually phased out.

Comprehension-Based Approach • An outgrowth of research in first language acquisition that led some language methodologists to assume that second or foreign language learning is very similar to first language acquisition; e.g., Potovsky 1974; Winitz 1981; Krashen and Terrell 1983)

Comprehension-Based Approach • Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading, and writing to develop spontaneously over time, given the right conditions. • Learners should begin by listening to meaningful speech and by responding nonverbally in meaningful ways before they produce any language themselves.

Comprehension-Based Approach • Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so; this results in better pronunciation than if the learner is forced to speak immediately. • Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step beyond their level of competence. • Rule learning may help learners monitor what they do, but it will not aid their acquisition or spontaneous use of the target language.

Comprehension-Based Approach • Error correction is seen as unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive; the important thing is that the learners can understand and can make themselves understood. • If the teacher is not a native (or near-native) speaker, appropriate materials such as audio-tapes and videotapes must be available to provide the appropriate input for the learners.

The Communicative Approach • The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is the name which was given to a set of beliefs which included not only a re-examination of what aspects of language to teach but also a shift in emphasis on how to teach!

The Communicative Approach • The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)was developed in the 1970s, and in critical reaction to the formal and boring types of exercises used under the audiolingual approach (‘drill-and-kill’ exercises).

The Communicative Approach • The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)puts the focus on communicative interaction in class, not on a correct but mind- and meaningless reproduction of the linguistic forms prescribed for a specific lesson.

The Communicative Approach • The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)is an outgrowth of the work of anthropological linguists (e.g. Hymes 1972) and Firthian linguists (e.g. Halliday 1973) who view language first and foremost as a system for communication.

Non-communicative activities Communicative activities The communication continuum No communicative desire No communicative purpose Form not content One language item only Teacher intervention Materials control A desire to communicate A communicative purpose Content not form Variety of language No teacher intervention No materials control

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The Critical Approach to Language Teaching: Theoretical Framing and Practical Implications

• First Online: 14 June 2022

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• Nizar Kamal Ibrahim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4632-0355 19  

Part of the book series: English Language Education ((ELED,volume 29))

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This chapter explains some basic theoretical concepts of critical literacy and connects them to practice. This aims to support the argument for adopting a critical approach to language teaching (CALT) in foreign language contexts. The chapter uses a reader-friendly writing style with as little jargon as possible, a feature that characterizes the whole book. The theoretical explanation that the chapter presents is grounded in three classroom situations and is followed by many practical suggestions for critical literacy instruction. To reduce the confusion that the shift from the dominant instructional patterns to CALT-based instruction may cause, the chapter presents an alternative model which forms a solid basis for a systematic approach to instruction.

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Ibrahim, N.K. (2022). The Critical Approach to Language Teaching: Theoretical Framing and Practical Implications. In: Critical Literacy Approach to English as a Foreign Language . English Language Education, vol 29. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04154-9_1

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The SFL genre-based approach to writing in EFL contexts

• Akiko Nagao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7317-6424 1  

Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education volume  4 , Article number:  6 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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This research investigates the changes in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ psychological attributes in relation to awareness of the lexicogrammatical features and generic structures of a discussion genre essay. This was achieved by implementing a genre-based approach to text-based writing lessons during a 15-week course. The following lesson procedure was implemented: stage (1): modeling and deconstruction of a text, stage (2): writing of target texts, stage (3): genre analysis of peers’ essays, and stage (4): writing of an analysis reflection. The results indicated specific improvements in genre-based writing, particularly among low-proficiency English learners. Results suggest that their understanding of “interpersonal meaning” such as modal verbs improved. Improvements in the use of modal auxiliaries were also noted, in that the word “should” did not appear in pre-writing texts; however, the frequency improved in post-writing texts, especially in the final paragraph, which comprised the writers’ opinions and suggestions.

• Introduction

Systematic functional linguistics (SFL) is a theoretical approach that analyzes the relationship between social contexts and linguistic aspects (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ). The core concepts of SFL are language as functional and language as meaning-making (Halliday, 1978 ). The first concept refers to language attributes: understanding a language means understanding how people use the language in context and how it is structured for use (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ). According to the second concept, language as meaning-making, speakers and writers have a systematic choice in a particular context (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ). When writing an email message to a friend, person A chooses particular lexicogrammatical functions, which are different from those used when the same person writes an email message to inquire about a job. Thus, the context of a situation is related to the meaning-making choice.

The common focused features of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning in high school classrooms in Japan among 2134 high school teachers in 2015 were reading texts aloud, practicing pronunciation, and explaining the uses of lexicogrammar (Benesse Educational Research and Development Institute, 2016 ). Having learners write sentences or essays about their opinions and summarizing textbook contents were less focused during EFL lessons at Japanese high schools (Benesse Educational Research and Development Institute, 2016 ). One study revealed how 140 EFL learners at a private university in Japan considered the importance of learning English: 28% of them considered improving listening skills to be important, while 11% of them agreed that learning how to write texts in English was important (Yamashita, 2012 ). Sugiura ( 2017 ) explores the changes of 37 Japanese university students’ understanding of their English learning styles from when they were high school students to when they became university students through an analysis of narrative frameworks. Many of them learned lexicogrammar of English using textbooks provided in a teacher-dominated setting in high school, while they tended to be taught mostly through practicing verbal communication while at university (Sugiura, 2017 ). Their narratives, however, said far less about the ways that they learned how to write in English. Murakoshi ( 2015 ) reported that writing practices and activities in classrooms tended to consist of opportunities for EFL learners to practice writing sentences and paragraphs in order to establish linguistic knowledge. The aim of this paper is (1) to introduce an SFL-genre-based approach to teaching methodology that reckons with the changes in EFL learners’ awareness of target genre in particular learning contexts, and (2) to explore the idea that learning how to write consists of more than creating a cognitive network in terms of linguistic knowledge as it is processed by learners’ brains. Language as functional and language as meaning-making purposes is applicable or not within the EFL classroom contexts.

Literature review

Systematic functional linguistics and genre.

In SFL theory, the relational concept of linking the context of a situation with linguistic choices is called register. Register has three features; Field, Tenor, and Mode, which are related to the following metafunctions (see Table  1 ; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ; Martin & Rose, 2008 ). The Field facilitates understanding of how and when people use particular lexicogrammatical features such as mental verbs and elements of cohesion; these are ideational metafunctions that allow us to understand what is occurring in the text. The Tenor facilitates understanding of how and when the writer chooses particular modalities and appraisal systems; this interpersonal metafunction helps us to understand the relationship between writers and readers . Finally, the Mode facilitates analysis and understanding of the Theme and Rheme as well as cohesive devices; this textual metafunction allows us to understand how the text is organized.

Genre in SFL represents the systems of social processes that constitute a culture (Martin & White, 2005 ). Rose ( 2013 , p. 209) claimed that the approach of genre has been influenced by features: “Halliday’s ( 1975 ) theory of language regarding the social semiotic process, Bernstein’s ( 1990 ) sociological theory, and a series of large-scale action research projects in literacy education (Martin, 1999 ; Rose, 2008 ).” Bhatia ( 2004 ) summarized some common features of genre studies: Genre refers to language in a stylized communicative setting in order to allow speakers and writers to express a definitive set of communicative goals of a disciplinary or social institution. Genre gives us stable structural forms, including the use of lexicogrammatical and semiotic resources (Bhatia, 2004 ).

Genre was defined differently in English for specific purposes (ESP) by Swales ( 1990 , p. 58), who defined the key concepts in ESP as “discourse community, communicative purpose, and genre.” Here, genre is a category of communicative events holding some communicative purpose. In other words, genres in ESP are understood as communicative tools in the social context of the discourse community, and understanding the functions of generic structure and lexicogrammar help us to understand the communicative goals (Fakhruddin & Hassan, 2015 ). In sum, genres in ESP are forms of communicative action.

Martin ( 1984 , p. 25) stated that genre in SFL is “goal-oriented and has a social activity purpose:” writers and speakers who use the genre engage in these activities as “members of their culture.” Eggins ( 2004 ) proposed that each genre text has a different cultural purpose based on its generic structure and realizational pattern. Realization of the relationship between (1) social purposes and (2) contexts as specific linguistic interactions is the key concept in SFL (Fakhruddin & Hassan, 2015 ). Understanding social purposes and contexts allows us to discern the meaning of the language and specific social actions (Fakhruddin & Hassan, 2015 ).

In this study, genre is defined as types of written text that help us to understand the relationship between the text’s social purpose and structure, which influence writers’ linguistic actions.

Previous research on the SFL genre (text)-based approach of writing in EFL contexts

Most current research on the genre-based approach (GBA) and SFL have implied improvement in learners’ generic structural awareness rather than in their lexicogrammatical meaning-making choices. Chen and Su ( 2012 ) and Feez ( 2002 ) emphasized that the use of GBA with the teaching-learning cycle (TLC) has five stages: (1) setting of the context, (2) modeling, (3) joint construction, (4) independent construction, and (5) comparison. The GBA and TLC were effective in terms of learners’ summarization ability, especially their organization of the narrative genre text’s structure rather than vocabulary and language use (Chen & Su, 2012 ; Feez, 1998 ; Feez, 2002). Carstens ( 2009 ) investigated the effectiveness of using GBA with SFL grammar as the theoretical framework for teaching academic writing to second-year undergraduate students of Humanities at the University of Pretoria. Although it is challenging for many tertiary-level learners to acquire specific knowledge and skills to write particular academic genre texts, genre-based writing has the capability to enhance their writing abilities. However, very little empirical research has been conducted in this area. Carstens’ ( 2009 ) study applied a mixed methods design using genre analysis, discourse analysis, survey of writing tasks, and pre- and posttest essay ratings. The results indicated that the following genre types were required to write academic essays: argumentation, discussion, explanation, and description genre texts (Carstens, 2009 ). Despite limited research, studies on EFL writing based on SFL-GBA teaching and learning have found that learners improved their understanding of the logico-semantic relationship. In Srinon’s ( 2011 ) study, learners’ use of resources to construct a logico-semantic relationship increased; that is, the frequency of using single-clause sentences reduced, and sentences including hypotaxis and parataxis increased.

SFL-GBA teaching usually involves the TLC, which is a systematic approach guiding EFL learners on how to interrelate lexicogrammatical features as well as functions and writers’ shared experiences in the context when they write. The original TLC has three stages: deconstruction of the target genre’s written texts, joint construction, and independent construction (Feez, 1998 ; Feez, 2002 ). Many studies on SFL-GBA writing have reported the benefits of applying this TLC to explore the degree to which genre-based teaching allows learners to gain genre awareness and improve writing quality when they write argumentative essays (Tsou & Lin, 2013 ). However, in their study, Tsou and Lin ( 2013 ) found that the control group learners’ understanding of genre awareness did not improve significantly. The concept of TLC allows EFL teachers and instructors to utilize the scaffolding strategy. Syarifah and Gunawan ( 2015 ) observed improvement in six EFL learners’ writing performance of a discussion genre text; in particular, the social function, schematic structure, and language features improved because of the SFL-GBA writing lesson. Thus, their results showed that scaffolding was embedded in the TLC. Viriya and Wasanasomsithi ( 2017 ) used the genre approach to writing lessons while using the TLC (Feez, 2002 ) for a 12-week period. The target for these learners was to produce a genre text that was informative and persuasive. However, there was little improvement in the learners’ awareness of the reader-writer relationship and what they should write about. Viriya and Wasanasomsithi ( 2017 ) concluded that these learners’ discourse community was within the classroom, and therefore they knew that their audience, that is, the reader of the text, would only be the instructor. Therefore, awareness of the reader-writer relationship did not improve significantly in the post-task. In SFL theory, the concept of Tenor indicates the degree of formality, power, and effect that usually influence interpersonal choices in terms of linguistics systems (Halliday, 1978 , p. 143). However, this idea might have been omitted in the learning classroom context in Viriya and Wasanasomsithi’s ( 2017 ) study.

Finally, although the majority of research on GBA teaching and learning has found that the SFL-GBA pedagogy is useful for EFL learners, most studies have demonstrated little understanding regarding which features of the approach are useful. Many studies have focused on learners’ generic awareness improvement but not on the changes in teachers’ understanding of how to teach writing using SFL and GBA. Shi ( 2015 ) applied a qualitative case study method by analyzing interviews, classroom observations, and students’ writing data. These students’ target genre was a discussion text. The authors found that through the workshop training, teachers’ (1) curricular knowledge, (2) subject matter content knowledge, and (3) pedagogical content knowledge about the target genre was improved. These teachers realized that their former approach of teaching how to write the target genre text was too general, with insufficient details about the generic structure. They found that genre pedagogy can provide learners with step-by-step instructions on how to write the target text. The teachers’ content knowledge of the target genre text allowed them to gain subject matter content knowledge and curriculum knowledge. These teachers believed that the modeling stage of the TLC in particular, allowed students to gain awareness of the textual features within target genre texts.

SFL-GBA writing research on EFL contexts in Japan

Contemporary genre research into the Japanese language has been conducted since the 1970s, focusing in particular on Japanese discourses. Therefore, the study of genre in Japanese language using the concept of SFL as a framework is now a well-established field of research (Thomson, de Silva Joyce, & Sano, 2017 ). However, EFL research on writing using the concept of SFL in the classroom context in Japan has not yet been fully established. The concept of SFL has recently been appreciated in EFL-based countries, and its theory and practicums have been integrated into English classes. Tatsuki ( 2006 ) analyzed the relationship between generic structures and lexicogrammatical features, and introduced the concept of SFL theory and practical application using genre texts with real situations.

Cornelius and Cotsworth ( 2015 ) clearly explained possibilities for applying SFL-GBA teaching in classroom learning contexts. Novice writers may find the conventionalities of EFL academic writing problematic, especially for lower English proficiency learners in the EFL classroom contexts of Japanese universities (Cornelius & Cotsworth, 2015 ). Cornelius and Cotsworth found that the Australian School of Genre approach (i.e., the TLC) can be an alternative solution that allows EFL learners to understand how the text is composed using a holistic approach and also allows EFL teachers to teach by explaining the target genre texts’ purpose, generic structures, and linguistic markers. Moreover, through this GBA of learning, learners have the responsibility for the output and their interaction (Cornelius & Cotsworth, 2015 ). During EFL learning in Japan, many learners might think that the grammar function, vocabulary, and meaning of a genre are separate aspects; however, the core concept of SFL and GBA is that “grammar and vocabulary are related to the meaning of the genre and not viewed as separate aspects” (Cornelius & Cotsworth, 2015 , p. 19). It is important for EFL learners to become familiar with the text’s purpose, structure, and language features by engaging in tasks with sample texts that allow them to recognize the particular genre (Cornelius & Cotsworth, 2015 ). The GBA method of learning writing benefits novice EFL learners in Japan by ensuring the above (Cornelius & Cotsworth, 2015 ). In addition, EFL learners need to be aware of the different social contexts when they engage in writing; however, it can be challenging for EFL learners to understand these differences (Badger & White, 2000 ), as they affect the choice of appropriate lexicogrammar and generic structure that are suited to the social context. For example, writing factual description texts and writing option essays use different lexicogrammatical features such as modalities. Learning to write using the GBA can solve the above issue.

Watanabe ( 2016 ) analyzed 50 writing tasks given in university entrance examinations in Japan. Learning of English in junior and senior high schools in Japan is highly entrance-examination driven; in other words, learners at high schools are familiar with how to write these particular genre texts through classroom lessons, although they do not have sufficient exposure to other genres. Thirty EFL learners in Japan, who were in two different proficiency groups, participated in the GBA with the SFL framework; these learners’ understanding of tone, register, and audience awareness were improved in the post-writing task (Yasuda, 2012 ).

Yasuda ( 2015 ) used SFL as the research framework to investigate the changes in EFL learners’ generic and language features. This author identified changes in learners’ understanding of interpersonal and textual meanings through SFL-informed genre analysis tasks. Yasuda ( 2015 ) concluded that genre-specific language learning with an SFL framework can enhance writers’ awareness of ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings in summary writing. One limitation of Yasuda’s ( 2015 ) study, however, was the focus on learners with different English proficiency levels. Therefore, this study attempts to examine two groups: learners with higher and lower English proficiency.

Contribution of this study

The efficacy of the approach of genre-based pedagogy (GBP) in teaching EFL academic writing and in learners’ learning of specific genres has not been well discussed in theoretical and anecdotal research. Few empirical studies have been conducted to assess whether the GBP approach benefits learners in their learning of a target genre. The use of the GBA with the SFL framework is a relatively new method of teaching English language writing to undergraduate university students in Japan. Therefore, this study was conducted to answer the following research questions:

RQ 1 How does the learners’ awareness of the target genre text change in terms of their use of generic structures and appropriate lexicogrammatical choice in the General English for Academic Purposes writing class?

RQ 2 How do learners understand words that have interpersonal meanings, and how do they use modal auxiliaries in writing a discussion genre essay?

Participants

The study participants comprised 27 first-year university students who belonged to two different classrooms: 13 EFL learners (female: n  = 9, male: n  = 4) in the higher English proficiency class, which is equivalent to IELTS 5.5 (upper-intermediate level) and 14 learners (female: n  = 11, male: n  = 3) in the lower English proficiency group, which was equivalent to IELTS 4.0 (pre-intermediate level). The common academic goals in their discourse community were (1) to participate in studies abroad, a university requirement for graduation and (2) to improve their meaning-making lexicogrammatical choices when writing academic essays such as discussion genre essays. Their English proficiency and understanding of a variety of genre texts were very limited; most participants with lower English proficiency had difficulty comprehending academic writing papers with several paragraphs. All participants were informed of the research purpose and asked to fill in their informed consent form at an early stage in the semester, before they participated in this research. The research purpose and preservation of participant anonymity were explained to them whenever they participated in tasks.

The following theories were applied as the framework in a 15-week semester sequence of genre-based EFL instruction. The particular concept from Halliday and Matthiessen ( 2014 ) and Martin and Rose ( 2008 ) for theoretical framework has been applied in this reaching. The contents of tasks and activities include submaterials for each GBA lessons were applied from Carstens ( 2009 ), Chen and Su ( 2012 ), NSW Department of School Education ( 1989 ). Moreover, Feez’s ( 2002 ) TLC was also applied three times during the 15-week lesson. The target genre text for the first cycle within 4 weeks was an “exposition (hortatory) genre text,” that for the second cycle was an “exposition (analytical) genre text,” and the third target genre was a “discussion genre text” during the last cycle. The fundamental lesson procedure for the TLC was as follows: (1) modeling and deconstructing a text, (2) writing the target text, (3) analyzing the genres of peers’ essays, and (4) writing the analysis reflection sheet.

In stage (1), learners had an opportunity to analyze the structure and language features of the modeling text. After decoding the model text, learners were asked to find a text similar to the target genre text online and then analyze it. That is, the learners were provided a great deal of input and time to expose themselves to the target genre in order to allow them to see how the purpose of the genre text is conveyed through the text organization and language features (Cornelius & Cotsworth, 2015 ; Hammond et al., 1992 ).

In stage (2), learners completed a timed writing exercise within 50 to 60 min. In stage (3), they analyzed the target genre essay’s generic structure and language features using peers’ essays; questions for the analysis were taken from Shi ( 2015 ). First, a move analysis was conducted for the first, second, and third paragraphs of the discussion type essay to assess learners’ understanding of the generic structure (see Fig.  1 ). Second, learners identified the frequency of the use of personal nouns and action verbs to assess the writers’ appropriate lexicogrammatical field choices. They then analyzed the frequency of word modalities, such as modal verbs and adverbs, to evaluate the appropriate tenor choices. Next, the frequency of word construct conjunctions, that is, appropriate mode choices, was assessed. The final task was to reflect on the learners’ genre analysis results.

An example of a learner’s discussion genre text with genre analysis from the lower English proficiency group during stage (3) of the TLC

Data sources

In phase 1, to elicit in-depth qualitative insights to answer RQ 1, 21 learners conducted genre analysis reflection of written texts (higher-level: n  = 9, lower-level: n  = 12). Six students did not complete this task, as they were absent. In stage (4) of Feez’s ( 2002 ) TLC, immediately after the learners completed the segment analysis of their peers’ essays, they completed the reflection writing task using the analysis reflecting sheet, which took approximately 40 min; this was conducted at the end of the semester. Learners were given open-ended reflection questions on which they needed to reflect based on their understanding of the target genre text. The questions were based on Nagao ( 2017 ), Shi ( 2015 , p. 263), and Yasuda ( 2015 ). The questions for the analysis sheets are follows: Q1: Please summarize the features that provided new information and knowledge through this genre analysis of a peer’s discussion essay and Q2 : Please summarize the result of the genre analysis. Discuss why the results were different from yours.

In Phase 2, discussion type essays that learners produced at the beginning and end of the semester as a non-instructional and instructional writing task, respectively, were explored in order to answer RQ 2: How do learners understand words that have interpersonal meanings, and how do they use modal auxiliaries in writing a discussion genre essay? The writing topics were “Does the individual have the right to privacy?” for the pre-writing task and “Should academic achievement be a primary consideration for college admission?” for the post-writing task. Twenty-one learners participated in these tasks (higher-level: n = 9, lower-level: n = 12).

The attribution discussion genre essay was adopted from the NSW Department of School Education’s ( 1989 ) Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program and Srinon ( 2011 ). The function of the discussion genre essay is for writers to present information and explain arguments from both sides (for and against; pros and cons) of the topic and issue. Based on these evidential explanations, writers introduced their own opinions and recommendations in the final paragraph. During the post-instructional writing task, learners had the opportunity to consider who could be an appropriate audience for the target genre texts. The generic (schematic) structure of the discussion genre essay comprises four paragraphs: introduce the topic and issue, write arguments for (or against), write arguments against (or for), and write recommendations and the writer’s opinion. The language features of the discussion genre essay are: some vocabulary items embedded in the (1) ideational meaning (Field) such as human and non-human participants and mental and action verbs, (2) interpersonal meaning (Tenor) such as modal verbs and adverbs, and (3) textual meaning (Mode) such as construct conjunctions.

Phase 1—12 criteria from Burns, Joyce, and Gollin ( 1996 ) were applied to assess the self-reflection content written to explore how learners used generic structure and lexicogrammar in their essays (see Table  2 ). All 318 sentences (higher-level: n  = 172, lower-level: n  = 146) of the learners’ self-reflection written texts were coded with the 12 criteria.

Phase 2—Pre- and post-timed writing: This study focuses on modal-makers based on the SFL framework (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ), which is classified into two different types: modality-type and modal semantics. The modality type is categorized into verbal modality and nonverbal modality. In verbal modality, modal auxiliaries such as can, may, and could , semi-modal verbs such as have to and ought to , and lexical verbs such as allow and oblige are listed. This study analyzes the frequency of modal auxiliaries. According to Halliday and Matthiessen ( 2014 ) and Halliday and Hasan ( 1989 ), modal verbs have different degrees of certainty, probability, or obligation, and choosing appropriate modal verbs is essential to realizing the interpersonal functions and expressing the social roles of writers and readers. Moreover, writers and speakers use these modal verbs to reflect their attitudes such as judgment (e.g., You must know a lot of things now. ) and possibilities (e.g., I can participate in the meeting tomorrow .) toward a situation or event, which are called values. These values are classified as high, median, and low (Table  3 ). For example, one hypothesis is that a large number of modal auxiliaries with high values— must, should, ought to, need to, has to, or is to —will possibly appear in the final paragraph of the discussion genre text for writers to express their strong opinions. The other hypothesis is that the modal auxiliary, will , may appear in the introduction paragraph of the discussion genre essay. EFL learners from the 15-week lesson used in this research were taught the different value degrees of modal verbs (see Table 3 ) during stage (1) of the TLC for modeling and deconstructing a text. First, the results of the statistical description were analyzed using the UAM corpus tool, which facilitates linguistic annotation of text corpora. Second, the frequencies of modal auxiliaries such as can, may, and could were identified for each paragraph of the learners’ pre- and post-writing essays (Shi, 2015 ). Before writing the post-essay, learners were taught the precise classification of the values of modal auxiliaries. Dates for the collection of the essays (data) are provided in Table  4 .

Phase 1: genre analysis of peers’ reflection essay results

To answer RQ 1, the learners’ reflections on the results of the genre analysis, primarily regarding the generic structure and language features of their peers’ essays were explored. From the reflection analysis sheets, 172 sentences from the higher English proficiency group and 146 sentences from the lower English proficiency group were analyzed. The results of phase 1 are illustrated in Table  5 . As for the result of the generic structure, more learners in the higher English proficiency group than in the lower English proficiency group tended to present data analysis and discussion about their outcomes (higher-level: n  = 70, lower-level: n  = 44). Similar results were observed for the reflection on genre purpose (higher-level: n  = 8, lower-level: n  = 3). For instance, for the generic structure analysis such as move analysis of the first paragraph for the discussion genre, one learner stated the following:

My partner’s structure in the introduction part was in this order: (1) describe the current situation, (2) introduce the essay topic, (3) explain the background issue of the topic, and then finally (4) provide some explanation that played a bridge function for readers to understand what the second and third paragraphs would explain. On the other hand, the first paragraph of the introduction part of my essay had the following structure: (1) describe the background information, (2) describe the current situation, (3) introduce the essay topic, and (4) provide some statistical data. Overall, through this move analysis of the first paragraph, I realized that the last sentence of the paragraph with the bridge function made it easier for me to understand the essay. (extracted from the reflection sheet of Student no. 6 from the higher English proficiency group)

In terms of the generic structure analysis, some learners analyzed the second, third, and final paragraphs. An example is given as follows:

In my partner’s essay, the content of the second, third, and concluding paragraphs was in the order of (1) argument against, (2) argument for, and (3) argument against. I wrote the same pattern. This pattern is good for readers because readers can compare the arguments given in the second and third paragraphs and then read the content of the final paragraph; in this case, the “argument against” is emphasized. So, I think this pattern of writing can be effective for readers to remember what the writer wanted to say. (extracted from the reflection sheet from Student no. 2 in the lower English proficiency group)

Regarding the results of the lexicogrammatical features for making appropriate ideational meaning (Field), a few learners in the higher English proficiency group analyzed the use of personal pronouns, while learners in the lower English proficiency group did not mention the process (verbs). Vocabulary items related to interpersonal meaning were analyzed by a large number of learners in both the higher- and lower-level groups. Learners clearly showed understanding of how to write modalities such as will , can , should , and need to , as well as how to write adverbs such as typically , absolutely , and definitely in their reflection analysis sheets (higher-level: n  = 50, lower-level: n  = 46). Appropriate lexicogrammatical features of textual meaning, especially the use of “construct conjunctions” and “signposts,” received attention from EFL learners in the lower English proficiency group (higher-level: n  = 14, lower-level: n  = 30). For example, Student no. 9 in the lower English proficiency group wrote in an analysis comment, “I think that these signposts, such as In fac t and Besides , are persuasive for readers.”

Phase 2 : pre non-instructional timed writing and post instructional timed writing tasks

In phase 1, in both the higher and lower English proficiency groups, the data analysis result suggests that many learners illustrated their understanding in their reflection sheets of how to use vocabulary items related to the interpersonal meaning of the target text, especially the use of modal verbs, will , can , should , and need to . In phase 2, the answer to RQ 2 was explored.

In this phase, pre-instructed essays and post-instructed essays were analyzed. The total number of words in the text was counted (higher-level: n  = 1433, lower-level: n  = 1017), the total number of sentences (higher-level: n  = 105, lower-level: n  = 88), and the frequency of the nine modal auxiliaries in each paragraph of learners’ pre- and post-discussion genre texts (see Table  6 ).

The results show that the frequency of the modal auxiliary, shall , did not change from the pre-writing texts to post-writing texts in either the higher- or lower-level groups. That is to say, no learner used the word shall in either their pre- or post-writing essays. The frequency of the use of must was 2 in the pre-writing texts and 0 in the post-writing texts. The results of these modal auxiliaries, can , will , and should , showed a significant change from pre- to post-writing. The total frequency (both classes) of can in the first and second paragraphs was large in the pre-writing texts, and most appearances of can were in the second and third paragraphs of the post-writing texts. The results show that the frequency of the modal auxiliary will changed dramatically between the pre- and post-writing texts. The frequency was 1 in the first paragraph in the pre-writing texts, but 9 for the post-writing texts in total. A similar change was found in the second paragraph. Finally, the frequency of the modal auxiliary should also changed dramatically, especially in the final paragraph; in the final paragraphs, the frequency was 12 for the post-writing texts but only 3 for the pre-writing texts, and even then, it was only found among higher proficiency learners. No learners in the lower level wrote should in the pre-writing; its use frequency was 1 in the first paragraph, 3 in the second paragraph, 1 in the third paragraph, and 8 in the final paragraph in post-writing texts. To sum up, the post-test results for lower-proficiency learners showed a dramatic increase in the use of the words should and will , which did not appear at all in their pre-writing texts; will was used frequently in the first paragraph of the post-tests, which denotes intention, while should appeared often in the final paragraph.

To sum up the frequency of the modal verb will in pre-writing tasks, the result shows that n  = 1 in the first paragraph, n  = 2 in the second paragraph, and n = 1 in the conclusion of essays from the higher-level group; will was not used in any essay from the lower English proficiency group.

Learners in the higher-level group wrote sentences including the modal verb will in their pre-writing texts. The following is an example from the second paragraph: “[s] ome people think they have the right to privacy because they have to be protected by it. If someone uses their information for crime, their privacy will disappear” (extracted from Student no. 1). The use of will in the above sentence can be interpreted as indicating probability. Student No. 6 writes as follows in the first paragraph: “If it had not been for individual privacy many people can know our privacy and it will cause problems”; this use of will reflects the writer’s opinion of probability. Finally, the first paragraph of Student no. 8 states, “[t] his essay will discuss both views.” This will can be interpreted as an obligation; the writer is supposed to introduce both views on the topic in the discussion genre essay.

Learners in the higher-level group wrote sentences including the modal verb will in their post-writing texts ( n  = 4 in the first paragraph, n = 4 in the second paragraph, n = 2 in the third paragraph, and n  = 6 in the final paragraph). The common feature of the use of will in the first paragraph is that the writers used it to denote “obligation,” which was the same result as in the pre-writing texts. In paragraph 2 of the post-writing texts, will appeared with the meanings of probability (n = 2) and obligation (n = 1). For example, Student no. 4 stated the following: “According to [newspaper’s name] (2013), they decided that the National Center Test for University Admissions will be banned in the next few years and the new system will be adopted.” This meaning of will possibly has a different meaning. Will denoting probability also appeared in both the third (n = 2) and fourth paragraphs ( n  = 5).

The total frequency of can in the first and second paragraphs was large in the pre-writing texts (first paragraph: n  = 13, second paragraph: n  = 17), while most appearances of can were in the second and third paragraphs in the post-writing texts. The frequency of must was n = 2 in the pre-writing texts but n  = 0 in the post-writing texts, and only among the lower English proficiency group.

Most EFL learners in Japan are told to memorize the literal meanings of vocabulary items without being taught their functional meanings. Thus, many English learners are taught that the word can denotes possibility, and to memorize the phrase be able to as it has the same meaning as can ; this can be a typical way to teach. However, teaching writing based on SFL-GBA can provide EFL learners with the opportunity to learn that the word can has the meaning of possibility and also has a degree of value. Thus, when the writer wants to express and control his or her opinions or judgments, s/he can use the word can appropriately to create meaning between the writer and readers without making the first person I explicit (Halliday, 2001 ). The word must carries the highest probability among other modal verbs, as identified by Halliday ( 1985 ). Wang ( 2014 ) interpreted that the modal verb will shows the willingness of the writers and is also subjective and implicit.

In phase 1, in-depth, qualitative reflection sheets for genre analysis of peers’ essays were used to analyze the students’ meaning-making choices, demonstrating how much they understood the target genre text. In terms of understanding the generic structure and genre purpose, more learners with higher, rather than lower, English proficiency tended to show better understanding.

Regarding understanding of the lexicogrammar, lower English proficiency learners showed improvement in understanding some vocabulary items related to interpersonal meaning (Table 5 ; higher level group = 29%, lower-level group = 31%). Improvement in the understanding of modal auxiliaries (interpersonal meaning) in the target genre to examine their improvement of awareness was the focus. Interpersonal meanings are expressed by modality (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ), and there are links between the language systems and vocabulary choices made by the writer (Eggins, 2004 ). Choosing an appropriate modal auxiliary in discussion genre texts is related to writers’ level of familiarity with their audience and their attitudes and judgments (Eggins, 2004 ). These features were found in the learners’ reflection sheets. According to Student no. 9 of the higher-level group:

The genre analysis comparison data showed that, in my partner’s essay, her opinion was against the topic and there was little supporting evidence. Therefore, it was hard for me to understand her (as the writer) opinion. My suggestion is to add some auxiliary verbs such as “can, must, should” in this final paragraph in order to show her strong opinion so that I (as the reader) can understand her opinion clearly.

Finally, in phase 2, to examine learners’ proficiency improvement, frequency analysis of the modal auxiliaries in the pre- and post-genre essays was conducted. The results showed that the frequency of the modal auxiliaries can , will , and should changed significantly from pre- to post-writing. The modal verb will is explained as being closely related to the human activity of communication; in particular, will can denote “probability, usuality, obligation, or inclination” (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 , p. 186, p. 691). Moreover, the results imply that use of this verb was associated with different meanings. However, it could not be confirmed whether learners used these different meanings of will intentionally.

The total frequency (for both classes) of can in the first and second paragraphs was large in the pre-writing texts, while most appearances of can occurred in the second and third paragraphs in the post-writing texts.

The most remarkable result was the frequency of the modal auxiliary should , particularly in the final paragraph of the lower English proficiency group. In the conclusion paragraph of the discussion genre text, no EFL writer in the lower English proficiency group chose to write should in the pre-writing task; however, should appeared several times in the post-writing texts ( n  = 8).

In phase 1, between the higher and lower English proficiency groups, the data analysis result suggests that many of the learners illustrated their understanding in their reflection sheets of how to use vocabulary items related to the interpersonal meaning of the target text, particularly the use of the modal verbs will , can , should , and need .

The results in phase 2 show that the frequency of use of the modal auxiliary shall in both classes did not change from the pre-writing to post-writing texts; none of the learners wrote the word in either their pre- or post-writing essays. This may be because they did not need to use it or they did not know how to use it, even though they had previously been taught its meaning.

Although no learner in either group used must in the post-writing, must includes a variety of meanings: It reflects the writer’s certainty and can denote always, required, or determined. One interpretation of the fact that must , which has a high value, was used less often is that the writer’s purpose was possibly not to show the degeneration of the writer’s status and power or the writer’s uncertainty; rather, the writer may have tried to present their demands and take responsibility (Wang, 2014 ). This can be considered the learners’ understanding of the purpose of the “discussion genre essay,” which is to present different points of view (especially from both sides: pros and cons and advantages and disadvantages) in order to make an informed decision.

Improving their L2 writing skills can be challenging for EFL learners, because, first, they tend to have difficulties generalizing and organizing ideas using appropriate lexicogrammatical functions and, second, they tend to have little ability to implement such choices into intelligible text (Rajagopalan & Jie, 2016 ).

One limitation of this study is the small number of participants; therefore, these results are merely tendencies, and it cannot be concluded that all EFL lower English proficiency learners improved their understanding of generic structure and lexicogrammatical features. However, the SFL-GBA method allowed EFL learners to increase their awareness of text-type in terms of language and text features. This understanding may link with the aspect of how to turn ideas into intelligible text (the discussion genre text). Similarly, the other limitation of this research is that it was not possible to provide a deterministic evaluation of how much the learners precisely understood the different degrees of modal verbs’ values and managed to reflect their interpersonal meaning when they chose to use these modal verbs in the post-writing tasks. To solve the above issue, follow-up interviews with the target learners will be necessary in future research.

This study has investigated the changes in Japanese EFL learners’ awareness of language features and generic structures of “discussion genre texts” through the genre-based approach to text-based writing lessons during a 15-week course. This paper has described an SFL activity-based GBA for teaching writing to EFL learners with higher and lower English proficiencies. It found that the GBA paired with a sequenced and well-structured teaching methodology can be an effective teaching methodology in writing lessons. This approach included macro and micro scaffolding to assist learners to organize their writing and understand the nature of the target text in the classroom learning context. The results suggested that teaching EFL learners to write by developing their rhetorical awareness was a challenge in this particular classroom setting.

Abbreviations

English as a Foreign/ Second Language

English for Speakers of Other Languages

English for specific purposes

Genre-based approach

Systematic functional linguistics

Teaching-learning cycle

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Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Peter Mickan (The University of Adelaide). His thoughtful comments and feedback on SFL GBA lesson plans significantly improved the manuscript.

I would like to thank reviewers and editors for their valuable feedback.

This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) Grant Number JP16K16891 from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval, consent to participate, and consent for publication were received from app participants and committee members for this study.

Ryukoku University, 67 Tsukamoto-cho, Fukakusa Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, 612-8577, Japan

Akiko Nagao

Contributions

AN designed study, performed the research, analyzed the data and wrote the paper. The author read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Akiko Nagao .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The author declares that she has no competing interests.

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Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

About this article

Cite this article.

Nagao, A. The SFL genre-based approach to writing in EFL contexts. Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ. 4 , 6 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-019-0069-3

Received : 30 August 2018

Accepted : 15 April 2019

Published : 14 May 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-019-0069-3

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Teaching Writing to ESL/EFL Students: Tips and Activities for Any Level

• Linda D'Argenio
• August 19, 2022

Teaching writing to non-native speakers of a language presents a plethora of unique challenges and can feel overwhelming for new and seasoned teachers alike. However, teaching writing to ESL students can be dynamic and meaningful when approached with a bit of ingenuity.

If you’re new to teaching, you’ll want to get initial training and qualification with a TEFL certificate . You can explore our online TEFL courses to get started!

Why is it important to teach writing to ESL students?

In order to effectively participate as contributing members of society, individuals need to be able to communicate their thoughts in written form, whether they are using the English language as their vehicle or not.

Writing is an essential component of productive language, and ELs will need to demonstrate their ability to write in English if they hope to be competitive in a globalized world . Building competency in English-language writing supports reading comprehension, vocabulary expansion, and oral fluency , so there’s so much to be gained. And even if your students don’t plan to use the lingua franca on a regular basis, the skills gleaned from learning to write in another language transfer to all facets of life, making students more aware and more effective communicators in their native language(s) .

Teaching ESL writing aids in self-expression , which might be particularly meaningful for individuals who are hesitant to express themselves verbally. You might have the next Henry David Thoreau or Gabriel García Márquez in your class!

Why do ESL students struggle with writing?

Writing in another language is no easy feat, so it’s only natural that your ESL/ EFL students encounter difficulties when asked to do so.

First, it’s essential to recognize that writing conventions differ from one language group to another . Students from various linguistic backgrounds might declare that writing in English (particularly in an academic setting) is “boring,” something they perceive as formulaic. Often, these students come from backgrounds that value writing in a way that might seem “tangential” to native English readers.

In “Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education,” Robert B. Kaplan (1966) put forth a model for examining written discourse patterns, which illustrates how different thought patterns influence how speakers of other languages express themselves in written form.

You can observe that English is illustrated as being very straightforward, which aligns with the directness of spoken English. Kaplan poses here that other language groups tend to branch off in different directions in written form, pulling in supporting elements that might not be directly correlated to the main idea and that present as “off-topic” for native English speakers.

Secondly, it’s crucial to keep in mind that writing requires a vocabulary lexicon that can adequately support sharing . Often, even the most proficient English learners struggle to select the language they need to convey their point. When tackling writing instruction, make sure to consider how you’re supporting vocabulary development to support the conventions you’re teaching.

Lastly (and perhaps most importantly), writing is a form of self-expression, and self-expression through writing isn’t valued the same way in all cultures . There is a great deal of value placed on sharing one’s opinions in the U.S., for example, but this is not the reality all over the world. Some of your students might have been taught that they receive and process information, but that they are not in the position to make statements of their own or have the authority to teach others. Therefore, putting their thoughts down on paper might feel formal, high-stakes even, for your students.

What are some tips for teaching ESL writing?

Regardless of the age and proficiency level of your students, or whether you’re teaching writing in an ESL or EFL classroom, there is a myriad of strategies that you have at your disposal.

Don’t underestimate the value of conducting needs assessments

When it comes down to how to teach writing skills, even if you are teaching a group that is considered a certain proficiency level, recognize that there is always going to be a range of experience and ability present. Spend time getting to know what your students have been exposed to and in what ways before deciding on your approach. Teach to the middle to ensure no one is left behind.

Check out the following sample needs assessment to get started:

Think about how you can lower learners’ affective filters

A large portion of all successful teaching comes from relationship-building. In addition to getting a true sense of your learners’ experience and abilities, try to understand their attitudes towards writing as a process and any challenges that might be borne from those attitudes. How can you increase your students’ comfort level? How can you engage the individuals sitting in front of you?

Check out these 5 ways to build rapport with your students when teaching English.

Think about how the writing task can act as a building block for other assignments

Learning how to write in another language can be intimidating, and even more so if your students don’t enjoy writing in the first place. When wondering how to teach writing to ESL/EFL students, think about how you can integrate writing more often and more seamlessly into your lesson plans. Instead of approaching writing in isolation, teach writing skills alongside other “more engaging” activities that students tend to enjoy more. Have your students participate in role-playing and storytelling activities that require writing but don’t make writing the focus of the activity. This is your chance to be sneaky and get your students to build their writing skills without even knowing!

Present opportunities to examine authentic, written language

Providing students with examples of the target language is non-negotiable, but challenge yourself to move beyond the sample texts in your curriculum where possible. Students might feel bored by the selected works in their textbooks – they need to recognize that written language is all around them. Pull from authentic texts that cover an array of topics that you know matter to your students to keep them enticed.

Try incorporating pop culture into your ESL classroom to spice up writing activities!

Lead with function over form in instruction, and then alter your focus

Students can be discouraged to find their paper covered with red ink, highlighting their fallacies. While it is important to provide corrective feedback, consider the purpose of the assignment before marking up the composition. Was the output comprehensible? Did it touch upon everything that you asked for? Focusing on both function (the purpose of the assignment) and the accuracy in form simultaneously can feel overwhelming. Choose your objectives carefully, make them known to the learners, and provide corrective feedback accordingly .

Choose writing activities that pertain to your students’ learning goals. For example, the following clip, from a BridgeUniverse Expert Series webinar , covers how to teach Business English students to write an email in English:

Consider formative assessment and reflective strategies

Whenever possible, assess student work periodically, examining the process with various checkpoints and iterations throughout, instead of just evaluating the final product. Writing is an iterative process, and students benefit greatly when offered opportunities to reflect on their process. Create opportunities for students to participate in self- and peer-revision processes, which in turn will result in more conscientious and focused writers.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for beginners?

It can feel challenging to come up with writing activities for learners with beginner proficiency, but with proper scaffolding , writing can be inclusive and participatory.

Try group writing processes in class to get students comfortable

Writers with beginner proficiency might default to a deficit mindset, believing that writing is inaccessible for them due to a dearth of vocabulary or experience, so when you start to look at how to teach writing in the ESL/EFL classroom, your first job is to inspire confidence and get students into a growth mindset. To get them comfortable with the writing process, engage them in group writing activities.

• Choose a familiar topic (or have your students choose a topic together), and explain that you are going to “group-author” a paragraph.
• Have the students share what they know about the topic, and you, as the teacher, act as the scribe, jotting down their thoughts in a central location.
• Continue gathering their ideas until everyone has shared, remembering to emphasize that this is a process and that there is no wrong contribution.
• Examine the individual contributions and note overlap: How can a few thoughts be grouped together? In the process, ask students to elaborate on what they meant and provide examples.
• Organize these preliminary thoughts to the best of your ability, involving the students and getting them to notice organizational structures and decipher between the main idea and details.
• After celebrating what you can refer to as the “first draft,” provide specific and limited ways to improve the piece. Did they include everything they thought was relevant to the topic? Could the paragraph benefit from additional cohesive devices? Do the subjects and verbs agree? Provide ample support in the form of examples, formulas, and sentence frames alongside the piece. Invite students to examine the paragraph and seek out these common mistakes (in partners or individually).
• Create your “final draft” together, and ensure that it’s displayed prominently in the space.

By engaging them in the writing process in this way, you are instilling habits that will aid them in writing autonomously when the time comes.

Make the most of brainstorming – both individually and with others

Have you ever had students tell you that they don’t know what to write? Students, particularly those at the beginner level, need ample time to think about the content before diving into the actual writing process . Emphasize the importance of brainstorming as a way to collect their thoughts and aid them in their writing. Engage students in different kinds of brainstorming activities, going beyond “write down what comes to mind.”

Consider Think-Pair-Share as a framework for brainstorming, where students take time to think independently about the topic, share their ideas with their peers, and then share aloud to a larger group. Typically, the sharing is done orally, but you could also consider the independent writing portion of the activity as “sharing” with a larger audience, just in written form.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for intermediate and advanced students?

Facilitate a two-way journal experience with your students.

Create a way for individual students to exchange their ideas with you in an informal way with a two-way journal . Have the students maintain a writing journal that you periodically collect to write comments and ask questions. The objective of this exchange is not to formally evaluate your students’ writing, but to gather intel about your students’ progress and connect with them as individuals. Within these exchanges, not only are you building and sustaining rapport, but you are also augmenting critical thinking and meta-cognitive skills with strategies like noticing and annotation.

Cultivate peer revision routines

Learning to write in a non-native language is as much a social process as it is a cognitive process. Involving students in peer revision activities can be incredibly beneficial in that students can learn from their peers (potentially those who are stronger writers than themselves) and develop the ability to think more critically about their own writing. While getting students to effectively participate in peer revision activities requires a lot of frontloading and the establishing of routine, it is the gift that keeps on giving. If you’re interested in facilitating peer revision with your students, consider the following as general guidelines:

• Start by determining your focus for the activity. What are you asking the students to do? Make it clear to the students what you’re looking for, and provide supports that they can use in the process (e.g., a checklist or rubric).
• Demonstrate how students would use the rubric, and go through the revision process as a group.
• Provide sample pieces to examine, and engage the students in discussion around the samples.
• Make sure that students are aware of what is considered appropriate and useful feedback through modeling. Have them practice, and give them feedback on their feedback.
• Monitor the peer review sessions and jump in as needed, ensuring the quality of feedback for all involved parties.
• Reflect on the peer feedback activity in whole-group format, asking students to share what they got from reading their peers’ work, defining areas that they excelled in and areas for improvement.

Timed writing

Once your students feel comfortable with the writing process and the structure at hand, consider different contexts that they’ll be writing in. Perhaps they are planning to take the TOEFL or the Pearson Test of English (PTE) and hope to study abroad, or maybe they’re about to enter the workforce and work collaboratively with others.

In either case, your students will need to demonstrate their ability to communicate their ideas in written form while adhering to time constraints . Plan timed writing activities for your students on a variety of topics and with different parameters. In a standardized test prep context, have students write under the same conditions as the test that they’re preparing to sit for.

Take a Micro-credential course in Teaching TOEFL Test Prep or Teaching PTE Test Prep to help students ace these high-stakes exams.

In a workforce development setting, illustrate a scenario in which an email from management warrants an urgent (and polished) response. In either context, examine the output and discuss strategies that the students used. Student output from timed activities provides fertile ground for examining accuracy in form. Walk students through noticing activities, and challenge them to remember their tendencies in subsequent timed writing tasks.

Teaching writing to ESL/EFL students requires commitment and perhaps a bit of innovation on the part of the teacher, but if done well, it can prove immensely useful in a globalized world, aiding individuals in self-expression and beyond.

In addition to writing, there’s another subject that can sometimes fill teachers with dread: grammar! Here are 7 simple strategies for teaching grammar to English language learners , so you can tackle this topic with confidence .

Linda D'Argenio

Linda D'Argenio is a native of Naples, Italy. She is a world language teacher (English, Italian, and Mandarin Chinese,) translator, and writer. She has studied and worked in Italy, Germany, China, and the U.S. In 2003, Linda earned her doctoral degree in Classical Chinese Literature from Columbia University. She has taught students at both the school and college levels. Linda lives in Brooklyn, NY.

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Writing in a foreign language - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Writing in a foreign language

Teaching-learning how to write in a foreign language – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• The process of learning to write in a foreign language should be started in Primary Education and really never ends.
• Academic Writing is the production of a sequence of sentences arranged in a particular order and linked together to form a coherent whole called text.
• From a communicative perspective, we could understand writing as the ability to communicate with each other and express our own ideas in written form.
• Writing is clearly a complex, multifaceted process requiring the ability to manipulate many sub-skills simultaneously
• involves being creative, spelling, grammar, punctuation, choice of appropriate words, sentences linking and text construction.
• Spelling Difference between pronunciation and spelling in the English language.
• How can our students improve their spelling?
• We advise them to
• a) select priority words to learn,
• b) get plentiful, regular practice,
• c) know about the language,
• d) learn techniques,
• e) develop an interest in words,
• f) check their work,
• g) have confidence in themselves.
• Punctuation Learning how to use punctuation correctly is a slow and laborious process. It should be started from the very beginning.
• Layout There are certain conventions on how to write a letter, construct a paragraph, organise a written text and so on that are culturally determined.
• This refers to the students' skill in making efficient use of grammatical structures and constructions.
• This includes the learners capacity to select the most appropriate meaning in a range of styles and registers Sociolinguistic competence
• This refers to the ability to use linguistic cohesive devices what we call connectors and modifiers in order to link parts of a text into logically related sequences discourse competence
• The organisation of pieces of information into paragraphs and texts.
• It is an obvious fact that languages are spoken before they are written, and there are people who communicate perfectly in the spoken language without being able to express themselves in writing.
• When introducing the skills we should know
• what stage the learners are at in the acquisition of their first language skills,
• to ensure that we do not interfere with the learning process of their own language.
• Only when reading and writing have been acquired in L1 can we begin the task with L2.
• At beginner levels in particular, writing practice should be aimed at
• reinforcing the learning of linguistic elements which have been practised orally,
• without forgetting to introduce our pupils to vocabulary practice and the structures of written language itself.
• Integrated Skills It means that we can create activities, tasks where the four basic skills are integrated.
• Integrating Reading and Writing. Reading and Writing are closely related
• a) reading is a source of input and model for written language
• b) there is a continual process of feedback between the two skills.
• Students need to receive language, a comprehensible input, by means of reading a sufficient amount in order to develop their capacity.
• Beginners should be given models adapted to their level.
• We constantly read what we have written to revise content and grammar, organise the text, etc. So there is a continous feedback.
• When we are writing something we usually try it out by pronouncing it internally in what is known as inner speech
• To get used to English spelling, it is better first to only hear the word, get to know its acoustic shape before writing it down.
• Traditional activities Dictations or listening comprehensions
• Communicative writing activities Information gaps and task dependency
• Teachers perspective
• lack of a well-defined model of teaching how to write
• reduced to exercises known as composition or essays.
• Time-consuming activity.
• this skill requires a lot of time to obtain an acceptable product and relegates it to homework.
• Focus on Listening and Speaking.
• Our educational system pays more attention to oral skills.
• The teacher is usually the only audience for the pupils work.
• Pupils perspective
• Pupils tend to see writing as an academic activity imposed by the teacher.
• It is the only skill whose final product is fixed and recorded for posterity.
• There is no immediate feedback.
• Need for a real audience and real communication to give authenticity to this exercise and encourage the pupils implication in the process.
• Choice of subject matter.
• the themes proposed are often repetitive, unimaginative and unattractive.
• Solitary work
• Before beginning
• The content what you are writing for.
• The addressee or reader who you are writing to or for.
• The purpose why you are writing.
• Distinction between personal writing and public/professional or institutional writing.
• a) PERSONAL WRITING
• PERSONAL PUBLIC WRITING
• PUBLIC OR INSTITUTIONAL WRITING
• Pupil needs to write with either a real or imaginary reader in mind.
• The choice of appropriate style and content will depend on the audience we are writing for.
• The teacher should not become the only reader of their work.
• Other students in the school make a newspaper, magazine or other mini projects (exhibitions) to share with pupils from other classes.
• The student himself, writing a poem, a few notes, or a draft for his eyes only.
• A real outside audience
• Pen friends
• Pen pals, Key pals or cyberpals
• Internet chats
• SMS messages
• Writing for information
• Fictional characters
• An imaginary outside audience.
• We can create displays of their work class surveys.
• Royal Mail post box will encourage pupils to write letters to their teacher
• Royal Mail post box will encourage pupils to write letters to their teacher, headmaster, or other pupils to express their complaints, opinions, suggestions or congratulations.
• English Notice Board where they can write news that interests them and that they want to share with the rest of the class.
• The clothes-line allows us to carry out many activities in the English classroom.
• We can provide a Book of Envelopes where they can put their letters written to the person whose address is on the front of each envelope.
• Writing always has a purpose which will determine the expressions, vocabulary, style, format, etc. that should be used.
• The writer should have a reason for writing and this will depend on age, interests and needs.
• We could propose exercises that fulfil some of the following requirements
• They make you think in order to solve a problem.
• They are entertaining.
• They communicate something, such as letters or notes.
• They have a specific use for the pupils the words of a song, a recipe, facts and figures, etc.
• 8.2. The Free-Writing Approach
• Intermediate-level students.
• Quantity rather than quality.
• Content and fluency rather than form.
• The focus here is on text organisation.
• Students copy, analyse and imitate model paragraphs and passages.
• Teach students to connect the purpose of a written text to the most appropriate forms required to convey the message.
• Attention is paid to grammar and syntax, as well as to appropriate choice of vocabulary and the structure of the piece of writing
• The purpose and addressee of a piece of writing are the focal points of this approach.
• Addressees other than the teacher.
• It is believed that writers work better when writing for a real reader.
• Describe yourself, but Your penpal from England is coming to stay with you for the first time. Write a letter describing yourself so that he/she will recognise you when you go to meet him/her at the station.
• Composing processes writers make use of in writing, such as
• planning (also called pre-writing)
• creating and developing
• and revising (or editing).
• The aim of this approach is to help the student answer the question How do I write this? by developing their use of composing processes.
• Class discussion of the topic, brainstorming or list making).
• Think about what they are going to write.
• Who they are writing for.
• organise their work, etc
• Students then respond to these ideas in writing (the drafting stage).
• Drafting improved upon with the help of feedback from the teacher and/or other students
• The final stage is Revising
• Teachers use what they consider to be the most useful techniques from each approach, according to the teaching context they are working in, the stage their pupils are at, etc.
• It is above all a useful learning tool
• It helps to consolidate and reinforce the learning of other knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, etc.).
• It is a useful communication channel.
• It adds another physical dimension to the learning process.
• A series of stages has been established where the activities become increasingly more complex.
• Familiarisation with written texts writing words, simple grammatical phrases, routines or prefabricated language is the first step before pupils can produce their first written sentences.
• copying, tracing and handling language, focused mainly on spelling and vocabulary. Possible activities crosswords, anagrams, jumbled letters, put the words in one sentence, labelling objects and pictures, hangman, etc.
• Controlled Writing Controlling the pupils production and reducing the possibility of mistakes.
• very little communicative function
• Guided Writing Here the learner begins to produce written sentences following very precise guidelines provided by the teacher or the textbook, which usually lead to predictable results.
• Free Writing Also known as Creative, Expressive writing or Writing for Fluency.
• Slotboard large board with a row of pockets along the bottom.
• The pupil inserts cards with words on them in the pockets to create sentences.
• Displaying Charts
• Word displays
• Sentence markers
• Games from scrabble to help with spelling, or snap.
• Visual Material (Pictures, drawings, photographs, wallcharts, etc.)
• Roll Sentences the children write sentences in strips which can be rotated around a cardboard tube to make new sentences.
• Frames Big Books to initiate children in writing.
• Activity Books. Workbooks and worksheets are widely used in our Education System
• Computers Use of emails and correspondence with penpals (http//www.ks-connection.org/penpal/ penpal.html) as a way of giving authenticity to written communication. Chats are another form of communication written in real time
• We should not forget the existence of specific computer programmes designed for different levels and age-groups to practise this skill.
• Hot Potatoes, available at http//web.uvic.ca/hrd /halfbaked/ is a good example.
• Although the aim is for each pupil to develop writing techniques, it does not have to be an individual task relegated to homework assignments.
• Techniques for pair work.
• games such as Back Writing or Palm Writing. The pupil writes a word on the back or palm of a classmate, who has to guess the word.
• Techniques for Group work.
• Group work is very productive.
• pupils can benefit from the knowledge of their classmates and overcome their fear of expressing themselves as the work, and therefore the mistakes, are collective
• Consequences Learners work in groups of seven, and they have to write their answers to a series of questions. The first one writes his/her answer then folds the piece of paper and passes it on to the next person who writes the answer to the second question. When they have all finished they unfold the sheet of paper, read it aloud and then write a text with the information.
• We can assign projects that involve a collective writing exercise such as a class newspaper or magazine, making a class dictionary or writing an English diary.
• Change teachers attitudes to writing
• Learning to write is a gradual, dynamic, progressive and developmental process.
• Writing ability develops through meaningful writing experiences.
• We will focus on meaning rather than accuracy.
• Children should write about what they have talked about or read about.
• The writing process should be planned and established.
• Play with words, sentences and texts .
• Introduce motivating and funny activities.
• Encouraging risk-taking.
• Acceptance of the mistakes.
• Be positive. Praise and respect all efforts.
• For young children visual aids (pictures, flashcards, cardwords) are very important.
• Encourage children to be autonomous (consult dictionaries, spell-checkers, computers, books, etc.)
• Our starting point is that the pupils know how to write in their L1.
• We will move step by step, starting with spelling, writing words, forming phrases, punctuation, paragraphs, and ending with the creation of whole texts.
• We will follow the classic stages mentioned in section 11
• Familiarisation,
• Controlled Writing,
• Guided writing and
• Free Writing.
• Writing activities go from being tightly controlled to being completely free.
• We should familiarise the pupil with writing and most activities will be aimed at learning the alphabet, presenting techniques for learning how to spell, and writing words.
• Learning spelling is a difficult process due to the complexity of the English language, which has 44 phonemes represented by only 26 letters.
• Strategies used to improve spelling
• Traditional and
• multisensorial techniques
• Traditional strategies are
• a) learn individual words off by heart.
• b) Apply spelling rules (such as i before e except after c and teach Letter Patterns.
• Games such as
• Complete the word.
• Start at the end or Start with the letter.
• Guided Writing
• Use copying in a way which encourages pupils to think using crosswords, or anagrams, and matching, sequencing or classifying activities.
• The runner and the scribe two pupils sit one in front of the other at a distance from the board, where there is a text written in small letters. One of the students, the runner, goes up to the board, reads a sentence, then goes back and dictates the sentence from memory to the scribe, who writes it down. When they reach a mark in the text, they swap roles. The exercise is then corrected by means of a listening exercise.
• A text is placed outside the classroom.
• A pupil goes out to the text, reads a sentence, then comes back into the room and dictates the sentence from memory to the rest of the class.
• Dictogloss. The teacher dictates a story and at certain stages asks learners to write, within a time limit, part of the text as a creative writing exercise.
• Controlled writing at Sentence Level.
• To develop students' awareness of organising thoughts into a logical sequence.
• Use media such as slotboards and displaying boards.
• Pupils manipulate the language on cards and the whole class practises, plays and produces sentences before moving on to a more abstract plane.
• The resulting phrases are then corrected or improved by the whole class.
• Copy and rearrange exercises In Primary Education pupils should be given a variety of written texts adapted to their level and interests (letters, postcards, adverts, comics, tales, nursery rhymes, etc.) to become familiar with them.
• Fill-in Exercises,
• Picture Gaps and
• Pupils are given a basic text with no adjectives or adverbs. They have to rewrite the text including a list of words provided by the teacher, or, for higher ability groups, complete the text with their own words.
• Information transfer activities information presented in tables provides material to write simple phrases and paragraphs. I
• Guided compositions we can show them picture storyboards with vignettes for them to describe and write a composition following the given storyline.
• Marking is a vital part of the writing process.
• As guidance is fundamental for the pupils to learn from their mistakes, and make the necessary progress in the acquisition of this skill.
• There is a tendency to mark written work by looking for grammatical errors, incorrect use of punctuation or misspelling.
• Before picking up our red pens Read the pupils work from beginning to end, looking for strengths as well as weaknesses.
• Teacher correction.
• It is preferable to mark work during class with the learner present in order to get more immediate feedback.
• Written comments can be effective and should be personal and encouraging.
• Super work, (students name)! Well done, (students name)!I like this picture very much, (students name) This is not your best work, (students name) Oh dear, (students name)!
• Peer correction.
• Pupils often learn from each others mistakes.
• Pupils become more involved in the teaching-learning process
• The teachers marking load is lightened.
• Pupils often find it less traumatic to write if they know their work will be marked by one of their peers.
• Self correction.
• More useful when marking controlled or guided writing exercises and fairly limited in the case of free writing
• They need to develop the ability to read their own work critically

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• Getting Started
• The Teacher
• The Learner

Foreign Language Teaching Methods: Writing

Creative writing.

• Arguments for Creative Writing
• Performance
• Review and Reflect

1. Creative writing can be motivating because it

allows freedom of expression.

makes language authentic and playful.

fosters exploration of the language (sounds, rhythm, structure, etc.)

all of the above

2. A poem that is built based on the letters of a key term or concept is called

an acrostic poem

a name poem

a cinquain poem

an agnostic poem

3. Which statement is NOT correct?

Creative writing focuses on meaningful communication (even though accuracy is important too), in order to convey what we really intend to say.

Collaborative writing among students promotes student-to-student learning.

Creative writing includes poetry, drama, web-production, and short stories.

Creative writing tasks are limited to intermediate and advanced learners because of the open-ended nature of the assignments.

Clear Answers

• Try out one of the poems, then discuss with a group of your peers: How did you like writing these tasks? What did you like about them? What did you not like? Is there an affective benefit? Language benefit?
• What experience have you had with using creative writing in your won L2 learning/teaching? How could you transform your experience into an effective creative writing assignment for your students?

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Grammar-Translation Method (1890-1930) Cognitive Approach (1940 - 1950) ... Lozanov, G. (1999). Methodologies in Foreign Language Teaching: a brief historical overview. Pufahl, I., Rhodes, N. & Christina, D. (2001). What We can Learn from Foreign Language Teaching in Other countries. ... Emphasize concepts and critical thinking;

Total Physical Response. Also known as TPR, this teaching method emphasizes aural comprehension. Gestures and movements play a vital role in this approach. Children learning their native language hear lots of commands from adults: "Catch the ball," "Pick up your toy," "Drink your water.".

7. Edit the Essay to the End. For the ESL student, the final edit is especially important. It offers a final chance to check form and meaning. For all writers, this process can be daunting, but more so for language students. Often, ESL students will use the same words over and over again due to a limited vocabulary.

First, writing is a dominant mode of interpersonal communication, especially nowadays, there are blogs, people use computer-mediated communication, they text a lot. All of these need to be trained explicitly in the foreign language classroom as well. Second, writing gives students time to reflect, practice and express themselves in the foreign ...

2018 •. gen tefl, Xiaofei Tang, Sahriana Kresna, Chhayankdhar Singh Rathore. GEN TEFL Journal is a refereed journal with an editorial board of scholars in various fields. It is an annual publication of Global Educators Network Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (GEN TEFL). The journal aims to gather and record range of studies ...

AI - The Moral Panic About Artifical Intelligence. This PPT has five worksheets (available in my Worksheets resources here in ISL Collective) which are connected to it. Teachers do not have to use all the wo... 118 uses. A selection of English ESL essay writing ppt slides.

Conclusion. This module intended to make several points regarding teaching L2 writing. First, it underscored the idea that writing deserves systematic and continued attention in the foreign language classroom in its own right, not merely as a support skill for listening, reading or speaking. Second, this module presented L2 writing as a complex ...

Keep on reading for all the details you need to know about the most popular foreign language teaching methods. Some of the ESL pedagogy ideas covered are the communicative approac

Writing and performing written works provide multisensory language experiences and can help students learn about the rhythm of language, play with cultural concepts and with the language or explore sociolinguistic patterns (e.g., if different characters use different dialects, registers, sociolects, etc.) Screenplay

APPROACHES and METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. APPROACHES and METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. A BRIEF HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. A BRIEF HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. Foreign language teaching- an important issue 60 percent of the world population is multilingual. 1.3k views • 12 slides

This vision materializes in a critical language teaching approach (CALT), also labeled radical language teaching, critical literacy, etc., that engages EFL students in a critical analysis of the politics and the discourses of the time (Luke et al., 2007), in addition to addressing the learners' functional, academic, and leisurely purposes ...

This research investigates the changes in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' psychological attributes in relation to awareness of the lexicogrammatical features and generic structures of a discussion genre essay. This was achieved by implementing a genre-based approach to text-based writing lessons during a 15-week course. The following lesson procedure was implemented: stage (1 ...

Walk students through noticing activities, and challenge them to remember their tendencies in subsequent timed writing tasks. Teaching writing to ESL/EFL students requires commitment and perhaps a bit of innovation on the part of the teacher, but if done well, it can prove immensely useful in a globalized world, aiding individuals in self ...

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The main hypothesis: -Argumentative essay strategies can develop English as a foreign language learners critical thinking skills. Material and Methods 30 SUST Journal of Humanities (2016) ISSN (text): 1858-6724 thought that views critical thinking as a set of demonstrable cognitive skills (Ennis, 1995). ... Task-based learning (TBL) is also the ...

receptive. passive. 2. Writing should be taught for its own sake in the foreign language classroom because: it is a prevalent form of communication in real life as well. it may be helpful for students cognitively to have more time to plan their output and review what they want to say. writing, especially creative assignments, may lead to higher ...

Writing is clearly a complex, multifaceted. process requiring the ability to manipulate many. sub-skills simultaneously. involves being creative, spelling, grammar, punctuation, choice of appropriate words, sentences linking and text construction. 5. 3.1. Graphic or Visual Skills.

Review. 1. The difference between feedback and grading is that. feedback includes only positive comments to encourage the development of writing. feedback focuses on the writing process, whereas grading usually assigns a value to a piece of writing. grading has very clear guidelines as to what students are expected to write.

1. Creative writing can be motivating because it. allows freedom of expression. makes language authentic and playful. fosters exploration of the language (sounds, rhythm, structure, etc.) all of the above. 2. A poem that is built based on the letters of a key term or concept is called. an acrostic poem.

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Bibliography

• Rhalmi, M. (2009). Communicative Language Teaching (The Communicative Approach). Available: http://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/communicative-language-teaching-communicative-approach/. Last accessed 05/06/2014.
• Bright, W. (n.d). What's the Difference between Speech and Writing?.Available: http://www.linguisticsociety.org//resource/whats-difference-between-speech-and-writing. Last accessed 05/06/2014.
• Rahlmi, M. (2009). Grammar Translation Method. Available: http://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/grammar-translation-method/. Last accessed 05/06/2014.
• Fitriyanti, R. (2011). Grammar Translation Method. Available: http://novaekasari09.wordpress.com/2011/06/12/grammar-translation-method/. Last accessed 05/06/2014.
• Abradi, C. (n.d). Advantages and disadvantages of communicative language teaching. Available: https://www.academia.edu/4743392/Communicative_Language_Teaching_theories_lesson_plan_and_application. Last accessed 05/06/2014.
• Orellana. (2007). The Communicative Approach in English as a Foreign Language Teaching Leer más: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos18/the-communicative-approach/the-communicative-approach.shtml#how#ixzz33uLe7fXe.Available: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos18/the-communicative-approach/the-communicative-approach.shtml#how. Last accessed 07/06/2014.
• The Grammar-Translation Method. (n.d). Available: http://hlr.byu.edu/methods/content/text/grammar-text.htm. Last accessed 02/06/2014.
• Scrivener (2011). Learning Teaching. 3rd ed. Londen: Macmillian. 31-32.
• Ebbens, S (2013). Effectief leren. Houten: Noordhoff uitgevers.

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