market research kenya

Market research on consumer products, commercial industries, demographics trends and consumer lifestyles in Kenya. Includes comprehensive data and analysis, tables and charts, with five-year forecasts.

Market research on consumer products, commercial industries, demo...

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Income and Expenditure: Kenya

In 2023, Kenya ranked 19th among 25 Middle East and Africa nations in terms of average gross income, despite economic recovery and growth in key sectors. However, high public debt and global economic instability posed challenges. Furthermore, income…

Sweet Biscuits, Snack Bars and Fruit Snacks in Kenya

Sweet biscuits, snack bars, and fruit snacks in Kenya is undergoing a transformation driven by two key consumer trends in 2024: price sensitivity and a growing focus on health.

Sugar Confectionery in Kenya

Sugar confectionery in Kenya is experiencing significant growth, fuelled by a steadily expanding population and rising disposable incomes. This translates to increased consumer indulgence in sugary treats. The affordability of sugar confectionery…

Snacks in Kenya

Snacks in Kenya is undergoing a period of significant transformation, driven by a confluence of factors including inflation, evolving consumer preferences, and emerging trends. Inflationary pressures have led to increased production costs, prompting…

Savoury Snacks in Kenya

The economic landscape in Kenya is conducting the orchestra of consumer behaviour in packaged food, including savoury snacks, in 2024. Inflation has taken centre stage, leading to a heightened focus on affordability. Kenyans are becoming increasingly…

Ice Cream in Kenya

A confluence of factors, including rising inflation and increasing production costs, has made Kenyan consumers more sensitive to price in 2024. This newfound price consciousness is translating into a shift in purchasing behaviour, with consumers…

Gum in Kenya

Despite rising inflation and price increases across most consumer goods, the gum category is exhibiting resilience in Kenya in 2024. This can be attributed to the continued demand for gum due to its widespread availability in major retail channels…

Chocolate Confectionery in Kenya

The year 2024 has witnessed a significant increase in price sensitivity among consumers due to rising inflation, leading to a sharp rise in chocolate confectionery prices in Kenya. This has resulted in stagnant sales volume growth within the…

Wine in Kenya

Wine in Kenya is experiencing robust growth driven by the country’s expanding middle class who have an increasing appreciation for wine. This expansion is predominantly fuelled by increased consumer awareness, which in turn is a result of concerted…

Spirits in Kenya

Spirits in Kenya experienced significant growth in terms of total volume sales over the review period, fuelled by the growing popularity of international brands. Increased importation of a diverse range of international spirits has been instrumental…

Rtds in Kenya

In Kenya, consumers especially in younger generations are drawn towards RTDs. Sales are increasing in the off-trade channel as consumers embrace outdoor drinking and enjoy outdoor activities such as road trips, camping etc. E-commerce has emerged as…

Cider/Perry in Kenya

Characterised by fruity flavours and lower alcohol content, cider/perry is gaining popularity in Kenya, especially among female and younger consumers who may be new to alcohol. Notable brands like Savannah Premium Dry Cider, Hunter’s Gold from Kenya…

Beer in Kenya

Beer volume sales slowed considerably in Kenya over 2023 following two years of strong growth in the post-pandemic era. High inflation in the country continues to cut into disposable incomes, with beer consumers cutting back on consumption and…

Alcoholic Drinks in Kenya

Alcoholic drinks in Kenya is undergoing dynamic shifts, with spirits gaining popularity over beer in the current inflationary climate. Spirits, with their high alcoholic content, have set themselves apart in the market, offering consumers a…

Commodities: Kenya

The commodities country overview provides comprehensive data on production, consumption and price trends on key commodities markets. The commodities overview in Kenya covers production and consumption trends in agricultural commodities, energy…

Tobacco in Kenya

The tobacco industry in Kenya in 2023 continued to face significant challenges from illicit trade and regulatory uncertainties. This is impacting major players such as Mastermind Tobacco (K) Ltd and British American Tobacco Kenya Ltd, leading to…

Cigars, Cigarillos and Smoking Tobacco in Kenya

Sales in cigars, cigarillos, and smoking tobacco in Kenya managed to achieve small positive volume sales in 2023. This is attributed to similar sales in both cigars and cigarillos, while smoking tobacco is not significant enough to be covered by…

Cigarettes in Kenya

Cigarettes only managed sub-decimal growth in volume terms in Kenya in 2023, while value is better supported by price hikes. One key reason for the low volume performance is because the tobacco industry in Kenya faces significant challenges stemming…

Economy, Finance and Trade: Kenya

In 2023, Kenya’s economy grew by 4.7%, outperforming the average for the Middle East and Africa, driven by private spending, public consumption and a recovery in tourism. Despite challenges like high public debt and cost of living increases, the…

Sun Care in Kenya

Kenya’s sun care market saw consumers shift in line with prevailing industry-wide trends in 2023, as demand for cruelty-free, eco-friendly, and natural and organic ingredients continued to rise. Consumers are also seeking multifunctional variants,…

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Market Research in Kenya, Africa

Market Research in Kenya

The Republic of Kenya is an East African country located to the north of Tanzania. It is east of Uganda and southeast of South Sudan. Ethiopia is to the north and Somalia to the northeast. The Indian Ocean is to the southeast.

Key Industries in Kenya

The Kenyan economy is agriculture-based. Agriculture accounts for a little over one-third of the GDP. The traditional exports are tea and coffee. Kenya also has a budding horticultural industry.

The agricultural sector consists of crop production, horticulture, livestock, forestry, and fisheries. Production of crops and horticulture add the most to the agricultural GDP. This sector provides a backbone for the Kenyan economy. It also offers a means of making a living for the population.

The industrial sector is also a huge contributor to the GDP. The country has a well-developed industrial sector, and it is the market leader in East Africa. This sector accounts for one-tenth of the GDP, and manufacturing is thriving.

The construction and real estate sectors are also growing. This growth is due in part to government investment in the public infrastructure. Kenyans are also putting money into real estate.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, experts expect Kenya’s growth to decline. The country has reduced trading. Also, the coronavirus has disrupted supply chains and domestic production. Despite this, the government remains hopeful. It is continuing to promote education, trade, and investment. They hope the economy can continue the upward trend seen before the pandemic.

Neighborhoods in Kenya

Kenya is has a vast amount of flora and fauna, which are part of the country’s natural beauty.

The main cities in Kenya are Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu. Nairobi, the capital, is the largest. This city gives the nod to its colonial past by using many English place names. In Nairobi, the wealthier residents usually live in the west and north-central regions. The European settlers resided in these regions during colonial times. In contrast, the lower-middle and upper-middle-income neighborhoods are in the north-central areas of the city.

Mombasa, the second-largest city, is on the southeast coast of Kenya. It is tourism-based and has an international airport. It is also home to the third-largest port in Africa.

Kisumu, the third-largest city, is beautiful. The city is breathing new life into its downtown and lower town areas with an urban rejuvenation project. It is updating the look of the lakefront and easing the crowding of main streets, making them easier for pedestrians to navigate.

Over the past decade, Kenya has seen much economic growth. This growth is owing to the political and economic reforms which it achieved. Unfortunately, the ongoing pandemic has affected this growth.

The main development challenges include poverty and climate change. Kenya also has an unequal society, and private sector investments are low.

For now, Kenya’s economic outlook is bleak. Economists expect the country to make a slow recovery. The pandemic has wreaked havoc on Kenya’s exports and tourism. It has also hurt other domestic economic activities. Yet, Kenya has a long-term development plan that makes manufacturing a priority. The plan also includes universal healthcare, affordable housing, and food security.

Benefits and Strengths in the Market

The agricultural sector is the pride and joy of the Kenyan market. Kenya is the third-largest tea producer in the world. The services sector is also expanding. Its economy is crucial to the East-African community. It is Africa’s number-one common market and the seventh-largest African economy.

Consumer Base in Kenya

A small number of consumers in Kenya have benefitted from the rapid expansion of the economy. But a much larger number has seen little to no benefit. Thus, they suffer the effects of inflation. Poverty and malnutrition remain significant issues for many Kenyans.

Reasons to Grow Your Business in the Kenyan Market

Kenyan markets offer many cheap opportunities for investors. Kenya has lower operating costs than other emerging markets, and investors thus have a competitive edge on rent and labor costs.

Also, Kenya occupies a prime geographical location. It has access to the main shipping routes coming from both Europe and Asia. And, the Kenyan market is not very developed. Thus, new businesses will experience a lack of competition during startup. This situation increases the possibility of rapid growth within a short period. New companies can expect to get government support. The government is encouraging growth within various sectors.

About Market Research in Kenya

It’s essential to do Quantitative , Qualitative , and Strategy Research . Businesses should carry out these checks before entering any market. Doing market research on Kenya is particularly crucial. It helps new companies to determine the best market entry strategy.

Market research can involve visiting the market. Such visits help with the engagement of potential local partners. They aid in building relationships and finding market opportunities. Market Research can also involve Focus Groups, Interviews, and Surveys.

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Infinite Insight is a full- service market research agency established in 2010. From our hub in Nairobi, we offer qualitative and quantitative research services across Sub- Saharan Africa. To date, we have carried out projects in 30 African markets in East, West, and Southern Africa.

We have put together a team of young, dynamic professionals, who are committed to delivering high quality results.

Capacity building is an ongoing process, to which we are thoroughly committed. In addition to project- specific briefings, we regularly organise training sessions on specific topics, both in qualitative and quantitative techniques and methodologies.

We adhere to the ICC/ESOMAR Code of Practice , the MSRA Code of Ethics , and the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation , which is being embraced by an increasing number of African countries. Since the Kenyan Data Protection Act of 2019 ,came into effect, all projects in Kenya are guided by the regulation.

INSIGHT WELLS

Insight Wells Research and consulting, a subsidiary of CIO Africa, is a fully fledged market research agency registered as a limited company in Kenya, With footprint across East Africa and beyond.

Welcome to  Insight Wells 

Insight Wells Research and consulting, a subsidiary of CIO Africa, is a fully fledged market  research agency registered as a limited company in  Kenya, With footprint across East Africa and beyond.

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To be the leading, most sort after, tech driven market research agency in Sub – Saharan Africa

Championing excellence in Market research practices across Africa and beyond

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Top 20 Market Research Companies in Kenya

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The Best of September 2024

Looking for a top market research company in kenya.

Before you proceed with developing and marketing a new product or service, you need to make sure there is a viable market for success. The right market research company can help you with this process.  Read more +

To assist you in your search for a partner, we’ve compiled this list of the top market research agencies in Kenya. Browse descriptions, feedback, and awards to find which can best suit your company’s needs.

List of the Best Kenya Market Research Agencies

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Aryo Consulting Group

Service Excellence

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• Min. Project Size "> $10,000+
• Company Size "> 2 - 9 employees
• Location "> Boston, MA
• Consumer products & services " >
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• Government " >
• Medical " >
• Hospitality & leisure " >
• Manufacturing " >
• Min. Project Size "> $25,000+
• Company Size "> 10 - 49 employees
• Location "> San Francisco, CA

Antedote is a strategic innovation and insight consultancy in San Francisco and London, United Kingdom. Founded in 2014, they have about 8 employees that serve enterprise and midmarket clients in a wide variety of industries. Services include business consulting and market research.

• Information technology " >

Research 8020 Limited

• Min. Project Size "> Undisclosed
• Location "> Nairobi, Kenya

Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, Research 8020 Limited is a market research company that offers social research and fieldwork services. Since 2017, their team of 10 services midmarket companies and small businesses. 

• Safaricom Limited
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Opinion Space LTD

Not yet reviewed.

• Min. Project Size "> $1,000+
• Company Size "> 50 - 249 employees

DMI Analytics

Datum Intel is a Nairobi, Kenya-based market research company. Launched in 2016, the small team offers market research, marketing strategy, business consulting, and transcription.

• Energy & natural resources " >

ReelAnalytics

• Advertising & marketing " >

Neotrends Research Africa Ltd

Daproim africa.

• Company Size "> 250 - 999 employees

Chora Digital Limited

• Min. Project Size "> $5,000+
• eCommerce " >

Morph Visuals

• Last Minute Mara
• Education " >

VoicesAfrica

Wpp-scangroup.

• Company Size "> 1,000 - 9,999 employees

Gina Din Group

Impact africa limited, adpro-consult group, the jitu staffing.

• Location "> Nyeri, Kenya

2020 Marketing

• Location "> Nairobi City, Kenya

TDF Group ltd

TDF Group ltd is a small branding company. They focus on branding, marketing strategy, media planning & buying, public relations, and more and were launched in 2008.

Bylac Limited

Scale pr & marketing solutions, royaltrendia - digital media marketing, web design & seo in kenya, star marketing company, accurate africa eservices ltd.

• Telecommunications " >

IQ Marketing Kenya

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Excellence is in the details

Acuity Market Research LTD is an independent Consumer, Trade, Market & Social Research organization.

With our head office in Nairobi, Kenya and network offices across Sub Saharan Africa, Acuity Market Research LTD offers survey management, Data Collection and Data delivery experience and capability.

To be Africa's preferred partner in providing premier Market and Social research solutions.

To deliver superior market and social research services, quality assurance and undivided customer support through professional expertise, experience, motivation and commitment.

Our Philosophy

We put our� Customers�first and strive to secure their loyalty through top quality service.

Products and services

As dedicated masters of Field and Tab in Sub Saharan Africa as well as a full service research company for the Kenyan market, Acuity Market Research LTD is experienced in Data Acquisition (DA), Project management, Data Analysis, Reporting and presentation across Sub Saharan Africa.

Why work with us

Our researchers have a wide knowledge, long past experiences and track record in conducting and carrying out successfully all our service offering for various companies. Through our hard work, we have established strong relationships with each one of them.

These are some of the clients we've done projects for:

Why work with us with us

BMI Research

BMi Research is a long standing full service research house specialising in qualitative and quantitative research solutions. The BMi team understands industrial and manufacturing research, wholesale to retail intelligence and shopper insights.

Plus 94 Research

Plus 94 Research is a market research company that is so unique in its thinking and vision it is set to significantly enhance the service experience of clients.

Brand Vision

Insightful research, Clear vision. We are an established worldwide group of marketing and research agencies that offer and develop international research and consulting solutions.

Tream Insight

Impact Research Centre

Leading Marketing and Social Research Firm. Providing research solutions that are actionable and which provide our clients with accurate information and guidance to enable them make informed decisions.

July 2010 Our Humble Beginnings

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January 2011 Facing Startup Battles

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December 2012 Enter The Dark Days

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January 2013Our Triumph

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Market research in Kenya

Kenya has witnessed extremely impressive growth over the past decade. This is in great part thanks to increasing political stability and economic reforms since the 2007 elections. The country however faces some challenges, such as poverty, corruption, and slow private sector investment. 

About Kenya

Kenya, located in East Africa, is one of the most developed countries on the continent. Its economy, mostly dominated by agriculture, is diverse and growing. Nairobi, its capital, is a hub in the Horn of Africa for trade and culture. It shares borders with Tanzania, Uganda, South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia. It also holds a coastline on the Indian Ocean. Kenya has an extremely rich and diverse nature and wildlife.

The country is eclectic, with port cities like Mombasa, savannahs and countryside with fertile soil and wildlife, and major urban centers in the plains of the Great Rift Valley like Nairobi or Kisumu on the banks of Lake Victoria. 

Why conduct market research

The pandemic has also greatly impacted one of Kenya’s key sectors in tourism. As global travel came to a global halt, the service sector greatly suffered. However, a few industries are instrumental in maintaining growth in the Kenyan market, such as tea and coffee production. Furthermore, Kenya is the most important economy in the East-African community.

You will find industries from agribusiness and processing, aviation and parts, construction, education, and energy flourishing and providing investment opportunities. The government is also making conscious efforts to facilitate the inflow of foreign capital with the Public Private Partnership bill. The bill in question looks to enhance efficiency and streamline regulation. Furthermore, Kenya is a regional leader in the digital economy, making its consumer base conscious of global consumer trends. 

Representative market data

Kenya’s population is extremely diverse, and is made up of over 40 ethnic groups. As a result, effectively capturing the essence of its consumer can prove very difficult. It is however key to do so in order to ensure the successful implementation or growth of your business in Kenya.

Here at Sagaci Research, we are able to give you the tools to truly understand Kenya’s diverse consumers and make informed decisions based on quantitative and qualitative data analysis. Here are some of our product offerings: 

Market research methods in Kenya

Online panel.

You will gain access to thousands of our on-the-ground panel in Kenya, which will allow you to gain valuable information about consumers’ opinions across a number of demographics. Click here for more information . 

Take an objective look at the health of your brand and turn the findings into valuable results. You can choose between receiving reports on a monthly, quarterly, or bi-annual basis. Start monitoring your brand health in Kenya today. Find out about your options here .

Gain access to a report about your target consumer’s consumption habits. Within your country of interest, you can pick from a list of over 140 items and download your report today! Gain access here. 

You can get information about which retail channels are most effective for your products. Get direct measurements that are tailored to your needs. Contact us here . 

More about syndicated research in Kenya

Ride-Hailing Services in Africa: 2024 market insights

Ride-hailing services in Africa are revolutionising urban transportation, fueled by growing connectivity and the rising demand for convenience. They seek to tackle the inefficiencies of public transport and often chaotic private transportation systems, providing a structured, technology-driven alternative. Leading players like Uber, Bolt, and Yango are at the forefront, driving the African ride-hailing market forward

The Young Kenyan Consumers: Shopping Habits and Attitudes

Who are the young Kenyan consumers, particularly upper-class men? What influences them the most? What are the consumption trends in Kenya for this segment? Thanks to SagaCube, the consumer habit tracker in Africa and our online panel in Kenya, we delve into the profile of Kenyan male consumers aged 18 to 25 from the highest

The largest product database in Africa

For over 12 years, Sagaci Research has curated the largest product database in Africa. Through the expansive reach of our pan-african online panel we consistently gather product data directly from consumers themselves. Today, our database boasts over 400,000 products sourced from 30+ African countries and across dozens of FMCG categories. Leveraging the largest product database

The top Foodservice brands in Kenya based on Customer Satisfaction

Today we explore the top foodservice brands in Kenya in terms of Customer Satisfaction. In a highly competitive fast food industry with new international players entering the market, it is even more critical for the various players to keep a close eye on their performance and consumers’ perception. Via the pan-african online panel SagaPoll, we track

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Infotrak Gen Z’s Poll Media Release July 18 2024

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Top Market Research Companies in Kenya

Are you searching for competent market research companies in Kenya? Your business needs a dynamic and boutique market research company that can unearth useful intelligence beneficial for your brand growth. It would help if you found such top market research companies in Kenya that can guarantee to offer innovative solutions for all your market research needs. GoodFirms has used its business intelligence to prepare the below list of marketing research firms in Kenya that provides all the information you need to form a reasonable choice. Use the data, analysis, and rankings to find the best market research agency in Kenya for your business.

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Best Market Research Agency in Kenya | List of Marketing Research Firms Kenya

Jeder Agency

We are a customer-centric company that focuses on web design and content optimization through innovative products and services. To stand out from the rest, one must have an arsenal at your disposal that does things ... read more about Jeder Agency

DimeHub serves as a results-driven digital marketing company in 🇰🇪 Kenya which offers digital marketing services to better help you generate qualified Sales, 🕴️Potential Leads & 📈 boost Website traffic. DimeHub combines a data-driven approach with ... read more about Dimehub

Consumer Option

Consumer Options is a full service market research company. We deliver insights by combining research outcomes; real time data and smart thinking to enable you make insightful decisions. We have the flexibility of conducting Market ... read more about Consumer Option

Sagaci Research

With offices in 15 African countries and field operations in a further 11, Sagaci Research is the leading provider of African market data and analysis. Outside of Africa, we have offices in Barcelona, Paris, Hong ... read more about Sagaci Research

Frontier Consulting

Frontier Consulting Services Ltd is a pan- African based market research agency that is versatile enough to conduct 360º degree research projects  anywhere in Africa and flexible enough to support  unique data collection needs across ... read more about Frontier Consulting

Market data gathered by marketing experts to help businesses and buyers make the right decision. Know when to buy and where to buy. Gain a better understanding of the Kenyan market. Know the top players, ... read more about Inisights

SBO Research

SBO Research is a fast-growing Marketing and Social Research company founded in 1993 and headquartered in Kenya with a regional operational footprint that spans across 26 countries in Africa. We provide full consultancy service to ... read more about SBO Research

Infinite Insight

Infinite Insight is a full-service market research agency established in 2010. From our hub in Nairobi, we offer qualitative and quantitative research services across Sub-Saharan Africa. To date, we have carried out projects in 29 ... read more about Infinite Insight

Research 8020

Since 2017, Research 8020 has been offering a full range of qualitative and quantitative research solutions. We work with consumer and business to business audiences across sub-Saharan Africa. We also have market research solutions for ... read more about Research 8020

Consumer Trends Limited

Consumer Trends is a professional services firm specializing in Research services and business advisory specifically focusing on planning, strategy and training. The success of Consumer Trends in assignments can be pegged to offering quality services ... read more about Consumer Trends Limited

Neotrends Research Africa

Neotrends Research Africa is a market research data collection firm based in Nairobi, Kenya. It is one of the Africa’s fastest growing Market Research data collection firm with footprints and a field force of more ... read more about Neotrends Research Africa

DMI Analytics

We empower frontline teams with everything they need to know to drive growth, navigate the customer and competitive dynamics affecting your brand. We conduct market research in African countries and can measure in any other ... read more about DMI Analytics

Tabison Research

Tabison Research has been making inroads in the market research world for several years. We have innovative and seasoned group of Research professionals with experience in handling the needs of a variety of clients ranging ... read more about Tabison Research

Eujim Solutions Limited

  As the digital landscape continues to evolve, businesses must adapt to meet the needs of their customers. At Eujim Solutions, we are dedicated to helping businesses in Kenya plan, design, and build digital products ... read more about Eujim Solutions Limited

Explosify Creative Solutions

Ready to ignite your business? Discover Explosify, the digital marketing agency that sets brands ablaze. If you are: Tired of ineffective marketing efforts that bring no leads? Ready to break free from the cycle of ... read more about Explosify Creative Solutions

DAROPO INSIGHTS CENTRE

Daropo Insights Center is an independent Market Research & Economic Development consultancy firm that provides a broad spectrum of comprehensive market research solutions with experience in Kenyan Market and across Sub-Saharan Africa and the continent ... read more about DAROPO INSIGHTS CENTRE

Oraund Digital Consulting

Oraund Digital Consulting is a digital marketing agency specializing in supporting individuals and businesses to optimize their online presence for branding purposes. Our expert teams deploy their expertise and creativity, along with innovative tools, to ... read more about Oraund Digital Consulting

Dotsavvy Limited

Dotsavvy is Kenya’s first digital business agency that provides integrated digital business solutions to some of Africa’s biggest businesses and most loved brands. We are driven by the challenge of reconciling our clients user needs ... read more about Dotsavvy Limited

Witflair Enterprise Ltd.

We are built for businesses looking to maintain and grow larger audiences through digital marketing. We help such businesses follow best practices with their branding and content marketing for improved sales. As a design agency ... read more about Witflair Enterprise Ltd.

Charleson Group

Charleson Group is the leading digital marketing agency in Nairobi, Kenya. We help businesses in Kenya increase their revenues 3x, 5x or even up to 10x through our proven digital marketing strategies.

Dodwell Solutions Limited

Dodwell Solutions Limited is an award winning digital marketing agency, top on the list of best digital marketing agencies in Kenya, that helps companies and institutions attract and retain customers all over the globe by ... read more about Dodwell Solutions Limited

East Africa Digital Marketers

East Africa Digital Marketers is a marketing company that deals with online marketing, with an interest in social media. We market for companies using online tools and softwares, and maintain social media accounts at affordable ... read more about East Africa Digital Marketers

Infinity Rayz

InfinityRayz is a marketing and branding agency where innovation meets impact in the digital realm. We are not just a marketing agency; we are architects of success, committed to guiding your brand to new heights. Customer-Centric ... read more about Infinity Rayz

TECHenya Solutions

TECHenya Solutions is a leading digital marketing agency based in Nairobi, Kenya, with a broad service reach extending to Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, East Africa, and beyond, including markets in the United States, the United Kingdom, ... read more about TECHenya Solutions

We are strategists, researchers, writers, designers, and developers who craft custom digital experiences for publishers, nonprofit institutions, and brand.  5th Brand transforms online presence,  publishing and content creation through the delivery of scalable digital solutions and products, exclusively built on WordPress. ... read more about 5th Brand

Digital Marketing in Kenya - Digitalke

Digital-ke is a digital marketing Consultant in Nairobi, Kenya offering consultation for online businesses,e-commerce solutions,social media marketing,Google & YouTube advertising,Website design,SEO,web banner ads, inbound marketing, email marketing, Mobile App Optimization, Graphic Design

Page Agency Kenya

At Page, we are a team of professional designers, developers, marketers, and IT specialists who are passionate about creating exceptional web designs and strategies that are customized to meet your business needs. Our services include ... read more about Page Agency Kenya

Digital Tailor Agency

Digital Tailor is Nairobi’s home of IT and Digital Marketing. We tailor custom software, design beautiful websites, provide secure hosting and integrate Mpesa payments. In digital marketing, we execute measurable marketing strategies with insightful analytics ... read more about Digital Tailor Agency

Zelisline Ltd

Zelisline is software development company that specializes in building custom software solutions for businesses. We have a team of highly skilled developers, designers and project managers who work together to deliver high-quality software products to ... read more about Zelisline Ltd

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PANORAMA RESEARCH IS KEEPING A CURIOUS EYE ON EMERGING MARKETS IN AFRICA

Build the best products, cause no unnecessary harm, use business to inspire research tools and implement solutions to the business-related challenges.

At PANORAMA RESEARCH We Value Our Clients

Our research process helps you produce innovative ideas, products and services that benefit both customer and company.

We Exist Because our Clients Believe In Us.

Customer service plays a major role in your business. It's the leading indicator for measuring customer loyalty. Identify your unhappy customers, reduce the churn, and increase the revenue. It's also a key point of differentiation which helps to attract fresh customers in a competitive business environment. There are a number of reasons why good customer service is important. Businesses know that providing positive experiences for buyers can dramatically impact their growth. But often customer service takes a back seat to the daily demands of running a business. ... This approach helps businesses engage customers and build strong relationships.

How We Do It

At Panorama Research, We have a hybrid research methodology that addresses all your research questions and provides insights that fuels your growth

• Quantitative Research

In this, we undertake: U & A Studies, Central Location Testing, Mystery Shopping, Retail Audit and Store Census.

• Qualitative Research

On qualitative research, we are specialized in undertaking: Focus Group Discusions, Indepth Interviews, Ethnography and Observation.

Focus Sectors

Our main focus sectors include but are not limited to; FMCG, Technology & Innovation, Banking & Finance, Healthcare & Pharma Research, Media & Advertising Research, Automotive Research, Textile & Apparel, Real Estate & The Built Environment.

PANORAMA IS A CREATIVE RESEARCHER

Study Implications. The purpose of research is to inform action. Thus, your study should seek to contextualize its findings within the larger body of research. Research must always be of high quality in order to produce knowledge that is applicable outside of the research setting. Let us team up and make a difference.

Basically its quite important to carry out research to investigate any claim or feedback to improve your business Work together with Panorama Research to achieve this.

Market Research

Identify the problem areas in your business. Understand the needs of existing customers.

Social Research

The market and social research industry is a community of professionally curious to investigate new changes.

Retail Audit and Census

Retail audit is very important for a brand's health, as regular check ups for a human's health.

Media Monitoring

Media monitoring is an important aspect of your marketing strategy. Monitoring will keep your brand health up to date.

Research Training

The Importance of Basic Science and Research Training for the Next Generation is innevitable.

We cover various sectors in a number of industries.

Panorama Methodologies

We uniquely employ a multiplicity of methodologies and methods to stitch up insights to panoramically answer all your research questions

• All Research Methods

Qualitative Study

Quantitative study.

To understand how consumers really think and feel, it's important to go beyond words~ Katja Bresette

Our African Footprint

The firm & why us.

Panorama Research is a full-service pan-African market and social research company based in Kenya, and which was founded out of the need to support international (market research) firms undertake market research in emerging markets like Kenya and Africa by extension. The name Panorama defines our inimitable fashion of addressing our clients’ research problems with a holistic 360˚ approach. In order to serve our clients with a pan-African reach, we leverage an expansive field network of well-trained in- country coordinators and enumerator teams in over 25 markets across sub-Saharan Africa as well as S.E Asia, Latin America, UAE & the Levant region. We deliver insights from emerging markets across a multiplicity of industries and sectors.

We are a market research company with operations in Nairobi, Kenya but with an expansive network of in-country teams in a number of countries across Africa and the world by extension. We employ unique methodologies to unearth latent insights across different consumer audiences in multiple industries and sectors.

The 21st Century Consumer As An Insights Partner

We place high premium on the 21 st Century consumer as the progenitor of sound business decisions. Further, our corporate culture is anchored on the core premises of continuous insight-innovation (through mobile technology), agility in project-execution and the high premium we place on quality in every step of the research process, including needless to say, client-outputs. We view the neo-consumer as a partner in insight acquisition, and not just a purveyor of data to drive business decisions that he is not part of. When it comes to cultivating consumer relationships, we have in place a ‘buddy methodology’ which is a sui generis constellation of different frontline consumer personas (alpha users) who constitute proprietary panels drawn from our varied industries of coverage.

• Innovative company.
• Easy to use tools.
• Real time studies.
• Granular feedback.

Our Process

We employ an elaborate research process that is collaborative, intuitive, empathetic, iterative, and which is optimized for all your business needs

Find more information about Panorama Research, We value you as our Customer and Partner Work with self motivated team at Panorama

Our Top Skills

Our history.

We love technology and its impact in the world. ... A: The value of technology is to make work easier to manage and to accomplish tasks

We do it with less effort and greater flexibility.

Emerging technologies are technologies that are perceived as capable of changing the status quo. .

Emerging technologies include a variety of technologies such as educational technology

Technology trend awareness as a skill refers to being mindful of the technology that is recently becoming popular and is readily accepted in the market or industry. ..

Ideal technology trend awareness skills would mean a person's ability to either correspond to the industry.

Here are upcoming / emerging technologies in software industry to dominate 2018 and make headlines.

Seamless Voice Recognition (Conversation with Machines)

How we work

Our time of operation, responding to clients querries.

Here is a photographic documentation of our success stories

MOBILE PENETRATION

Sub-Saharan Africa ... The GSMA Mobile Economy series provides the latest insights on the state of the mobile industry worldwide. ... The global version of the report is published annually at Mobile World ... NET TOTALS - SUBSCRIBERS .... For more information, please visit the GSMA corporate website

Louise S. Morgan

Consumer Price Index CPI in Kenya increased to 194.14 Index Points in September from 192.18 Index Points in August of 2018. Consumer Price Index CPI in Kenya averaged 144.42 Index Points from 2009 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 195.05 Index Points in May of 2018 and a record low of 99 Index Points in January of 2009.

Latest Blogs

Keep abreast of the latest market news from all industries we are in and from all emerging markets in Africa.

While fresh products are gaining share in Africa market

Mobile money hits 1.7 trillion, mobile banking in kenya, get in touch.

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Market Research Services Companies

Unearth Powerful Insights: Market Research Services Companies in Kenya, CDL Kenya

Feeling lost in a sea of data? Struggling to make informed decisions about your brand strategy in the Kenyan market? You’re not alone. But what if you could leverage expert Market Research Services Companies in Kenya to gain a crystal-clear understanding of your target audience and market trends?

Introducing CDL Research & Consulting: Your trusted partner for impactful Marketing Research Consulting in Kenya.

The challenge:.

Imagine Client X (Name Hidden for Privacy), a prominent fashion brand in Kenya, struggling with declining sales and a disconnect with their customer base. They lacked crucial insights into evolving consumer preferences and market trends.

Our Solution:

Client X found CDL Kenya through a Google search for “marketing & research consultants in Kenya.” We became their partner, providing a comprehensive research consulting package that included:

• In-depth needs assessment: We collaborated with Client X to understand their specific challenges and research objectives.
• Custom survey design: Our research experts crafted targeted surveys to gather valuable data from Kenyan consumers.
• Efficient data collection: We utilized proven methodologies to gather accurate and representative data.
• Meticulous data analysis: Our team of analysts transformed raw data into actionable insights.
• Clear and concise reporting: We presented findings in easy-to-understand reports with clear visualizations.
• Actionable recommendations: We translated insights into practical strategies for brand optimization.

The Impact:

CDL Kenya’s research consulting services empowered Client X to make data-driven decisions that significantly impacted their brand operations:

• Identified key consumer trends: Client X gained a deep understanding of their target audience’s preferences and buying habits.
• Developed targeted marketing campaigns: Armed with insights, Client X crafted highly effective marketing campaigns that resonated with Kenyan consumers.
• Optimized product offerings: Client X used research findings to refine their product line and cater to evolving customer demands.
• Increased brand loyalty: By understanding customer needs, Client X fostered stronger brand loyalty and customer engagement.

Ready to unlock the power of data-driven decision making?

CDL Research & Consulting is a leading provider of Marketing Research Consulting Services in Kenya. We go beyond data collection – we transform information into actionable strategies that propel your brand forward.

Our team of experienced researchers and consultants is dedicated to helping businesses in Kenya thrive. Let us be your partner in unearthing valuable insights that fuel your success.

Contact us today for a free consultation and discover how our research consulting services can empower your brand in the Kenyan market.

We are a one-stop shop for all your Human Resource related queries and advocate for mandatory Human Resource practices while going the extra mile to proactively address workers needs in order to achieve optimum productivity.

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What We Can Do For You

Market and Social Research

Capacity Building

Marketing Consultancy

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Who is ConsumerPro

ConsumerPro Limited is a Market& Social Research Consultancy Company aimed at providing research- based market insights and business solutions that inform decision making and organizational growth. ConsumerPro offers Market Research, Marketing, training and Business Solutions among other services to organizations in different sectors, helping them better understand their market, make informed decisions and become more competitive and customer-centric. ConsumerPro helps you to always be one step ahead of the competition by understanding the heart and the minds of your consumers. Let us help you build sustainable businesses, for the social and economic growth for all your stakeholders.

Company mission

“To provide research-based market insights and business solutions that inform decision-making and business growth.”

Company Vision

“Inspiring consumer-centric businesses for a satisfied African market”

Our Clients

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Consumerpro Ltd

Quick Contacts

+254 20 52 80 165 +254-723-835-847 [email protected]

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Accelerate Your Brand Growth with data-driven Insights from PARS Research

Make informed decisions based on expert research-findings. PARS (Pan African Research Services Ltd.) is among the leading research companies in Africa.

Google Rating

Customer Satisfaction & Perception Survey

Market Definition & Exploration Studies

Positioning and Segmentation Studies.

Employee Satisfaction & Engagement Surveys

Mid Term and End Term Evaluations

Human-Centered Research Experiences

PARS is committed to working with all its clients to improve their ability to make informed timely decisions. The company also offers custom research services to companies that do not need the whole research process.

ACCURACY Get accurate data that you can rely on!

Our team analyzes what other organizations in your industry are doing to stay competitive in the complicated world of business. 

Next, we use smart tools and our long experience in practice to provide you with credible data that will guide you in making your next decision. 

INNOVATION Reinventing research in Africa as we know it

PARS is one of the most innovative research companies in Africa that integrates modern technology in almost all aspects of research.  We pride ourselves in development of effective channels of customer engagement and data collection. 

Our Innovative team speeds up what used to be the traditional market research methodology by replacing it with tech-driven market research. This not only saves time and money but also guarantees accuracy in data collection.

Customer Satisfaction & Perception Surveys

In an increasingly competitive world, customer satisfaction is vital in building customer loyalty and sales growth. 

PARS is renowned for carrying out in-depth customer satisfaction research across Africa. This type of study establishes satisfaction levels and tracks changes over time.

Market Exploration & Definition Studies

PARS Research ltd has a knack for establishing gaps & opportunities in African markets. In this type of research, we explore potential gaps & opportunities in African marketplace. 

The qualitative research method is mainly used in market exploration.

Image & Brand Equity Studies and Surveys

Worried about how your brand or company is perceived in Kenya, South Africa, or any other African country? 

Let PARS carry out a brand image and consumer behavior study for you.  In this type of study, we evaluate how a product, service, or organization is perceived by users and the public at large.

Baseline surveys, Mid-term & End-Term Evaluations.

Baseline surveys are among the most common type of social research carried out by project implementers.

They are often done to collect basic information to get demographic and other baseline data before the introduction of particular community services or projects. 

People Real people are always at the heart of our data.

People around the world have participated in our Researches.

Backed by real people, our global panels provide critical data validation and ensure representation.

Employees power our business globally

Our passionate workforce drives a better business future across 57 countries.

Businesses and Companies trust us with their researches.

Members of these groups help us bring our best to the communities we measure.

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List Of Best Market Research Companies In Kenya

This is a list of best market research companies in Kenya. Market research is the activity of gathering information about the needs and preferences of consumers. Therefore, market research companies deliver insights by combining research outcomes, real-time data and the most precise measurement to meet the needs of consumers and help established businesses to understand the emerging trends in the market.

Here is a list of the best market research companies in Kenya.

1. Infotrak

It is a full-service research company that was established in 2004 to provide the Pan African Market with suitable information solutions to sustain the ever-growing economies in the content.

Location: Off James Gichuru Road, Nairobi

Contact: +254 202338988

Email: [email protected]

2. Consumer Options

It is a full-service market research company with the flexibility of conducting market research in East Africa and the rest of the world.

Location: International House, 6th Floor, Mama Ngina Street, Nairobi

Contacts: +254 20 331 7709/ +254 724 255 543

Email: [email protected]

Ipsos is one of the leading research companies in Kenya that provides accurate and reliable information that will aid one to make smarter decisions and more consistently across markets.

Location: Lavington, Nairobi

Contacts: +254 20 386 272133

4. Infinite Insight

Infinite Insight is a full-service market research agency that offers qualitative and quantitative research services across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Location: Mirage Tower 1, Chiromo Road

Contacts: +254 774 157 784

Email: [email protected]

5. SBO Research

It is a market and social research company with a regional operational footprint that spans across 23 countries in Africa. It provides full consultancy service to all business sectors with solutions grounded on excellence, efficiency and innovation.

Location: Off Ring Road, Kilimani

Contacts: +254 020 214 5668/ +254 020 210 1916/7

Email: [email protected]

6. Nielsen Kenya

Nielsen is a global measurement and data analytics company that provides the most complete and trusted view available of consumers and markets worldwide.

Location: 14 Riverside Drive, Nairobi

Contacts: +254 20 444 0293/ 444 0547

7. Indepth Research Services Ltd

Location: Westlands, Rhapta Road

Contacts: +254 715 077 817/ +254 792 516 000

Email: [email protected]

8. Dalberg Africa Research Solutions

Location: 5th Floor, The Atrium, Chaka Road, Kilimani

Contacts: +254 727 370 022/ +254 202 590 002

9. Survey & Statistics Solutions

Location: Eldoret Town

Contacts; +254 724 704 828/ +254 733 493 316

Email: [email protected]

10. Consumer Insight Africa

It is a reliable research company that heavily relies on technology-based methods and quality assurance measures to offer customised research and in-house research solutions.

Contacts: +254 722 202 313/ +254 202 146 540

Email: [email protected]

Zack Abuyeka

I am the third eye.My duty is to keep you updated of the current trends and events happening round the globe.

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ONLINE PANEL IN KENYA | Market Research in Kenya

Kenya at a glance

Internet Users

Laptop / PC Users

Smartphone Users

Active Social Media Users

GDP Total (PPP)

$190.182 billion / $3,868 (per Capita)

Kenya's National motto

Harambee / Let us all pull together

Native name

Capital of Kenya

52M / urban 27%

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Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru

Want to Dive Deeper into Our Kenya Research Expertise?

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Our online panel in kenya.

Recruitment Process

Quality Standards

Our mission is to provide our clients with the highest possible quality. At TGM Research, everything adheres to the strict code of conduct established by ESOMAR. Whether it's building and managing online panels in Kenya, collecting and processing data, or storing personal information, we ensure that everything is held to the highest industry standards. Our team members speak the local language and are familiar with the local conditions in Kenya. As a result, we can offer high-quality guidance for projects conducted on our panel in Kenya. This enables you to connect with your audience and uncover the insights necessary to make informed strategic decisions

Expert Panel Management

Consumer Panel Profiling

This list is not comprehensive since profiling questions for each category are regularly updated. This enables us to quickly adapt to specific client requests and save valuable time for respondents. If you would like to know more, contact us.

OUR ONLINE PANEL IN KENYA

Why use tgm mobile and online panel in kenya.

Maximum monthly sample delivery:

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Gender distribution of panelist

Discover the Power of TGM Mobile and Online Panel in Kenya:

Your gateway to invaluable insights.

Nationwide reach

No need to focus on one specific city or province of Kenya. With TGM's mobile panel, you can interview people from everywhere in Kenya; which means a better sampling plan, better representation and better data extrapolation for your quantitative research analysis, or qualitative research projects.

Because surveys are self-administrated, your fieldwork costs are much lower. You can do agile research, more often, with a bigger sample size fitting your needs.

Using mobile and online technology, you can reach thousands of respondents at a glance to fill in your survey in hours and fulfill your quotas.

Sample quality

Lower costs should not be impacting the quality of your online surveys. At TGM Research, we take data quality very seriously with one centralized and standardized strict procedure for panel recruitment, panel management, and quality checks during the whole market research survey.

We use our unique digital fingerprinting technology and logical tests to measure engagement and trust for each of the respondents who will fill in your online surveys.

Respondent experience

Participants are the fuel of our industry. At TGM, not only do we think mobile first for respondents, but we also design optimized and fun studies for our panelists.

Thanks to our generous reward scheme that truly rewards respondents for their time and efforts, TGM is one of the fast-growing online research companies globally with the highest response rates and satisfaction scores.

We offer multiple options in terms of rewards redemption: by PayPal, GCodes®, in cash, as mobile top-ups, using Transferwise, wire transfer or through online vouchers

Different types of market research available

With our market research panel in Kenya, you can conduct both quantitative research and qualitative market research projects - including popular consumer market research surveys, as well as more specialized (healthcare research, retail research, technology research, social research services and other)

Do you have a business enquiry?

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Market Research Companies in Kenya

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Address: 14048 - 00400 Nairobi, Kenya

Bamba, a TechStars company, is a real-time data gathering platform for market research clients to target and engage unique demographics of panelists in the emerging markets. ...

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Infinite Insight Ltd.

Address: Nairobi, Kenya

Infinite Insight is a full service market research agency, operating across the African continent. We have assembled a strong team of professionals with thorough first hand knowledge of African… ...

Research International East Africa Ltd

Address: 00200 Nairobi, Kenya

Research International East Africa is a leading Social and Market research agency in East and Central Africa. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Research International Group Ltd and we are part of… ...

Consumer Options Ltd

Address: 20610-00200 Nairobi, Kenya

Consumer Options Ltd was founded in 2004, Consumer Options is one of the fastest growing market research agencies in East Africa. Our focus is to understand and translate consumer habits into… ...

Consumer Insight

Address: 27766-00506 Nairobi, Kenya

We know Africa. Africa is home, it’s where we were born, raised and reside. We understand the market nuances and dynamism that others would overlook or undervalue ...

Voices Africa Limited

VoicesAfrica is an online research panel focused on Africa. We're the largest on the continent. Combining 250,000+ panelists with strong panel, quality control, a high response rate and a presence in all major African markets, ours is a service that offers companies a platform for entry into Africa ...

QNR Data Kenya

QNR has established a foundation for market coverage that reflects exactly what client organisations expect from a fieldwork partner on the African continent. Our core competencies include field and tab, scripting, and statistical analysis- i.e. correlations, regression analysis, group comparisons. ...

GfK in Kenya

GfK is the trusted source of relevant market and consumer information that enables its clients to make smarter decisions. ...

KASI Insight Africa

KASI Insight is one of Africa’s most innovative research and advisory firms! We solve problems that present challenges for most firms doing business in Africa – lack of fresh local market data, slow project turnarounds, and a need for contextual insight and innovative research methods. ...

Research Solutions Africa Ltd.

Address: PO box 16832-00620 Nairobi, Kenya

Research Solutions Africa is a high quality research supplier founded in 1996 and offering research services to clients across Africa. The Company has local field forces in over 20 African countries… ...

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Kenya Data Centre Construction Market By Type (Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3, Tier 4); By Infrastructure (IT Infrastructure, PD & Cooling Infrastructure, Miscellaneous Infrastructure); By Vertical (IT & Telecom, BFSI, Government & Defense, Healthcare, Energy, Others); By Geography – Growth, Share, Opportunities & Competitive Analysis, 2024 – 2032

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• Table Of Content

Market Overview

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market is projected to grow from USD 338.15 million in 2023 to USD 518.38 million by 2032, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.58%.

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market is driven by the rapid growth of digital services and increasing demand for cloud computing, fueled by the expansion of the IT and telecom sectors. Government initiatives to improve digital infrastructure and attract foreign investments are also boosting the market. Additionally, the rising adoption of smart technologies and the growing need for secure data storage solutions are prompting businesses to invest in modern data centres. Trends such as the focus on energy efficiency and sustainability in data centre design are shaping the market, reflecting global environmental concerns and the need to reduce operational costs.

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market is primarily concentrated in urban areas such as Nairobi, which serves as the country’s technology and business hub. This concentration is driven by the availability of reliable power supply, robust internet connectivity, and proximity to major businesses and government institutions. Kenya’s strategic location in East Africa also positions it as a regional hub for data services, attracting investments from both local and international players. Key players in the market include Turner Construction Co., ABB, Schneider Electric, Siemens, and Vertiv, which lead the industry with their expertise in data centre design, construction, and advanced infrastructure solutions.

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Market Drivers

Rapid digitalization and economic growth.

Kenya’s data centre construction market is significantly driven by the rapid digitalization and economic growth in the country. For instance, the increasing internet penetration, with more Kenyans gaining access to the internet, is generating a substantial demand for data storage and processing capabilities. Known as the “Silicon Savannah,” Kenya has seen its Information and Communications Technology (ICT) sector grow an average of 10.8% annually since 2016, becoming a significant source of economic development and job creation with spill over effects in almost every sector of the economy. As more people and businesses come online, the need for robust data infrastructure becomes paramount. Additionally, Kenya’s expanding economy, particularly in dynamic sectors such as finance, technology, and telecommunications, requires advanced IT infrastructure to support growth. The thriving economic environment is creating a conducive market for data centre development, as companies seek reliable and scalable solutions to manage their data needs.

Government Support and Policy

The Kenyan government’s commitment to infrastructure development is playing a pivotal role in the growth of the data centre market. Investments in broadband connectivity and the expansion of fiber optic networks are laying the groundwork for a strong digital infrastructure, which is essential for the establishment and operation of data centres . For instance, the government is implementing projects like the Konza National Data Center and Smart City facilities project, which is designed to support data, voice, video, services, systems, and applications. Moreover, supportive government policies and a regulatory framework tailored to encourage investments in the IT sector are attracting both local and international players to the data centre market. These measures not only boost investor confidence but also facilitate a stable and predictable business environment, conducive to long-term investment.

Cloud Computing Adoption

The growing adoption of cloud computing services in Kenya is another major driver of the data centre construction market. As businesses increasingly move to cloud-based solutions, the demand for data centres that can support cloud infrastructure is on the rise. Data centres provide a cost-effective solution for businesses to store and process vast amounts of data, offering scalability and flexibility. This shift towards cloud computing is encouraging more companies to invest in data centres, ensuring they can meet their current and future data management needs efficiently.

Regional Hub Potential and Foreign Investment

Kenya’s strategic location in East Africa positions it as a potential regional hub for data centres, capable of serving neighboring countries. The expanding connectivity infrastructure, including undersea cables and improved terrestrial networks, enhances Kenya’s appeal as a data centre hub, providing high-speed, reliable connections that are crucial for data operations. Additionally, Kenya’s favorable business environment has attracted significant foreign direct investment in the data centre sector. Foreign investors bring not only capital but also advanced technology and expertise, which are essential for the development of cutting-edge data centres. This influx of foreign investment and technology transfer further strengthens Kenya’s position as a leading player in the regional data centre market.

Market Trends

Increasing focus on tier iii and iv facilities and emphasis on sustainability.

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market is witnessing a significant shift towards the development of Tier III and Tier IV facilities, driven by the need for higher reliability and security in data handling. For instance, according to a survey by the Communications Authority of Kenya, there has been a notable increase in the number of Tier III and IV data centers being constructed in recent years. These advanced data centres offer greater redundancy and uptime, making them ideal for mission-critical applications where any downtime could have severe consequences. As businesses become increasingly data-dependent, investing in such high-tier facilities ensures business continuity and robust data security. This trend is further fueled by companies’ growing need to comply with stringent data protection regulations and maintain their competitive edge. Concurrently, there is a strong emphasis on sustainability and energy efficiency within the data centre industry. Environmental concerns are prompting data centre operators to adopt sustainable practices, such as using renewable energy sources and implementing energy-efficient cooling systems. These practices not only help in reducing the environmental footprint of data centres but also lead to substantial cost savings over time by lowering energy consumption and operational costs. The dual focus on reliability and sustainability reflects a broader industry trend towards creating resilient and eco-friendly data infrastructure.

Hybrid Cloud Adoption, Edge Computing, and Enhanced Cybersecurity

The adoption of hybrid cloud models and edge computing is transforming the landscape of the Kenya Data Centre Construction Market. Hybrid cloud solutions, which integrate both public and private cloud services, offer businesses the flexibility to manage workloads efficiently, ensuring data is stored and processed in the most suitable environment. This approach meets the specific needs of businesses by providing a balanced combination of scalability, security, and cost-efficiency. In addition, the rise of edge computing is leading to the deployment of data centres closer to end-users. Edge data centres reduce latency, enhance response times, and improve the user experience by processing data locally rather than relying on centralized servers. This trend is particularly important for applications requiring real-time data processing, such as IoT and AI-driven services. Alongside these technological advancements, there is an increasing focus on cybersecurity and data privacy. Data centre operators are investing heavily in robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive information and comply with data privacy regulations. With the rising threat of cyberattacks, implementing strong security practices is crucial to mitigate risks and safeguard data integrity. These trends underscore the evolving nature of the data centre market, where adaptability, security, and customer-centric solutions are key to sustaining growth and meeting future demands.

Market Challenges Analysis

Infrastructure and high costs.

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market faces significant challenges related to infrastructure constraints and high costs. For instance, one of the primary issues is the inadequate power supply, which is characterized by frequent outages and fluctuations. This poses a significant risk to the stability and reliability of data centres, as a consistent and reliable power supply is critical for their operation . Ensuring a consistent and reliable power supply is critical for the operation of these facilities, making it a major hurdle in market development. Additionally, limited fiber optic connectivity in certain regions of Kenya restricts the expansion of data centres, as robust connectivity is essential for high-speed data transfer and efficient operations. On the cost front, acquiring suitable land for data centre construction can be prohibitively expensive, especially in urban areas where demand for space is high. Furthermore, the investment required to develop the necessary infrastructure, including advanced power and cooling systems, can be substantial. These high costs can deter potential investors and limit the pace of data centre development, making it a challenge for the market to reach its full potential.

Competition, Regulatory Challenges, and Talent Shortage

The competitive landscape of the Kenya Data Centre Construction Market presents another set of challenges. Kenya faces stiff regional competition from other countries in Africa, such as South Africa and Nigeria, which are also vying for data centre investments due to their own expanding digital economies. Additionally, the entry of international data centre providers into the Kenyan market increases competition, potentially squeezing local operators and driving the need for differentiation. Navigating complex regulatory frameworks further complicates the market environment. The process of complying with various regulations can be time-consuming and costly, and any uncertainty or changes in government policies can significantly impact investment decisions. Finally, a shortage of skilled professionals in areas such as data centre design, operation, and maintenance is a pressing issue. As the demand for data centres grows, the need for trained personnel to manage these sophisticated facilities also rises. Addressing this talent gap requires significant investment in training and development programs, which adds to operational costs. These challenges collectively underscore the need for strategic planning and investment to overcome barriers and sustain the growth of Kenya’s data centre market.

Market Segmentation Analysis:

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market is segmented by type into Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3, and Tier 4 facilities, reflecting varying levels of reliability, redundancy, and security. Tier 1 and Tier 2 data centres offer basic infrastructure with limited redundancy, suitable for smaller businesses with less critical data needs. In contrast, Tier 3 and Tier 4 facilities provide higher levels of redundancy and uptime, designed to support mission-critical applications requiring continuous operation. The demand for Tier 3 and Tier 4 data centres is growing rapidly in Kenya, driven by businesses’ need for enhanced reliability and security. These high-tier facilities are becoming the preferred choice for industries such as finance, healthcare, and IT, where data integrity and availability are paramount. The focus on building Tier 3 and Tier 4 data centres aligns with the increasing digitalization of the economy and the rising demand for robust, scalable infrastructure to support Kenya’s expanding data needs.

By Infrastructure:

Kenya’s data centre construction market is further segmented based on infrastructure into IT infrastructure, power distribution and cooling (PD & Cooling) infrastructure, and miscellaneous infrastructure. IT infrastructure encompasses networking equipment, servers, and storage solutions, all of which are critical components of data centres. The increasing demand for high-speed connectivity and efficient data processing drives the adoption of advanced networking equipment, powerful servers, and scalable storage solutions. PD & Cooling infrastructure is equally essential, as it ensures the efficient operation and longevity of data centres. Reliable power distribution systems are crucial to maintaining uninterrupted service, while effective cooling solutions help manage the significant heat generated by data centre operations. Miscellaneous infrastructure includes all additional components necessary for the functioning of a data centre, such as security systems and monitoring equipment. The comprehensive approach to infrastructure development in Kenya’s data centre market is designed to meet the growing needs of businesses for secure, reliable, and efficient data handling capabilities.

Based on Type:

Based on Infrastructure:

• IT Infrastructure
• Networking Equipment
• PD & Cooling Infrastructure
• Power Distribution
• Miscellaneous Infrastructure

Based on Vertical:

• IT & Telecom
• Government & Defense

Based on the Geography:

Regional Analysis

Nairobi emerging as the primary hub, capturing approximately 70% of the market share. As Kenya’s capital and largest city, Nairobi benefits from its strategic location, advanced telecommunications infrastructure, and status as a regional economic powerhouse. The city’s data centre landscape is rapidly evolving, driven by increasing demand for cloud services, digital transformation initiatives, and the expansion of global hyperscale providers into the African market. Nairobi’s dominance is further solidified by its well-developed power grid, skilled IT workforce, and favorable government policies aimed at positioning Kenya as East Africa’s digital hub. Major players in the region are investing heavily in state-of-the-art facilities, incorporating green technologies and adopting international standards to meet the growing data storage and processing needs of both local and multinational corporations.

Mombasa, Kenya’s second-largest city and main port, is emerging as a significant secondary market for data centre construction, holding roughly 20% of the market share. The coastal city’s strategic importance lies in its role as a landing point for several submarine cables, providing crucial international connectivity. This unique position makes Mombasa an attractive location for edge data centres and disaster recovery facilities, catering to the increasing demand for low-latency services and data redundancy. The city’s data centre market is seeing growing interest from both domestic and international investors, who recognize its potential as a complementary location to Nairobi. Mombasa’s data centre ecosystem is expected to expand further as Kenya continues to strengthen its position as a digital gateway to East Africa, with projects focusing on enhancing connectivity, reliability, and energy efficiency to meet the evolving needs of the digital economy.

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Key player analysis.

• Turner Construction Co.
• Caterpillar
• Delta Electronics
• Master Power Technologies
• Rolls-Royce
• Schneider Electric

Competitive Analysis

The competitive landscape of the Kenya Data Centre Construction Market features several leading players, including Turner Construction Co., ABB, Schneider Electric, Siemens, and Vertiv. These companies are at the forefront of the market, leveraging their extensive experience and technological expertise to deliver high-quality data centre solutions. They focus on providing end-to-end services, from initial design and construction to integration of advanced IT infrastructure, power distribution, and cooling systems. Their ability to offer turnkey solutions makes them preferred partners for businesses seeking reliable and scalable data centre facilities. The competitive edge of these players lies in their strong emphasis on innovation, sustainability, and efficiency, incorporating the latest technologies such as IoT and AI to enhance data centre performance. Moreover, their global presence and strong local partnerships enable them to navigate the regulatory landscape effectively and meet the specific needs of the Kenyan market, positioning them well to capitalize on the growing demand for data centre infrastructure in the region.

Recent Developments

• In 2024, Caterpillar joined the Africa Data Centres Association (ADCA), a trade organization promoting the growth of data centers in Africa.
• In March 2024, Cummins expanded its support for International Data Center Day by engaging with over 100 students at three community schools near its manufacturing sites.

Market Concentration & Characteristics

The Kenya Data Centre Construction Market is characterized by moderate market concentration, with a mix of established global players and emerging local firms. Leading companies such as Turner Construction Co., ABB, Schneider Electric, Siemens, and Vertiv hold significant market shares due to their comprehensive service offerings and technological expertise. These players dominate the market by leveraging advanced construction techniques, innovative IT solutions, and robust power and cooling infrastructures, which are critical for the operation of modern data centres. The market is driven by a strong focus on reliability, efficiency, and sustainability, as businesses increasingly seek data centres that offer high uptime and reduced environmental impact. Despite the dominance of a few key players, opportunities exist for smaller and emerging companies to capture market share, particularly by offering specialized services or focusing on niche segments. The ongoing growth in digitalization, cloud computing, and data security demands continues to shape the market’s competitive dynamics and future opportunities.

Report Coverage

The research report offers an in-depth analysis based on Type, Infrastructure, Vertical and Geography . It details leading market players, providing an overview of their business, product offerings, investments, revenue streams, and key applications. Additionally, the report includes insights into the competitive environment, SWOT analysis, current market trends, as well as the primary drivers and constraints. Furthermore, it discusses various factors that have driven market expansion in recent years. The report also explores market dynamics, regulatory scenarios, and technological advancements that are shaping the industry. It assesses the impact of external factors and global economic changes on market growth. Lastly, it provides strategic recommendations for new entrants and established companies to navigate the complexities of the market.

Future Outlook

• The demand for data centres in Kenya will continue to grow, driven by increasing digitalization and internet penetration.
• Investment in Tier 3 and Tier 4 data centres will rise to meet the need for high reliability and security.
• Nairobi will remain the primary hub for data centre development, attracting significant local and international investments.
• Mombasa will emerge as a key location for data centres, leveraging its strategic connectivity through undersea cables.
• The adoption of cloud computing and big data analytics will boost the need for advanced data infrastructure.
• Energy efficiency and sustainability will become critical factors, prompting data centres to adopt green technologies and practices.
• Regulatory developments will shape the market, with data protection and localization laws driving new investments.
• Collaboration between local and international companies will increase, bringing in expertise and capital.
• The growth of e-commerce and fintech sectors will drive additional demand for secure and scalable data centres.
• The shortage of skilled professionals will lead to increased investment in training and development programs to support the expanding data centre industry.

CHAPTER NO. 1 : INTRODUCTION 14

1.1. Report Description 14

Purpose of the Report 14

USP & Key Offerings 14

1.2. Key Benefits for Stakeholders 14

1.3. Target Audience 15

1.4. Report Scope 15

CHAPTER NO. 2 : EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 16

2.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Snapshot 16

2.2. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market, 2018 – 2032 (USD Million) 17

CHAPTER NO. 3 : KENYA DATA CENTRE CONSTRUCTION MARKET – INDUSTRY ANALYSIS 18

3.1. Introduction 18

3.2. Market Drivers 19

3.3. Driving Factor 1 Analysis 19

3.4. Driving Factor 2 Analysis 20

3.5. Market Restraints 21

3.6. Restraining Factor Analysis 21

3.7. Market Opportunities 22

3.8. Market Opportunity Analysis 22

3.9. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis 23

CHAPTER NO. 4 : ANALYSIS COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE 24

4.1. Company Market Share Analysis – 2023 24

4.1.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Company Market Share, by Volume, 2023 24

4.1.2. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Company Market Share, by Revenue, 2023 25

4.1.3. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Top 6 Company Market Share, by Revenue, 2023 25

4.1.4. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Top 3 Company Market Share, by Revenue, 2023 26

4.2. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Company Revenue Market Share, 2023 27

4.3. Company Assessment Metrics, 2023 28

4.3.1. Stars 28

4.3.2. Emerging Leaders 28

4.3.3. Pervasive Players 28

4.3.4. Participants 28

4.4. Start-ups /SMEs Assessment Metrics, 2023 28

4.4.1. Progressive Companies 28

4.4.2. Responsive Companies 28

4.4.3. Dynamic Companies 28

4.4.4. Starting Blocks 28

4.5. Strategic Developments 29

4.5.1. Acquisitions & Mergers 29

New Product Launch 29

Kenya Expansion 29

4.6. Key Players Product Matrix 30

CHAPTER NO. 5 : PESTEL & ADJACENT MARKET ANALYSIS 31

5.1. PESTEL 31

5.1.1. Political Factors 31

5.1.2. Economic Factors 31

5.1.3. Social Factors 31

5.1.4. Technological Factors 31

5.1.5. Environmental Factors 31

5.1.6. Legal Factors 31

5.2. Adjacent Market Analysis 31

CHAPTER NO. 6 : KENYA DATA CENTRE CONSTRUCTION MARKET – BY TYPE SEGMENT ANALYSIS 32

6.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Overview, by Type Segment 32

6.1.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue Share, By Type, 2023 & 2032 33

6.1.2. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Attractiveness Analysis, By Type 34

6.1.3. Incremental Revenue Growth Opportunity, by Type, 2024 – 2032 34

6.1.4. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, By Type, 2018, 2023, 2027 & 2032 35

6.2. Tier 1 36

6.3. Tier 2 37

6.4. Tier 3 38

6.5. Tier 4 39

CHAPTER NO. 7 : KENYA DATA CENTRE CONSTRUCTION MARKET – BY INFRASTRUCTURE SEGMENT ANALYSIS 40

7.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Overview, by Infrastructure Segment 40

7.1.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue Share, By Infrastructure, 2023 & 2032 41

7.1.2. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Attractiveness Analysis, By Infrastructure 42

7.1.3. Incremental Revenue Growth Opportunity, by Infrastructure, 2024 – 2032 42

7.1.4. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, By Infrastructure, 2018, 2023, 2027 & 2032 43

7.2. IT Infrastructure 44

7.2.1. Networking Equipment 44

7.2.2. Server 45

7.2.3. Storage 45

7.3. PD & Cooling Infrastructure 46

7.3.1. Power Distribution 46

7.3.2. Cooling 47

7.4. Miscellaneous Infrastructure 48

CHAPTER NO. 8 : KENYA DATA CENTRE CONSTRUCTION MARKET – BY VERTICAL SEGMENT ANALYSIS 49

8.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Overview, by Vertical Segment 49

8.1.1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue Share, By Vertical, 2023 & 2032 50

8.1.2. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Attractiveness Analysis, By Vertical 51

8.1.3. Incremental Revenue Growth Opportunity, by Vertical, 2024 – 2032 51

8.1.4. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, By Vertical, 2018, 2023, 2027 & 2032 52

8.2. IT & Telecom 53

8.3. BFSI 54

8.4. Government & Defense 55

8.5. Healthcare 56

8.6. Energy 57

8.7. Others 57

CHAPTER NO. 9 : COMPANY PROFILES 58

9.1. Turner Construction Co. 58

9.1.1. Company Overview 58

9.1.2. Product Portfolio 58

9.1.3. Swot Analysis 58

9.1.4. Business Strategy 59

9.1.5. Financial Overview 59

9.2. 4energy 60

9.3. ABB 60

9.4. Caterpillar 60

9.5. Cummins 60

9.6. Delta Electronics 60

9.7. EATON 60

9.8. EVAPCO 60

9.9. Enlogic 60

9.10. Legrand 60

9.11. Master Power Technologies 60

9.12. Rittal 60

9.13. Rolls-Royce 60

9.14. Schneider Electric 60

9.15. Siemens 60

9.16. STULZ 60

9.17. Vertiv 60

CHAPTER NO. 10 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 61

10.1. Research Methodology 61

10.2. Phase I – Secondary Research 62

10.3. Phase II – Data Modeling 62

Company Share Analysis Model 63

Revenue Based Modeling 63

10.4. Phase III – Primary Research 64

10.5. Research Limitations 65

Assumptions 65

List of Figures

FIG NO. 1. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, 2018 – 2032 (USD Million) 17

FIG NO. 2. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis for Kenya Data Centre Construction Market 23

FIG NO. 3. Company Share Analysis, 2023 24

FIG NO. 4. Company Share Analysis, 2023 25

FIG NO. 5. Company Share Analysis, 2023 25

FIG NO. 6. Company Share Analysis, 2023 26

FIG NO. 7. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market – Company Revenue Market Share, 2023 27

FIG NO. 8. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue Share, By Type, 2023 & 2032 33

FIG NO. 9. Market Attractiveness Analysis, By Type 34

FIG NO. 10. Incremental Revenue Growth Opportunity by Type, 2024 – 2032 34

FIG NO. 11. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, By Type, 2018, 2023, 2027 & 2032 35

FIG NO. 12. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Tier 1, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 36

FIG NO. 13. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Tier 2, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 37

FIG NO. 14. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Tier 3, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 38

FIG NO. 15. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Tier 4, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 39

FIG NO. 16. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue Share, By Infrastructure, 2023 & 2032 41

FIG NO. 17. Market Attractiveness Analysis, By Infrastructure 42

FIG NO. 18. Incremental Revenue Growth Opportunity by Infrastructure, 2024 – 2032 42

FIG NO. 19. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, By Infrastructure, 2018, 2023, 2027 & 2032 43

FIG NO. 20. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for IT Infrastructure, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 44

FIG NO. 21. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Networking Equipment, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 44

FIG NO. 22. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Server, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 45

FIG NO. 23. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Storage, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 45

FIG NO. 24. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for PD & Cooling Infrastructure, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 46

FIG NO. 25. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Power Distribution, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 46

FIG NO. 26. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Cooling, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 47

FIG NO. 27. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Miscellaneous Infrastructure, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 48

FIG NO. 28. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue Share, By Vertical, 2023 & 2032 50

FIG NO. 29. Market Attractiveness Analysis, By Vertical 51

FIG NO. 30. Incremental Revenue Growth Opportunity by Vertical, 2024 – 2032 51

FIG NO. 31. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market Revenue, By Vertical, 2018, 2023, 2027 & 2032 52

FIG NO. 32. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for IT & Telecom, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 53

FIG NO. 33. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for BFSI, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 54

FIG NO. 34. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Government & Defense, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 55

FIG NO. 35. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Healthcare, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 56

FIG NO. 36. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Energy, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 57

FIG NO. 37. Kenya Data Centre Construction Market for Others, Revenue (USD Million) 2018 – 2032 57

FIG NO. 38. Research Methodology – Detailed View 61

FIG NO. 39. Research Methodology 62

List of Tables

TABLE NO. 1. : Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Snapshot 16

TABLE NO. 2. : Drivers for the Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Impact Analysis 19

TABLE NO. 3. : Restraints for the Kenya Data Centre Construction Market: Impact Analysis 21

Frequently Asked Questions:

The market growth is driven by the rapid expansion of digital services, increasing demand for cloud computing, and the growth of the IT and telecom sectors. Government initiatives to improve digital infrastructure and attract foreign investments, along with the adoption of smart technologies and the need for secure data storage solutions, are also key drivers.

The market is segmented by type into Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3, and Tier 4 facilities. It is also segmented based on infrastructure into IT infrastructure (networking equipment, servers, storage), PD & Cooling infrastructure (power distribution, cooling), and miscellaneous infrastructure.

Major players in the market include Turner Construction Co., ABB, Schneider Electric, Siemens, and Vertiv, which lead the industry with their expertise in data centre design, construction, and advanced infrastructure solutions.

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Monitoring soil carbon in smallholder carbon projects: insights from Kenya

• Open access
• Published: 03 September 2024
• Volume 177 , article number  143 , ( 2024 )

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• Adaugo O. Okoli   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0007-2141-8878 1 &
• Athena Birkenberg 1  

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Voluntary carbon market schemes facilitate funding for projects promoting sustainable land management practices to sequester carbon in natural sinks such as biomass and soil, while also supporting agricultural production. The effectiveness of VCM schemes relies on accurate measurement mechanisms that can directly attribute carbon accumulation to project activities. However, measuring carbon sequestration in soils has proven to be difficult and costly, especially in fragmented smallholdings predominant in global agriculture. The cost and accuracy limitations of current methods to monitor soil organic carbon (SOC) limit the participation of smallholder farmers in global carbon markets, where they could potentially be compensated for adopting sustainable farming practices that provide ecosystem benefits. This study evaluates nine different approaches for SOC accounting in smallholder agricultural projects. The approaches involve the use of proximal and remote sensing, along with process models. Our evaluation centres on stakeholder requirements for the Measurement, Reporting, and Verification system, using the criteria of accuracy, level of standardisation, costs, adoptability, and the advancement of community benefits. By analysing these criteria, we highlight opportunities and challenges associated with each approach, presenting suggestions to enhance their applicability for smallholder SOC accounting. The contextual foundation of the research is a case study on the Western Kenya Soil Carbon Project. Remote sensing shows promise in reducing costs for direct and modelling-based carbon measurement. While it is already being used in certain carbon market applications, transparency is vital for broader integration. This demands collaborative work and investment in infrastructure like spectral libraries and user-friendly tools. Balancing community benefits against the detached nature of remote techniques is essential. Enhancing information access aids farmers, boosting income through improved soil and crop productivity, even with remote monitoring. Handheld sensors can involve smallholders, given consistent protocols. Engaging the community in monitoring can cut project costs, enhance agricultural capabilities, and generate extra income.

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1 Introduction

Soil’s role as a carbon sink, when properly managed, is increasingly recognized as an important asset in climate change mitigation. Furthermore, sustainable agricultural land management can halt soil degradation, improve soil fertility, lower production input costs, and enhance ecosystem resilience against climate change impacts (Chenu et al. 2019 ; Liniger et al. 2011 ; Rumpel et al. 2020 ). However, most of the world's agriculture involves smallholder farmers with limited access to technical knowledge and financial resources for sustainable land management due to inadequate funding for public extension services worldwide (Wollenberg et al. 2022 ).

Voluntary carbon markets offer a solution to incentivize improved soil management, addressing issues of food security, climate adaptation and mitigation in developing countries through improved soil management. Carbon sequestered on-farm through sustainable practices can be traded as a commodity to offset corporate greenhouse gas emissions. Voluntary carbon projects involving soil carbon management are growing, with a tenfold increase in carbon credits issued from agricultural land management projects between 2020 and 2021 (Ecosystems Marketplace, 2022 ). However, effective scaling to benefit smallholders in the tropics is hampered by a lack of reliable, cost-effective soil analysis methods for quantifying the carbon sequestration benefits of land management practices (FAO et al. 2020 ; Olander et al. 2013 ; Berry & Ryan 2013 ). This obstacle has become even more significant following the deactivation of the most utilized method for agricultural carbon projects by the leading carbon standard, Verra. Footnote 1 Currently available methodologies therefore lack precedence in smallholder projects.

Smallholder carbon projects differ substantially from those involving commercial farms in high-income countries, which have been the focus of other studies (Paul et al. 2023 ). Smallholder farms are below two hectares on average, requiring aggregation of hundreds or thousands of landowners to achieve economies of scale and a tradeable amount of carbon credits. This increases the complexity, and costs of monitoring practices and comes with unique needs related to project governance and adoption incentives, which differ from farmers in Europe or North America who typically have larger plots, more access to information, and require less technical support. Therefore, integrating the multiple needs and requirements of stakeholders through participatory approaches is essential in such projects (Wollenberg et al. 2022 ).

Emerging technologies, including proximal and remote sensing, are promising for rapid, large-scale soil data collection and analysis. Many have investigated the use of such technologies for measuring soil organic carbon (SOC). However, within the scenario of carbon projects, technologies e.g., remote sensing, and tools like handheld soil scanners, are used for either data collection or analysis and are applied as part of a larger monitoring approach for SOC accounting. ‘Approach’ refers to the full set of procedures used for data collection and analysis of SOC stock change, including which tools are used, how often, and by whom. Such a monitoring approach is part of a larger project Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) system which comprises the monitoring approaches of all emission sources/sinks and non-carbon project impacts such as community livelihood benefits. Based on the nuances described above, it is more practical to evaluate SOC monitoring approaches for smallholder carbon projects than to assess single measurement tools. This paper takes a holistic systems perspective by addressing the following research questions:

What are the needs of different stakeholders in smallholder agricultural carbon projects in developing countries?

How well can existing and new SOC monitoring approaches contribute to the identified needs?

What are the challenges and benefits of available SOC monitoring approaches in the context of smallholder carbon projects in developing countries?

While others (Paul et al. 2023 ) have recently questioned the effectiveness of agricultural land management projects in reaching climate change mitigation targets, this paper does not attempt to weigh in on this subject. Instead, considering the growing number of such projects, and the predicted exponential growth of the Voluntary Carbon Market in coming years (BCG & Shell 2022 ), this study adopts a functional outlook to evaluate nine different SOC monitoring approaches (Table 1 ), and their potential for synergizing, rather than trading off on, multiple stakeholder objectives or requirements. The evaluation focuses on the level of accuracy, standardisation, cost reduction, adoptability, and their impact on community benefits. These criteria were identified as key factors influencing the choice of monitoring approaches for carbon projects. This evaluation is timely due to increasing public scrutiny of methodologies applied by carbon projects (Miltenberger et al. 2021 ) and consequently an evolution of smallholder methodologies within the standards.

The paper is organized as follows: after providing background information on the technical and operational requirements of carbon projects, we provide an overview of the existing research on soil carbon monitoring techniques. The methods section details the case study location in Kenya, describe the nine SOC monitoring approaches chosen for the evaluation and how the evaluation was conducted. Finally, we highlight the main results and discuss further implications of the findings to provide a comprehensive conclusion.

2 Conceptual background

2.1 important criteria for monitoring design.

When designing a carbon project monitoring approach, two categories of criteria must be considered.

Technical criteria are aligned with carbon certification standards and scientific best practices. The IPCC guidelines (IPCC 2006 ) identify completeness, transparency, accuracy, (time-series) consistency, and comparability as its foundational data quality principles. Completeness means that an inventory covers all sources and sinks of gases relevant to the project. Projects often include multiple carbon pools, which require different monitoring methods. A typical smallholder agricultural project might monitor above-ground biomass, SOC pools, emissions from inorganic fertilizers and biomass burning. Therefore, it is important to note that SOC accounting is only one aspect of a project’s MRV system. Transparency means that the assumptions and methodologies used for an inventory should be clearly explained to facilitate replication and assessment of the inventory. Accuracy is a relative measure of the exactness of emission or removal estimates, striving to avoid systematic over or underestimation and to reduce uncertainties as far as practicable. Most carbon standards set a minimum acceptable threshold for accuracy. For example, the VCS requires an R2 > 0.80 for correlations between predicted and observed stocks, and an uncertainty of < 20 percent based on a 95 percent confidence interval for predicted values. Where this is impossible to attain, deductions proportional to the uncertainty value are applied to the GHG removal estimates in line with the principle of conservativeness as described below. Consistency mandates internal coherence across all inventory elements and with inventories of other years. An inventory is consistent if it uses the same methodologies for the base and all subsequent years and relies on consistent datasets for estimations. Comparability ensures that emission and removal estimates are comparable across projects. Therefore, projects should use methodologies and formats agreed by standards. GHG Protocol and ISO 14062–2 introduce the additional principle of conservativeness, favouring an underestimation rather than overestimation of GHG reductions. Conservative values and assumptions should be applied in situations where data and assumptions are uncertain and where the cost of reducing uncertainty is not worth the increase in accuracy, ensuring that GHG reductions/removals are not overestimated. These principles are fundamental to providing investors and stakeholders with sufficient confidence in credits and allowing them to make decisions with reasonable assurance in the integrity of the reported information.

Operational (feasibility) criteria focus on practicality of projects for their proponents. Developers of carbon projects aim to cover expenses and ensure ongoing viability of their operations. The monitoring approach chosen should be within acceptable costs and suited to the level of available data and local expertise. Monitoring also typically accounts for the non-carbon objectives of stakeholders. For example, investors and government authorities are usually interested in a project’s socio-economic and/or agronomic impacts on smallholders, aligning with Sustainable Development Goals. Many carbon projects therefore integrate this into a monitoring framework—ideally, through a mechanism that can be effectively synchronized with the project’s larger MRV system.

2.2 SOC monitoring approaches

SOC monitoring approaches can be categorized into two ‘Domains’ (Fig. 1 ) in line with Paustian et al. ( 2019 ). Domain a involves directly measuring SOC through empirical observation of soil physical/chemical components. Domain b contains activity modelling approaches, which estimate carbon stock changes due to changes in land management using biogeochemical process models.

Alternative SOC monitoring approaches: Domain a direct measurement and Domain b activity modelling

Domain a (measurement) approaches have two main sources of inaccuracy:

Sampling error from biased or non-representative sampling design. This can be minimized by following best practice for soil sampling (See Annex 3 of FAO, 2020 ; World Bank 2021 ) and

Measurement errors from equipment or analytical procedures used to estimate SOC content of a sample. This is quite low when using conventional methods.

The accuracy of Domain b (modelling) approaches is limited by two broad challenges:

Leading soil models are calibrated and parameterized with weather and soil properties in temperate climes. Thus, applicability of model parameters in tropical regions is limited without local validation using localized datasets. The absence of such datasets means that significant uncertainty is propagated in the extrapolation of model parameters.

The uncertain nature of modelling itself, given that results are based on simulations of natural systems, which are subject to inexplicable random variation. Newer methods (e.g., VM0042 by VCS) now require intermittent model true ups to compare model predictions to reality and improve estimates of model prediction error.

The traditional Domain a method for SOC analysis used to be, and in most cases still is, wet oxidation in potassium dichromate (i.e. the Walkley & Black method). Due to observed difficulties of this method in recovering the total organic carbon content, dry combustion has been put forth as a more reliable benchmark for SOC measurements to enable comparability (Sparks et al., 1996 ). More recently, infrared spectroscopy has been demonstrated to have high accuracy and repeatability for soil analysis. It is increasingly suggested as a cost-effective alternative to other laboratory methods due to rapid and non-destructive sample processing (Viscarra-Rossel et al. 2006 , Jia et al. 2017 , Gomez et al. 2008 ). Still, many authors point out that laboratory methods remain cost-intensive and unsuitable for large processing volumes (Angelopoulou et al., 2020 ; Milori et al. 2011 ).

For this reason, smallholder projects in the carbon market prefer activity modeling approaches; the Roth-C model is used predominantly in most cropland projects to estimate soil carbon dynamics. Footnote 2 Modelling approaches are generally lower cost, as they rely on reported data about land management, soil, and climate to estimate SOC stock changes. They are however widely regarded as less accurate than Domain b approaches due to concerns about quality of model input data (Schober 2021 ) as well as the broad challenges stated above. In alignment with carbon market demand for more rigorous methodologies, Verra has recently inactivated its pioneer SOC activity modelling methodology VM0017. Schilling et al. ( 2023 ) speculate that direct measurement will become the new quality requirement, even for smallholder projects.

There is therefore a need to identify accurate SOC estimation techniques capable of reducing the cost of data collection, reducing analytical complexity (thus expertise requirements), and scaling SOC monitoring over larger areas (Olander et al. 2013 ; Saiz and Albrecht 2016 ; Climate Action Reserve 2019 ). In the literature, soil spectroscopy, remote sensing, and increased integration of digital tools have been identified as possible technologies to support such improvements.

Field-based proximal sensing tools reportedly show reasonable accuracy performance under laboratory and field conditions (Viscarra-Rossel et al. 2006 ; Stevens et al. 2008 ; Sorenson et al., 2017 ). However, authors have highlighted various challenges with in-situ application in the field. These include how to account for variability in field conditions (e.g. moisture, soil texture) given the lack of sample preparation which affects the repeatability of results. Vehicle-mounted proximal sensor devices have been proposed by some authors to reduce the labour-intensive data collection across large areas. This approach is however not considered in this study as we consider this more feasible for commercial fields where mechanization is routinely used.

Estimation of soil carbon stocks from satellite imagery as an alternative to field sampling has also been investigated by many studies, with varying reports of accuracy. The main technical limitations of this method have been discussed in depth in the literature. These include difficulties handling atmospheric cloud cover, the interruption of bare soil by vegetation and crop residue, and like proximal data collection, the effect of varying soil conditions (e.g., moisture, texture, surface roughness) in fields during satellite data recording (van Wesemael et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, as World Bank ( 2021 ) points out, most satellite sensors only measure surface (1 cm) soil reflectance (the same is also true for proximal sensors) while carbon storage is usually analysed to 30 cm depth.

Some of these challenges can be overcome with specialised processing methods. Good results have been demonstrated for normalizing the effect of in-field moisture/texture variations using statistical techniques such as External Parameter Orthogonalization (Nawar et al. 2020 ; Veum et al. 2018 ) and Direct Standardisation (Angelopoulou et al., 2020 ; Ji et al. 2015 ). Statistical techniques can also be applied to surface spectral measurements to correlate soil depth to carbon content (Kusumo 2018 ; Lu et al., 2019 ), and Zepp et al. ( 2021 ) discuss an ‘SCMap’ procedure to composite multi-temporal satellite imagery, allowing data to be obtained from different periods in the year where bare soil is visible.

Authors have reported the successful use of remote sensing for detecting farming practices such as cover cropping, crop-rotation, and no-tillage (Hagen et al., 2020 ; World Bank 2021 ; Zheng et al. 2014 ). Bégué et al. ( 2018 ) extensively review literature on this method which can support large-scale collection of input data as part of a modelling ( Domain b ) approach. However, this technique is limited in detecting a wider range of practices such as fertilizer use, composting or residue burning remotely. Moreover, greater variability in when and how farmers implement practices could also make remote monitoring more difficult, especially on smaller plots. Examples of current use in the carbon market include in detecting tree cover (agroforestry practices) e.g., Rabobank’s Acorn methodology approved under the Plan Vivo standard Footnote 3 and surveying livestock numbers e.g., Verra’s VM0032. More recent carbon initiatives pioneering this approach include the Carbon Plus Grasslands Methodology Footnote 4 developed by independent marketplace providers Regen Network Development Inc, and the CIBO Technologies program CIBO Initiative for Scaling Regenerative Agriculture . Footnote 5 The latter two programs are currently in the process of being developed under the VM0042 methodology of VCS Standard by Verra.

Numerous benefits and challenges of different SOC monitoring techniques have been discussed in the literature. However, to determine the most suitable monitoring approach for smallholder agricultural projects, evaluating individual techniques alone is insufficient. This paper aims to assess the overall performance of a comprehensive monitoring approach, which combines data collection and analysis methods, to best support the estimation of SOC stock changes in these projects.

3 Methods and context

3.1 study design.

This study employs an iterative process of literature reviews and key informant interviews, underpinned by a case-study conducted in the Western Kenya Soil Carbon Project (WKSCP). An initial review aimed at understanding the current SOC monitoring system in agricultural settings and developing a shortlist of potential monitoring approaches for analysis. Based on an analysis of peer-reviewed studies on soil carbon dynamics, monitoring and implementation reports of carbon projects, lessons learned reports, discussion papers from project investors and researchers, and methodology documents from official offsetting standards, three approaches were identified as the current state-of-the-art for SOC accounting: dry combustion (L1), Ex-situ MIR spectroscopy (L2), and activity modelling 1 (AM1). These are described in Table  1 . They were chosen based on their predominance and acceptance in the literature as commonly used methods for estimating SOC stock changes. Six alternative approaches (Table  1 ) integrating the use of remote sensing, proximal sensing and digital technologies were then conceptualized and proposed for comparison with the three mentioned above. Comparisons were based on the literature and data collected from interviews in the study area as described below.

a We assume services incur minimal or no cost compared to PS2 since farmers participate in the project with the expectation that the generated carbon credits will enable community benefits.

3.2 Study area and data collection

The Western Kenya Soil Carbon Project (WKSCP) was used as a case study on agricultural carbon projects in developing countries. This project is situated in the counties of Bungoma, Siaya and Kakamega in Western Kenya (see Fig. 2 ).

Source: Soil Carbon Certification Services ( 2023 )

Map of the study area

The project is expected to cover 32,000 ha at full-size and involve about 40,000 farm households. It has a predicted emission reduction impact of 1,873,798 tCO2 equivalent over its 20-year lifespan. Footnote 6 WKSCP is registered with the Verified Carbon Standard using the VM0017 methodology Footnote 7 “Sustainable Agricultural Land Management”, which represents a Domain b approach. The project is currently undergoing verification for the first round of credit issuance.

The project area is characterized by its tropical montane climate and clayey soils with high potential for storing organic matter. Small-scale (average 1 ha), rain-fed subsistence farming based on maize and beans is practiced without fallow periods. Increasing population has resulted in land fragmentation, overutilization, and nutrient depletion through the loss of topsoil and the misuse of inputs (Mburu and Kiragu-Wissler 2017 ; Sommer et al., 2018 ). The region is densely populated by poor rural, farming households (Tennigkeit et al. 2013 ), making it a carbon project hotspot.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted between April and May 2021 to elaborate the contextual information about the operational dynamics of a carbon project, soil monitoring in general, and the perceptions and experiences of project stakeholders regarding the short-listed SOC monitoring approaches. A total of 118 interviews were conducted with both project participants and non-participants from 6 stakeholder groups: smallholders, project developers, Implementing Organizations (IOs), enforcers of carbon certification standards, governmental/international research agencies, and technical (methodological) experts. In summary, across all three counties, we conducted 102 smallholder interviews in person, which were randomly selected, and stratified by geographical location (ward Footnote 8 ), complemented by another 16 expert interviews, out of which 8 were held virtually.

Interview questions, derived from themes in the literature, were tailored to respondents’ expertise. The questions addressed the objectives of stakeholders in joining the carbon project, their anticipation of monitoring outcomes, and their views on how soil monitoring tools and approaches could work in the project. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed as described in Sect.  3.3 .

3.3 Data analysis

Figure  3 presents a conceptual framework developed to analyse the selected SOC monitoring approaches and to identify future development opportunities. At the centre of the framework are five evaluation criteria used to compare the proposed approaches, and to assess their potential benefits and shortcomings. The criteria reflect project MRV needs and challenges identified in the literature search and corroborated through key informant interviews.

Analytical framework for the evaluation of SOC monitoring approaches

Accuracy and standardisation reflect the “technical criteria” defined by the standards while cost reduction, adoptability and community benefits reflect “operational criteria” highlighted by various project stakeholders. Based on the criteria outlined, the identified approaches (Table  1 ) are evaluated to derive recommendations that address the multiple needs of stakeholders in smallholder soil-carbon projects in low- and middle-income countries.

To ensure objective comparison, suitable indicators (scoring mechanism) were identified (Table  2 ) and scores were assigned based on a deductive thematic analysis of the literature including project documents (for the indicators on accuracy, standardisation, cost reduction and community benefits) and interview data (for the indicators on adoptability, community benefits, standardisation and cost reduction).

Each point raised within the literature and/or interviews was categorized into thematic clusters aligning with the evaluation criteria. For example, after explaining the approaches, respondents were asked, “Which of these is better suited and why?”, or “How do you think this will affect you or the project?”. Responses related to adoptability, influence on community benefits, or standardisation were then labelled and grouped accordingly with some responses addressing more than one criterion. Responses were then further grouped by monitoring approach. Note that each unique response was counted only once, irrespective of how many times the same point was expressed in different interviews. Finally, each unique point (now grouped by approach and relevant criterion) was evaluated according to the defined indicator scoring mechanism detailed in Table  2 , to derive a final criterion score for each approach. In instances where interview responses provided conflicting answers to score a specific indicator, we prioritized either expert or farmer responses based on relevance for each criterion. Expert responses were prioritized over farmer responses to evaluate standardisation and adoptability, while the reverse was the case for community benefits. If this was insufficient to resolve the issue, findings from the literature were given precedence. The exceptions to this described process were the accuracy and cost reduction criteria. Bottom-up cost estimations were derived solely from data collected during expert interviews and from reviewing project documents. Accuracy of the approaches was evaluated using correlation coefficients (R 2 ), reported from literature comparing the underlying methods with standard laboratory techniques (L1 or L2). R 2 quantifies the strength of linear relationship between observed and predicted variables, serving as a measure of model prediction accuracy. In this analysis, the average R 2 value was taken from various papers as a benchmark for theoretical accuracy of a technology. However, practical accuracy may differ, explored further in the discussion. Footnote 9 It was noted that the concept of accuracy (the degree of a measurement representation of the true value) and precision (which concerns the repeatability of results) were sometimes used interchangeably in the project literature and expert interviews. In this evaluation, the concept of the repeatability of results is partly captured under the standardisation criteria.

3.3.1 Limitations and assumptions

Before describing the results, it is useful to highlight the methodological challenges faced during this study. First, we translated the interview responses into quantitative indicator scores without considering frequency. This was done to prevent bias from the larger number of farmer interviews, necessary to achieve suitable representation of diverse smallholders in the extensive study area. However, this method reduced some qualitative depth, as the indicator scores do not reflect whether they are based on the perceptions of multiple farmers or single experts. Table 3 offers an overview of key demands for each stakeholder group, though a deeper analysis of different stakeholder perspectives would be an interesting aspect to be addressed in future studies. Second, some monitoring approaches considered lacked sufficient data to develop cost estimates. Simplistic assumptions were therefore made as detailed in the Supplementary material. Another limitation waStakeholder requirements for an MRV systems a scarcity of validation studies on the use of remote sensing for detecting land management practices (Approach AM4/RS2). Therefore, the same R 2 value for activity modelling (AM-) was used, assuming similarities since both approaches share SOC analysis methods (modelling). The comparison of R 2 across different approaches also has inherent limitations, since R 2 is a measure of correlation, and high correlation values do not always mean higher prediction accuracy: R 2 neither accounts for model bias nor considers random unexplainable variation. Nonetheless, it was the most reported validation parameter across the literature reviewed and therefore chosen as the accuracy indicator. Another challenge was the multiplicity of model validation procedures across studies, especially across different fields and purposes: studies assess the accuracy of SOC predictions at differing depths; reporting different types of error statistics, which hinders comparability. Lastly, a wide range of R 2 values was reported for the technologies, creating high variance around the mean values considering low sample sizes of available papers.

4 Results and discussion

In this section, we first highlight the expectations of different project stakeholders on what the MRV system should deliver. Next, findings on how the stakeholder groups assessed the various monitoring approaches are shown, followed by an objective and systematic comparison of the approaches – given the criteria presented beforehand which integrates stakeholder perspectives and scientific literature.

4.1 Stakeholder requirements for an MRV system

Table 3 provides a summary of what different stakeholders expect from a project MRV system. The most common requirements across multiple stakeholders were low process costs and high data accuracy. Generation of soil, land, and household information to support farm- and landscape-level decision-making was also demanded. This corroborates with the existing literature (Schilling et al. 2023 ; Tennigkeit et al. 2013 ; Olander et al. 2013 ; Smith et al. 2020 ) and informed the criteria used in evaluating selected monitoring approaches. Accuracy is enforced by carbon standards and highly prioritized by project developers due to investor expectations regarding quality of carbon credits. Researchers and technical experts require standardisation of different approaches for objective comparison and time series research on project impacts. Governmental stakeholders require decision-making information calling for scalable data collection and standardisation, to enable integration of information from multiple projects.

Farmers and Implementing Organisations (IOs) who support on-the-ground activities hold the greatest influence on the execution of project monitoring. However, project monitoring plans are commonly designed without their input. IOs prefer low-effort monitoring approaches which align with their other non-SOC monitoring tasks due to limited staff and resources, acknowledged as challenges. We consider these as important operational demands, factored into cost and adoptability criteria. Many landowners emphasized their desire for informed land management and skill development, which could be built up through participatory monitoring approaches. Wehinger and Alphayo ( 2023 ) found in a recent ELD study of WKSCP that neighbouring farmers in the project area, on witnessing evidence of positive economic outcomes, have high interest in adopting the project’s sustainable land management practices, but are hindered by a limited availability of extension support. However, some landowners, especially older, illiterate, and those with multiple livelihoods, found this unfavourable due to time-consuming training and/or data-keeping efforts. Most farmers are unaccustomed to maintaining farm records, finding it time-consuming. This implies that approaches relying heavily on farm management data may impose an undesirable "data burden" on participating landowners, aligning with Schober's ( 2021 ) claims. This differs from the view of project developers and IOs who see potential benefits for smallholders in improved record keeping which aids farm business management. Project developers face increasing pressure as investors demand measurable community or biodiversity benefits to align with sustainable development goals and prevent reputational damage. Aligning these requirements with practical project needs is often challenging. Therefore, balancing the needs and requirements of different stakeholders regarding information and level of detail from project MRV was identified as a challenge in project design.

4.2 Stakeholder perceptions about the monitoring approaches

Considering the above needs and constraints, the perceptions of project stakeholder groups on the monitoring approaches were then analysed from the interview data. In this section we will present the reflections of different stakeholders on the various monitoring approaches and tools.

Most respondents found conventional laboratory soil measurement costly, due to sampling and equipment costs. L2 (MIR spectroscopy) was understood to be less expensive than L1 even though both share data collection and preparation procedures. Farmers had a limited understanding of the analytical procedures involved in estimating SOC and were generally indifferent to the approach used, if sufficient information would be offered, and analysis results could be accessible for their farm management decisions. The primary concern for this stakeholder group was the accessibility of the end results of the MRV process. Therefore, approaches with field-based data collection, and analytical methods yielding quick and easily interpretable results were favoured such as mobile soil scanners. When it was properly explained, landowners appreciated the potential cost- and effort-saving benefits of remote sensing, but expressed concern over the inaccessibility of the results since it involves off-farm data collection and analysis.

Implementing organizations rely on project developers to establish the project MRV system and provide necessary implementation resources including capacity-building. Therefore, they are unlikely to outright oppose any monitoring approach. IOs interviewed had limited technical understanding about carbon accounting requirements. Even though they collect the data for activity modelling, the job of parameterizing and running the carbon model is outsourced to external technical experts. Similarly, IOs possessed limited knowledge about remote sensing and other soil analytical methods. Due to their preference for labour saving, implementers favoured farmer-sourced data collection methods and/or those which group multiple plots together. For similar reasons, they favoured mobile soil scanners since farmers could potentially be trained to use them—however some expressed scepticism about the reliability of results. This sceptical sentiment was echoed by researchers and government representatives who questioned the lack of transparency around the proprietary calibration data used in such tools.

“The scanners you talk about…they use dry chemistry. Dry chemistry does not go into so many things in the soil and it's very easy to give you a photocopy of another soil test. I did one. I checked on some 54 soil tests one day using dry chemistry and I was surprised when I realized that 10 soil samples had the same [soil organic carbon] figures. These are different farms! Dry chemistry is cheaper, but [wet chemistry] provides more precise and dependable soil results”. Researcher

Technical experts and project developers, placing more value on the quality of collected data, described current modelling approaches as unsatisfactory.

‘The result of an activity-based approach are theoretical results and wrong and I think we shouldn't be satisfied with that. We should have higher aspirations than that’. Remote sensing expert

However, there was a lack of consensus among experts on which data collection or analytical methods fulfil these quality aspirations, or what an acceptable accuracy threshold should be. Researchers pointed out that even the conventional methods can be imprecise where quality control is lacking. Apart from perceived high costs, the biggest drawback of direct soil measurement approaches for project developers is that the temporal observation of significant SOC stock changes requires long measurement intervals (3–5 years) due to the slow magnitude of change relative to stock size. Developers prefer more frequent SOC quantification and credit issuance to generate carbon revenue and sustain project activities in the absence of alternative funding sources. Modelling allows more frequent monitoring intervals and is preferred by some for this reason despite acknowledged accuracy limitations.

The possible role of remote sensing in monitoring produced the highest split of responses among the key informants. Several technical experts opined that remote sensing is too early-stage for use in SOC accounting due to computing uncertainties, and a widespread lack of technical expertise. Therefore, it would be better suited for the collection of readily available auxiliary data (e.g., soil texture or land use classes for stratification). One remote-sensing expert believed that the collection of auxiliary data is a sub-optimal use of remote sensing potential, and that the technology’s use in temporal SOC change detection should be explored further:

“Yes, remote sensing can monitor whether a farmer has done tillage or no tillage, but that’s not what we want to focus on, because then you’re using something that can be very accurate to measure something whereby the result of that will be very inaccurate. If you want to use remote sensing to establish whether they have applied tillage or not, and then simply take a theoretical result of the application of tillage for the actual amount of carbon credits, we believe that’s the wrong way around.” Remote sensing expert.

4.3 Evaluation of monitoring approaches using selected criteria

We evaluated the different monitoring approaches based on the selected criteria by presenting their performance in spider diagrams (see Fig.  4 ). For reasons of visualization, we present the performances in three groups: conventional approaches, new monitoring approaches based on measurements ( Domain a ) and new approaches based on modelling ( Domain b ).

Comparison of the different monitoring approaches

4.3.1 Cost & accuracy

Except L1 and the AM- approaches, all approaches considered (L2, PS1, PS2, RS1, and RS2) are based on spectroscopic analysis, combined with different data collection methods. We found that these approaches generally maintain higher accuracy than activity-based modelling (AM-) approaches due to the latter’s indirect/theoretical nature. Therefore, we deduce that the choice of analytical procedure has a higher impact on potential accuracy of a monitoring approach than data collection methods. We emphasize here the accuracy potential, recognizing that data collection methods could influence the achieved accuracy to some extent. For example, laboratory analyses are often affected by sampling errors and AM approaches influenced by input data quality. However, if data collection best-practices are available and followed in all cases, the greatest influence on accuracy is the method via which the soil carbon stocks are estimated.

Conversely the choice of data collection method was found to have a greater impact on the cost of the approach. Consider the activity modelling (AM) approaches which have been the status quo for agricultural carbon projects so far: the AM1 approach, where data is collected from all participants on a yearly basis could cost up to 10 times more than AM3, where only a random sample is collected yearly and scaled up for the project area (Fig.  4 a, c). No significant difference in accuracy is estimated between the two approaches. This is because statistically, beyond a certain point, only a minimal increase in accuracy is gained from increasing sample size whereas the costs continue to increase. Laboratory measurements L1 and L2, requiring soil sample collection and laboratory processing, were the most expensive approaches while approaches based on in-situ or satellite data collection could drive down costs significantly.

Remote sensing-based monitoring (RS1, RS2) offers the best long-term cost performance (Fig.  4 b), but the level of reported accuracies varies greatly for different studies (see supplementary material) due to varying analytical techniques applied. The selection and use of appropriate analytical techniques to improve accuracy, however, requires high expertise which is lacking in many project countries.

In the case of proximal sensing, it was found that a farmer-led data collection approach (PS1) could offer significant cost savings and potential community benefits (due to its participatory nature) in comparison to commercial mobile testing services (PS2) with – in theory—similar accuracy levels (Fig.  4 b). This may only be true in theory, because the accuracy of results would depend on the capacity of smallholders to use these devices and on the existence of protocols and quality control procedures to ensure consistent data collection and outputs. While the modelling approaches are generally similar in potential accuracy, the achieved accuracy of AM1 (self-reported) approach may be lower in practice due to the poor quality of data often reported by farmers. Several factors contribute to this: (i.) smallholder farmers do not typically take measurements and if so, often use non-standard measurements, (ii.) they are also susceptible to social desirability bias when answering questions e.g., about production or fertilizer use and (iii.) secondary information to cross-check self-reported data is lacking. Because of these issues, a lot of time is spent on subsequent quality control and correction, which often outweighs the initial benefits (convenience and cost) of farmer self-reporting. The data collection process for AM4/RS2 (modelling based on remotely sensed activity data) was also found to potentially impact the estimated accuracy of input data. This approach is limited by difficulty in detecting a wider range of activities such as fertilizer use, composting or residue burning remotely. Moreover, greater variability in when and how farmers implement practices could also make remote activity monitoring more difficult, especially on smaller plots. However, the exact degree of impact was difficult to determine as this approach is not yet widely used and available literature on this topic is scarce. AM3 (modelling based on a sample of farms) is currently the least expensive of the AM approaches, although AM4/RS2 (modelling based on remotely sensed activity data) holds potential to further reduce costs and effort.

None of the newer approaches reach the accuracy of the conventional methods (Fig.  4 ), however there is potential to increase accuracy to meet the requirements of carbon standards, especially for remote and proximal sensing if protocols are standardized and followed. When cost and other limitations make improved accuracy difficult to achieve, detailed uncertainty estimation and adopting a conservative approach can help maintain the credibility of project GHG quantification.

4.3.2 Community benefits

PS (proximal sensing) approaches were found to provide the greatest contribution to non-carbon objectives (community benefits) by enabling community participation, direct feedback, and in-field advisory while saving costs, thus, potentially, allowing more carbon revenue flow to the communities. Although even more cost saving is possible with remote sensing, it scored lowest for other contributions to community benefits due to its detached, off-farm nature. For laboratory approaches, we theorize that the associated on-field benefits and greater measurement accuracy are outweighed by the high implementation costs which will take away from community benefits if implementation costs become higher than payment from credits, and the project is not able to fund or show benefits. The same applies to other higher-cost monitoring approaches such as AM1 (self-reported) and AM2 (yearly full census) which leave less carbon revenue available.

4.3.3 Standardisation and adoption

As emphasized by the IPCC GHG accounting principles, standard protocols and quality control measures play a key role in aiding comparability of results over time and across projects. The Standard Operating Procedures of the Soil–Plant Spectral Diagnostics Laboratory of World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) provides widely adopted protocols for spectral analysis in the lab (L2). Protocols also exist for proximal sensing (PS-) approaches e.g. Vis–NIR protocol in Annex B of Viscarra-Rossel et al. ( 2016 ), which is endorsed by carbon certification standard, VCS under the VM0042 methodology. However, such protocols are not yet widely adopted and are lacking for remote sensing (RS-) approaches. Literature on RS-based approaches features different combinations of steps and techniques to predict SOC from remotely sensed data (e.g. Vågen et al., 2018, Zepp et al 2021 ; see further sources in supplementary information). No common guidance exists for selecting modelling techniques, covariates, or data sources. Therefore, the quality of results from different sources varies. Error reporting is also not standardised, and many unaccounted sources of uncertainty are propagated into the results (Takoutsing et al. 2022 ). Moreover, these approaches are not yet endorsed by carbon standards and lack precedented use in carbon projects. This was found to play an important role influencing adoption; less standardised methods were perceived with scepticism by experts and project developers, which reduces the likelihood of adoption. It follows that adoption issues are more likely to be faced by less understood technologies, since trust and transparency of monitoring approaches were found to be important factors for national and local experts. In contrast, farmers and implementers had less significant power in the adoption decision since the monitoring design is usually done by the project developer. However, if capacities are lacking, or there is a lack of synergies with other non-SOC monitoring tasks, the monitoring approach will not be effectively adopted by those on the ground.

4.4 Outlook: proximal or remote sensing?

Figure  5 highlights the role of featured tools in the different monitoring approaches. Domain a (direct measurement) features conventional wet and dry laboratory methods (L1 and L2) as well as remote and proximal sensing of SOC content (RS1, PS1. PS2). Domain b (activity-based modelling) features paper-, mobile-, or satellite-based surveys of land practices as input to models. In the following we will discuss the outlook for the use of proximal and remote sensing approaches in soil organic carbon monitoring. These approaches, grounded in new technologies, offer the greatest potential to satisfy the diverse needs of stakeholders involved in smallholder carbon projects. We will discuss the opportunities and challenges associated with these approaches, as well as provide recommendations to support their future utility in smallholder crediting schemes.

Approaches and tools in the different SOC monitoring domains

4.4.1 Proximal sensing devices

As described in the results, in-situ spectroscopy produces potentially accurate soil analysis while keeping costs low and maintaining community benefits through field visits for data collection. For smallholder projects, devolving data collection to farmers (i.e. the PS1 approach) could further reduce logistical costs while offering additional community benefits via participation and skills development. As suggested in some interviews, a few farmers can volunteer to be trained in monitoring with this device and may even offer this service to other farmers in the area for additional income. A requirement for this is that soil scanners are easily operable by smallholder farmers and provide results that are translated for farmers into practicable advice. An example of such small-holder friendly device is the SoilPal ( https://ujuzikilimo.com/soil-pal ) scanner developed for rural farmers in Kenya which delivers SMS results in the absence of internet connectivity. Such tools could be programmed with additional features that allow the detailed soil data and GIS coordinates to be uploaded upon each scan to an external database for expert analysis – this would also rule out the possibility of biased reporting by farmers who may be incentivized to do so. To solve the problem of standardisation as described above, proximal sensing devices, as is the case for remote sensing, must find a way to control or account for in-field variations in soil conditions during data collection. Technical solutions for this are proposed in the literature as discussed in Sect.  2.2 . Finally, less complex Standard Operating Protocols must be developed for the use of these devices which consider both the quality requirements for measurements and the ease of use by farmers.

4.4.2 Remote sensing

The advancement of satellite imagery with high spectral resolution enables cost improvements on current data collection approaches while leveraging the accuracy potential of spectroscopic analysis. Collection and processing of plot-level soil or land management data via satellite is, however, still associated with several challenges.

A major limitation to the accurate processing of soil data from satellite imagery as surmised from the results is the highly specialised expertise requirement, which is lacking overall, hindering the use of this approach. Perhaps more important, is the fact that this approach lacks acceptance among carbon project experts as it is yet to be verified by any major certification standard. One reason for this is that many of the techniques used in existing peer reviewed sources are widely different, lacking a basis for comparison and standardisation. Despite this, some commercial organizations already market MRV solutions Footnote 10 promising accurate results with this technology. Because these organizations have proprietary business models, they do not disclose their methods transparently and have not yet published peer reviewed scientific information making them unsuitable for use on the carbon market. It is essential that carbon certification standards oversee these processes to align market needs. Lastly, the accuracy of the remote sensing model is dependent on the soil data used for its calibration. This often requires intensive field sampling cost at the initial stage of setting up the RS1 system. We recommend collaborative effort to establish open-source soil spectral libraries in different regions which can be designed for expansion over time through crowdsourcing and communal sampling. We also suggest the establishment of open-source geostatistical toolboxes containing pre-processing methods, covariates, SOC prediction models, and validation or error accounting techniques, along with guidelines to aid applicability by local experts. This might support the proliferation of RS- methods on the voluntary carbon market.

The AM4/RS2 (remotely sensed activity modelling) approach is limited in detecting a wider range of activities especially on smaller plots. Further studies on the accuracy of this approach are needed to enhance the limited body of knowledge. So far, pilot trials have been done on large commercial-size farms in North America, but they need to be conducted on smaller plots, covering a range of land use types typically occurring with smallholders in developing countries for the technology to be usable there. As a Domain b approach, one important advantage of RS2/AM4 for project developers is that it allows for more frequent MRV cycles, thereby making available cash-flow for project implementation. Activity monitoring is, moreover, essential in projects to monitor practice adoption over the project area even beyond its requirement for SOC modelling. RS2/AM4 could reduce not only the costs of activity data collection, but also the risk that the process poses a data burden to certain smallholders.

A new resulting challenge for community benefits, however, is the integration of feedback loops in such a remote system. Both literature and key informants agree that without ongoing advisory services, smallholders lack the technical knowledge and resources to sustain implementation of project activities and could easily revert to the baseline. Therefore, field visits remain important to sustaining implementation of smallholder carbon schemes and keep the project functioning. It is therefore worth rethinking the cost–benefit trade-off from reduced field monitoring visits since field visits are critical to foster adoption and optimize extension delivery. In fact, monitoring and extension are strongly intertwined in the implementation of current projects using the AM- approach (personal communication, project implementing organisation). Projects in the future using remote sensing-based approaches (RS1 and RS2/AM4) will need to carefully design feedback and advisory components which can sustain the community and environmental benefits of such projects. This may be easily addressed in regions with common smartphone access, since digital tools can be designed that recommend management practices to landowners based on remote sensing analysis. The adoption of such approaches should be tested where it is a possibility. However, in places like the case-study area, where smartphone access is rare and/or internet connectivity is a challenge, this becomes more complex.

Our results and the subsequent discussion indicate that while accuracy and cost are primary concerns in the literature, other factors also impact the usability of monitoring approaches in smallholder carbon projects, reflecting stakeholders' varied expectations for decision-support information. Effective monitoring systems must address these demands to enhance adoptability and ensure the successful implementation of sustainable land management practices. Technological advancements provide promising low-cost, accurate soil analysis methods, but challenges in standardization, expertise, and usability by non-experts remain. Collaborative efforts are crucial to achieve broader acceptance and implementation of these tools in carbon project monitoring. Moreover, integrating effective feedback mechanisms is essential to maintain the benefits and sustainability of these projects, particularly in regions with limited digital access..

5 Conclusion

This study aimed to evaluate approaches for monitoring soil carbon in smallholder agricultural projects, according to their accuracy, level of standardisation, cost, adoptability, and community benefits. Stakeholder interviews and a literature review identified these criteria as vital for the MRV system’s success. This research investigated remote sensing, soil spectroscopy, and soil models in tropical/subtropical developing countries, addressing the limited availability of methods for smallholder agricultural carbon projects in the voluntary market.

It was found that data collection is more associated with monitoring costs, while choice of data analysis methods has a greater impact on accuracy, emphasizing the need for a systems perspective, rather than focusing on individual technologies. Soil spectroscopy, coupled with low-cost data collection such as in-field scanners or remotely sensed spectral imagery, showed the best cost-accuracy performance for repeated soil measurements. However, our study reveals that while accuracy and cost are primary concerns in the literature, other factors also influence the usability of monitoring approaches in smallholder carbon projects, reflecting stakeholders' varied expectations for decision-support information. In this line, field-level data collection remains essential for monitoring adoption and supporting advisory services, which are both crucial for project continuity and community benefits. The use of smartphone technology was identified as a potential tool to integrate feedback loops and bridge this gap if accessible to farmers in a project area. Practice monitoring via remote sensing can replace farm surveys and should be explored further in this context.

Proximal sensing offers rapid data collection with high accuracy analysis and the ability to strengthen participation and capacity building of local actors e.g., via trained farmer representatives. However, standardisation through widely accepted quality control protocols is necessary. Similarly, remote sensing approaches lack common calibration protocols, hindering comparability within and among projects. Moreover, the use of satellite-based spectral measurements still lacks approval by major carbon certification standards. Hence, developing clear data collection protocols and performance benchmarks in collaboration with major carbon certification standards for the use of in-situ and remote technologies in soil carbon monitoring is essential.

To close initial cost/effort gaps associated with calibrating accurate spectral libraries (mainly soil sampling costs), there is a need to synergize efforts from different actors. One option could be a joint investment into open-source libraries of soil spectral and covariate data, which may be used for several purposes apart from soil carbon accounting. Bridging the technical skill gap in developing countries is crucial for the adoption of the newer SOC monitoring approaches to enable small-scale projects and their contribution to climate action. User-friendly decision-making tools such as automated dashboards and toolboxes Footnote 11 can bring long-term cost savings and increased adoption.

Emphasizing accuracy as the sole objective of GHG accounting might impede the adoption of effective SOC accounting approaches that fulfil various other requirements. Arguably, the principle of conservativeness if applied, balances out the requirement for accuracy Footnote 12 and provides project developers with flexibility in selecting an appropriate monitoring approach, enabling them to strike a better balance among other sets of requirements. For instance, monitoring approaches with lower accuracy may still be suitable, if all uncertainties are quantified and reported. The investment decision would then hinge on whether the net value of conservative estimates justifies the effort invested in the project. It is, in any case, crucial to fulfil the principle of transparency that all approaches apply appropriate error accounting techniques for uncertain data sources.

Effective monitoring systems must address the various demands of different stakeholders, leveraging technological advancements for low-cost, accurate soil analysis, while overcoming challenges in standardization, expertise, usability by non-experts, and integrating effective feedback mechanisms to ensure sustainable implementation.

Verra deactivates VM0017 methodology.

Based on a review of projects on the VERRA and Gold Standard registry.

More about Acorn here.

Carbon Plus Grasslands Methodology here.

See the project listing on Verra registry here.

Project description document available at https://registry.verra.org/

Although discontinued, projects registered under this methodology before March 2024 may continue to use it until the next baseline reassessment or crediting period renewal and must then select a different methodology.

In Kenya, there are 47 counties which are subdivided into 290 administrative units called sub-counties. Each sub-county is further stratified into wards which contain smaller villages.

For instance, both proximal sensing approaches PS1 and PS2 are based on the same data collection tool and underlying analysis methods but differ in who does the sampling/data collection. Although they have the same potential for accuracy, actual accuracy of the PS1 approach may be limited by the sampling protocol and the skill / training of the users when compared to PS2. Therefore, the approaches as considered in this paper give a deeper perspective to the whole system.

For example, Boomitra , Earthbanc .

Examples include the FAO Land Resource Planning Toolbox and the Climate Tool box by University of California, USA.

Verra in fact acknowledges that although accuracy should be pursued as far as possible, the high cost of monitoring of some types of GHG emissions and removals, and other limitations make accuracy difficult to attain in many cases. In these cases, conservativeness may serve as a moderator to accuracy to maintain the credibility of project and program GHG quantification. (Verra 2023. VCS Standard v4.4).

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the soil protection and rehabilitation for food security (ProSoil) Kenya program of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) for funding and assisting in organizing the field research for this study. Special appreciation to the respondents, including farmers and experts, and to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Prof. John Mburu, Dr. Abed Kiwia, Unique land use, World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF), and aEsti for their valuable collaboration and expertise. Many thanks to Regina Birner for her supervision.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. This research was supported by funding from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH under the framework of the soil protection and rehabilitation for food security (ProSoil) program, with financial support from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ).

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Both authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Funding acquisition for the study was done by Athena Birkenberg. Material preparation was performed by both authors while data collection and analysis were performed by Adaugo Okoli. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Adaugo Okoli, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Okoli, A.O., Birkenberg, A. Monitoring soil carbon in smallholder carbon projects: insights from Kenya. Climatic Change 177 , 143 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-024-03796-1

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