assignment of social roles and status

Status and Role

Since the influential writing of Ralph Linton (1936), status and role have become the key concepts of sociology. By status, Linton meant a position in a social system involving designated rights and obligation, whereas, by role, he meant the behaviour oriented to others' patterned expectations. Linton states the long recognized and basic fact that each person in society inevitably occupies multiple statuses and each of these statuses has an associated role.

In every society and every group, each member has some function or activity with which he is associated and carries some degree of power or prestige. What the individual does or performs, we generally call his role. The degree of prestige or power we refer to as his status. Roles are related to statuses.

In a sense, ‘status’ and ‘role’ are two words for the same phenomenon. This is why, Linton remarked, “role is the dynamic aspect of status,” or the behaviour or tasks associated with or ascribed to a status. In other words, status and role are two sides of a single coin. It simply means that both are closely related and one cannot be separated from the other.

Social status and role are analytic terms; they have a more general quality than the concrete descriptive terms they reference. Sociologist prefers to choose such analytic terms rather than descriptive terms like bus conductor, customer, father or mother etc. After Linton, these two terms have become the basic features of the structural-functional theory. Later on, many sociologists have refined and added many ideas to these two terms.

For instance, R.K. Merton (1968), who is known to be the champion of role theory, departs from Linton’s conception of status and role. According to Merton, each social status involves not a single associated role, but an array of roles he calls ‘role set’.

The concepts of status and role are basic building blocks of social structure or social systems. According to Parsons, ‘status-roles’ are the sub-units of society. Participation by an actor in social system means that he is ‘located’ relative to other actors. This is his ‘status’. In this position, he does various things, and what he does is called his ‘role’. For him, ‘status-role’ is the proper unit of the social system. A social system can be thought of as a network of statuses and their associated roles.

What is Status?

Simply defined, status is a socially defined position in a group or a social system, such as female, student, teacher, child, mother, father etc. A status occupant is expected by others to behave in a special way, relative to the specific situation. The relation of the father and the child is reciprocal and gives to each a position in the family group. The position is always relative; status always implies a group. With every status certain privileges, rights and duties are associated.

Most sociologists have used the two terms position and status synonymously, but some have made a distinction between these terms. ‘Position’ denotes one’s situation in the role structure.

Which is subjective, while ‘status’ refers to the evaluative aspect of position whether others see it as ‘high’ or ‘low’. In this sense, it is an objective term.

Harry M. Johnson distinguished the three related concepts, viz., ‘role’, ‘status’ and ‘position’. He defined a social position as something filled by an individual member of a social system.

The position consists of two main elements

1. Expectations and obligations held by other members concerning the behaviour of the position incumbent; and

2. Right or the legitimate expectations of the position incumbent concerning the behaviour of other members. The first element Johnson calls the role of a position, while the second element he calls a position's status. It denotes the prestige of a position or an individual.

Though generally used synonymously status and social status there is a bit difference between the two terms. The term ‘status’ simple indicates the position a person occupies in a group. Whereas social status is the amount of honour and prestige a person receives from community members and the larger society in a stratification system.

It denotes the position and relative ‘social standing’ of a person on a publicly recognized scale or hierarchy of social worth. In this sense, it embraces all his particular statuses and roles that determine his social standing in society. It is the social identity an individual has in a group or society.

Social statuses may be very general (such as those associated with gender roles) or maybe much more specific (as in occupational positions). A person's social status is determined by a wide range of factors, facts and conditions such as original nature and physical characteristics, accidental conditions, physique, mentality, and temperament. Sex, age, race, caste, class, economic position, etc. are also important factors that affect a person's social standing in society or the community he lives in.

Definition of Status

1. Ralph Linton says that “status is the place in a particular system, which a certain individual occupies at a particular time.”

2. For Morris Ginsberg, “A status is a position in a social group or grouping, a relation to other positions held by other individuals in the group or grouping.”

3. According to Kingsley Davis , “status is a position in the general institutional system, recognized and supported by the entire society.”

4. For Horton and Hunt , “status is the rank or position of an individual in a group.”

5. Status in Weber’s theory refers to the esteem or ‘social honour’ given to individuals or groups.

Types of Status

Statuses are culturally defined, despite the fact that they may be based on biological factors such as sex, caste or race. Ralph Linton has noted two types of status:

1. Ascribed status:  

An ascribed status is a social position assigned at birth and is, therefore, usually permanent. Hence, an ascribed status is one into which a person is born and in which he or she remains throughout his or her life, e.g., sex, caste, race and age. A Brahmin, for example , enjoys the ascribed status of a Brahmin by virtue of his birth. In addition, sex, ethnic background, place of birth, and family name supply assigned statuses. Such statuses are said to be ascribed. Ascribed statuses are usually fixed at birth. In India, caste status is generally ascribed, although several changes have been going through ‘ Sanskritization ’ and ‘ inter-caste marriages ’ .

2. Achieved status:  

An achieved status is one that is chosen or achieved, such as a married person, a parent, a friend, a doctor or an engineer. An achieved status is acquired through one’s efforts. Society recognizes such changes in achieved status. Statuses that are not fixed by inheritance, biological characteristics, or other factors, over which the individual has no control, are known as achieved statuses . An achieved status is entered as a result of some degree of purposive action and choice. Thus, an achieved status, by contrast, is one that is based on something the person has done. For example , a boy of 17 can be an athlete, a guitarist, a student of history and a member of a local club enjoying different forms of achieved status.

Ascribed and achieved statuses have numerous differences and similarities. They each affect a person’s and a group’s roles both socially and industrially, and they may even affect the characteristics of a person and the public’s perception of them.

Another concept of status that existed to not known in the study matter is ‘Master Status’. Let us put in simple, a master status is the defining social position a person holds, to choose interactions or to relate self to others. A person’s social identity influences that person’s roles and behaviours in a societal context and often shape a person’s entire life. For many people occupation determines the basic status and everything revolves around it. For example , occupation is often a master status because it forms such an important part of a person’s identity and affects the other roles one may occupy such as a family member or friend, a resident of a city, or even a hobby enthusiast. In this way, a person may identify as a teacher, firefighter, or pilot. Gender, age, and race are also common master statuses. Often physical disabilities serve as a master status to the point where the person's entire life suffers from de-humanization affecting the possibility of achieving any status.

The role, in sociology, is expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status. A role is a comprehensive pattern of socially recognized behaviour, providing a means of identifying and placing an individual in a society. It also serves as a strategy for coping with recurrent situations and dealing with others' roles (e.g., parent-child roles). The term, borrowed from theatrical usage, emphasizes the distinction between the actor and the part. A role remains relatively stable even though different people occupy the position: any individual assigned the role of the physician, like any actor in the role of Hamlet, is expected to behave in a particular way. An individual may have a unique style, but this is exhibited within the expected behaviour’s boundaries.

Role expectations include both actions and qualities: a teacher may be expected not only to deliver lectures, assign homework, and prepare examinations but also to be dedicated, concerned, honest, and responsible. Individuals usually occupy several positions, which may or may not be compatible with one another: one person may be husband, father, artist, and patient. Each role entailing certain obligations, duties, privileges, and rights vis-à-vis other persons.

Definition of Role

1. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff a role is “a set of socially expected and approved behavior patterns consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.”

2. According to Johnson “role is expectations and obligations held by other members concerning the behaviour of the position incumbent.”

3. Alex Inkles ‘role’ refers to “the set of expected or normative rights and obligations allowed to and demanded of persons generally felt to be incumbent of a recognized status by others who participate in the same social system.”

Interrelationships between social status and role

The concepts of status and role have a growing significance in the social sciences. Status and role are simplified by Ralph Linton when he said, ‘ you occupy a status, but you play a role ’. Every position or status in society carries with it a set of expected behaviour patterns. Status and role are ‘ two sides of the same coin ’.

Statuses and Roles constitute an important element in social structure. Young and Mack say “A role is the function of a status” . A person in a social set-up is bound to play a role. Sometimes he plays so many roles at a given time. According to his role, he gets status.

Similarly, the status of an individual gives him a definite role. Sometimes status is ascribed and sometimes it is achieved. Therefore, status and role, both are interrelated.

1. The terms ‘role’ and ‘status’ are inter-related: A status is simply a position in society or a group. A role is the behavioural aspect of status. Statuses are occupied and roles are played . A role is how a given individual fulfills the obligations of status and enjoys its privileges and prerogatives.

2. The role is a relational term: An individual plays a role vis-a-vis another person’s role, attached to a ‘ counter-position ’.

3. Role and status point out two divergent interests: Status is a sociological concept and sociological phenomena. On the other hand, the role is a concept and a phenomenon of social psychology.

4. Both are dynamic: Role changes with each new incumbent in a status. The status changes as the norms attached to it are altered. New obligations and new responsibilities may be added to status or old ones may be removed over time. Sometimes more rigorous role-playing may expand the functions of a status.

5. Both are correlative: Though status and role are co-related, it is possible to have one without the other. A status without a role may simply denote an unfulfilled position in an association. In the same way, roles are often played without occupying a status.

6. Status as an institutionalized role: The structure of society consists of statuses and not roles. It has become regularized, standardized, and formalized in the society at large or any specific association with society. It is statuses together with norms that give an order, predictability and even possibility to social relations.

Therefore, the concepts of status and role are the initial tools for analyzing social structure. A status is simply a position in society or a group. Every society and every group has many such positions, and every individual occupies as many positions as there are groups to which they belong.

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Status and Role

• What is Social Status
• Meaning of Social Status
• Characteristics of Status
• Types of Status: Ascribed and Achieved
• Meaning of Role
• Characteristics of Role
• Relationship between Status and Role

Introduction

Social status encompasses the esteem or significance attributed to an individual’s position within society, as well as their standing within a particular group, like being a child, friend, or student. It’s a concept that has been pivotal in sociology since Ralph Linton’s influential writings in 1936. Linton defined status as “a position within a social structure that implies certain rights and duties,” while he characterized role as behavior aligned with the expectations of others.

Linton further elucidated that each person in society holds multiple statuses, each carrying its own set of responsibilities. In any societal or group setting, individuals are assigned tasks or roles, which come with varying degrees of authority or prestige. The actions performed by an individual constitute their role, while the level of respect or influence associated with it defines their position. Essentially, roles are linked to positions.

In essence, ‘status’ and ‘role’ describe the same concept and are interdependent. As Linton observed, “a role is a dynamic aspect of status,” indicating that behaviours or duties are inherent to one’s position. Position and role are inseparable; they represent two sides of the same coin. Both terms serve as analytical tools, offering broader insights than the specific descriptors they denote.

Origin and Meaning of word Social Status

The term “status” finds its roots in the Latin word “stare,” signifying standing or position, encompassing both physical elevation and social standing. In sociology, “social status” denotes an individual’s or group’s place, significance, or standing within society. It predominantly delineates one’s standing relative to others, particularly in social or professional contexts.

Sociologists assert that status characterizes an individual’s standing within a specific milieu. The acknowledgment of an individual’s position within the social framework and the subsequent acknowledgment of the authority associated with it form the bedrock of the status paradigm. It denotes an individual’s placement within a given system, signifying their role within a social web of reciprocal obligations, privileges, duties, and rights. Thus, distinct roles such as father, mother, teacher, and employer confer varying positions. Social positions are demarcated and differentiated through the assignment of distinct rights and responsibilities to each. Moreover, status often equates to honour or prestige, wherein social status reflects an individual’s relative position within a publicly recognized hierarchy of social worth.

The role of a position encompasses two primary aspects:

• The expectations and responsibilities incumbent upon the individual holding the position, as perceived by others within the group.
• The entitlements or legal authority vested in the position holder, pertaining to the behavior and actions of others.

According to Johnson, these elements are distinguished as the role and status of the position, respectively. While ‘role’ denotes the function fulfilled by the position holder, ‘status’ refers to the standing or esteem attributed to them within a social context. While the terms ‘status’ and ‘social position’ are often used interchangeably, they possess nuanced distinctions.

Specifically, ‘status’ denotes an individual’s placement within a group, whereas ‘social status’ encompasses the recognition, honour, and prestige accorded to them by society, particularly within a hierarchical structure. Social status reflects not only one’s position but also their perceived worth within the broader community. It encompasses various facets of identity, including positions held and roles undertaken, which collectively shape an individual’s social standing. Factors such as inherent traits, external circumstances, physical attributes, and socio-economic factors contribute to an individual’s social status, influencing their position within society or their community.

Conclusion: According to the provided description, social status refers to an individual’s placement within a group or societal framework, such as being a woman, student, teacher, child, mother, father, etc. This positioning is inherently comparative, as status is inherently tied to the group dynamic. Each role within this framework carries specific advantages, rights, and duties. The authority wielded by individuals is determined by their status, dictating their level of control or submission within the social structure. The parameters of authority are socially constructed and confined. Status can be characterized by a hierarchical relationship, involving dominance and submission, albeit always within established norms. Furthermore, particular social benefits accompany different statuses.

Characteristics of Social Status

Following are the main characteristics of Social Status:

1. Social Status is Relational: It’s important to recognize that status is entirely relative. This implies that each state of being exists in relation to one or more other states. One cannot be defined without the presence or context of the other. For instance, parenthood necessitates a child, teaching requires a student, and practicing medicine involves patients.

2. Rights and Duties: In this perspective, every status holds equal importance and carries specific rights and duties linked to it, known as a role. Therefore, all positions and their respective roles are typically understood within the framework of social statuses and the roles performed by others. Since statuses represent positions within social structures, they persist regardless of the individuals occupying them. A status can endure even in the absence of a current holder; for instance, the presidency remains a status even during the transition period between the death of one president and the election of a new one.

3. More than one status at a time: Individuals often occupy multiple roles simultaneously, each corresponding to different statuses they hold. For instance, a man might fulfil the roles of son, father, brother, and police officer, each entailing distinct responsibilities and expectations. These roles encompass a complexity that varies across contexts.

4. Circumstances: The way individuals engage in various roles is influenced by a multitude of factors. One might act as a father to their own children, a sibling to their brothers and sisters, or an uncle to their nieces and nephews, among other roles. Women, with distinct societal statuses, typically adhere to roles that demand feminine qualities. These roles shift depending on the context and era. For instance, a married woman’s role differs significantly from that of an unmarried girl. Each role carries its own set of responsibilities, shaping one’s identity in unique ways.

5. Correlated with Etiquette and Morality: Status tends to be interconnected with manners and ethics, frequently rising in societies where wealth is flaunted. Gaming the status hierarchy in such contexts often demands significant personal exertion, assertiveness, and diplomacy.

6. Vertical Scale in Social Stratification: The term “status” refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society. Individuals are considered to hold elevated positions when they have the authority to direct or influence others, attain recognition in significant roles, or when their conduct is evaluated by others. One’s relationship status significantly influences interpersonal behavior and interactions.

7. Aggregates of Persons: Status groups are collections of individuals structured within a hierarchical social framework. Unlike social classes, they are distinguished by considerations of honor and worth rather than economic or authoritative power. This form of social stratification is prevalent in pre-modern societies. Members of status groups primarily engage with peers of similar standing and to a lesser extent with those of higher or lower status. In certain cultures, familial units such as clans or lineages can be categorized broadly into aristocrats and commoners, or extend from royal lineages to those marginalized due to their occupations or slave heritage. Notably, the Indian caste system exemplifies this concept vividly. In Hindu communities, various endogamous groups (sub-castes) based on traditional vocations are typically present, organized hierarchically from Brahmins to untouchables. Interactions that breach caste boundaries, such as physical contact or sharing food, are considered polluting for members of higher castes and necessitate ritual purification.

8. Vary with Social Context: A person’s standing within society can be influenced by various factors. For instance, within certain cultural groups, such as the Native American Hopi, lineage plays a pivotal role in determining one’s entitlements to property, knowledge, and status within the community. In Ghanaian tradition, the eldest son assumes leadership within the family structure upon the demise of the father, regardless of his age. This sometimes leads to middle-aged men residing under their father’s roof being perceived as dependents rather than independent adults. Additionally, societal roles and occupations can impact social status; for example, blacksmiths in parts of sub-Saharan Africa often occupy a lower social standing. Similarly, in the Hindu caste system, individuals engaged in tasks associated with handling excrement, such as cleaning with brooms, are placed at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

9. Determinants of Status: The social standing of both social classes and individuals hinges on societal evaluations, wherein certain qualities or traits are deemed more or less valuable by the community. The attributes that contribute to elevated status are contingent upon the perceptions of those assessing it. These characteristics often reflect the shared values and priorities of either a small faction or the entire society. Additionally, the impact of these attributes on status can vary across different groups. Moreover, the criteria for societal evaluations may differ from one society to another, and sometimes even within the same society. For instance, in feudal times, land ownership conferred higher status, whereas in contemporary society, effective wealth management is often regarded as a marker of elevated status.

Secord and Bukman outline three key determinants of status:

• Reward Value of High-Status Individuals: Status is gained when an individual’s traits align with the group’s expectations. Attributes that are highly valued by the group garner approval and recognition. However, if everyone in the group shares similar attributes or engages in the same activities, no one gains a distinct advantage in status.
• Rewards Received and Costs Incurred: Individuals are esteemed when they receive rewards that others haven’t, such as recognition or honors like the “Vir Chakra.” Moreover, individuals who are highly regarded by others tend to hold high status. Sacrifices made for the collective good, like those of a soldier for national security, often elevate one’s status. However, not all costs incurred result in status elevation—only those that align with the group’s values.
• Investments: Factors like race, ethnicity, family background, age, gender, and work experience contribute to a person’s status. For instance, someone from a prestigious family might enjoy higher status compared to someone without such lineage.

Seniority also plays a role in status, granting individuals additional privileges and benefits based on their longevity or experience within a group or organization.

In conclusion, status is the relative position of an individual within a social hierarchy, encompassing rights, duties, and lifestyle corresponding to honour or prestige. It can be either ascribed, determined at birth based on inherent characteristics, or achieved through personal qualities and competition. Ascribed status typically relies on factors like gender, age, race, or family ties, while achieved status is earned through education, occupation, accomplishments, or other individual merits.

Types of Social Statuses

Social status is commonly viewed as a blend of two forms: assigned status and achieved status. For instance, a child born into a wealthy household inherits a high socioeconomic standing, which often grants access to educational resources and opportunities, increasing the likelihood of attending prestigious universities. Thus, admission to such institutions becomes an achieved status heavily influenced by the resources available and the familial socioeconomic background. The accumulation of both achieved and assigned statuses significantly shapes an individual’s social position. This process extends to the broader societal structure known as social stratification, where individuals are categorized based on their perceived societal worth.

In capitalist societies, this stratification primarily revolves around socioeconomic factors, positioning high-income earners at the apex and low-wage workers at the base of the hierarchy. However, social stratification isn’t solely economic; moral standing also factors in, leading to scenarios where a modest cleric may hold a higher social status than a wealthy criminal.

Social mobility serves as a mechanism for individuals to traverse the social hierarchy, allowing for upward or downward movement. This mobility is influenced by various factors, including ambition, circumstance, and societal dynamics, enabling individuals to alter their social standing throughout their lives.

Linton has noted two types of status:

1. Ascribed Status: The statuses we inherit at birth, such as age, gender, family ties, ethnicity, and social class, are referred to as ascribed statuses. These statuses are assigned by society to individuals irrespective of their unique qualities or traits. They are not subject to individual alteration and are largely determined by cultural norms beyond an individual’s control. For instance, whether one is born male or female, or their position within the family, is determined by factors like gender and age. Similarly, racial or caste status is assigned, such as in the case of individuals of African descent or Harijans.

Bases of Determination of Ascribed Status:

Generally, at this time the society considers the following four factors:

1. Sex: Different cultures delineate distinct attitudes and roles for individuals based on gender. These differentiations are often purported to stem from physiological disparities between men and women. However, upon closer examination of societal roles, it becomes evident that biological dissimilarities play a minor role in determining status. The assertion that biological traits solely account for female behavior oversimplifies the complex interplay of genetics and societal constructs. Genetic disparities between genders are insufficient to fully explain the vast array of social distinctions observed. Moreover, societal roles are not static but vary across cultures and epochs.

For instance, while some societies assign men the task of house construction, others delegate this responsibility to women. Similarly, the roles of healers or magicians can be assumed by either gender depending on the cultural context. The primary determinant of role allocation seems to be the biological specialization for reproduction. Women, due to their unique physiological ability to carry and nurture offspring, are often tasked with responsibilities conducive to childbearing. Activities such as housekeeping, cooking, gardening, and pottery-making align with this reproductive function.

In essence, while biological disparities may influence societal roles to some extent, the variability of these roles across cultures and time periods underscores the limited explanatory power of biology alone. The multifaceted nature of gender roles necessitates a more nuanced understanding that considers both biological and socio-cultural factors.

2. Age: Age serves as a fundamental determinant shaping societal roles, much like biological sex, which is an overt and observable reality. Across cultures, there is a general acknowledgment of several distinct age phases: infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Additionally, some societies recognize two unique periods: the unborn and the deceased, both considered significant. Ceremonies often mark the transition from the unborn to the living state.

The progression from infancy to childhood typically unfolds seamlessly, with minimal social tension. However, the shifts from childhood to adolescence and then to adulthood are marked by notable physiological changes. The transition to adulthood is particularly significant, celebrated through various ceremonies, customs, and legal recognitions. Marriage commonly follows this milestone. However, the physiological maturation into adulthood doesn’t invariably align with the social transition. In essence, an individual doesn’t become an adult solely upon physiological maturity but rather upon social maturity.

In modern society, transitioning from childhood to adulthood encounters significant pressure, driven by various factors:

Firstly , the period of learning extends well beyond the phase of physiological maturation.

Secondly , social competence doesn’t manifest uniformly across all spheres of activity from the outset. Typically, eligibility for marriage precedes voting rights, and the ability to sign contracts often precedes entering the workforce.

Thirdly , parental authority persists into adulthood, fostering a dynamic of competition and conflict as parents strive to maintain control for the welfare of their children, while the latter seek autonomy.

Fourthly , the interval between puberty and marriage is considerable. Prolonged celibacy and avoidance of premarital intimacy create sexual tension, complicating the transition through puberty. Furthermore, delineating the onset of old age is challenging.

There exists no definitive physiological threshold, despite the establishment of a retirement age, which is essentially arbitrary. This arbitrariness is evident in the varied experiences of individuals; some may experience a decline in vigour long before retirement, while others maintain mental acuity well past it. Additionally, societal perceptions and expectations regarding the roles of the elderly vary significantly across cultures, with some societies affording them leisure and others imposing labour upon them.

In certain regions, the elderly are marginalized and viewed as burdensome, contrasting sharply with places where they are esteemed for their wisdom and sought after for guidance. There’s often criticism about older individuals clinging to their positions, hindering the younger generation’s advancement. While it’s acknowledged that seniors often assert their authority, it’s because they possess a certain authority earned through age and experience. However, in contemporary society, this authority and respect are dwindling as families become more individualistic, no longer bonded by shared economic endeavours. It’s disheartening to witness adult children neglecting their aging parents when they need care the most.

Societies typically focus on the transition from childhood to adulthood, neglecting the transition into old age. This oversight stems from the challenges associated with aging and the societal emphasis on the contributions of newly minted adults to societal preservation and well-being. Even in death, individuals hold significance within certain cultures, particularly those practicing ancestor veneration. Monuments are erected, prayers are offered, and rituals like Shraddhi among Hindus honour and remember the departed.

3. Kinship: Typically, societal standing for a child is determined by their interactions within the family unit, particularly with parents and siblings. This status tends to align with that of the parents, although such alignment lacks inherent logic given the disparity in abilities between parents and offspring. However, this alignment remains the most expedient method for integrating the child into society and guiding their education accordingly. Factors such as citizenship, religious adherence, and community belonging are often inherited from one’s parents. In systems like the caste system, a child inherits the status of their deceased parents. Given the intimate bond between child and parent, as well as the parents’ primary role in education, it’s natural for the child to inherit the position of their parents from the outset.

4. Social factors: Sex, age, and kinship are not the sole determinants of social status; additional factors come into play. Societies often categorize their members into various groups or classes, assigning them distinct statuses. These classifications can arise from various sources, including differences in technical or other skills, or from the formation of social units like teacher fraternities or officer clubs. Those belonging to privileged social groups often restrict access to lower tiers, leading to the establishment of hereditary classes and castes as mechanisms for maintaining status distinctions. These hereditary divisions serve as benchmarks for status transfer within society.

Achieved Status

While it’s essential for the socialization of children to commence early through the attribution of status, society cannot rely solely on bestowing status. Every society should facilitate a regulated and lawful transition of status based on individual aptitude and endeavour. Failure to do so may drive exceptionally talented individuals towards unlawful avenues.

To harness their talents for communal objectives, society needs to formalize the attainment of status. This approach fosters initiative and excellence, acknowledging individual abilities and preventing the undeserving from occupying prestigious positions merely due to assigned status. Primitive societies traditionally prioritize relational positions, while civilized societies emphasize achieved status.

Under urban conditions, with a significant division of labour and rapid societal transformations, individuals can attain status through their accomplishments. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, achieved status refers to any social position gained through personal achievements in open competition, be it official or market-driven. Such positions are acquired through personal effort, choices, and competition, influenced by ability, performance, and perhaps fortune.

Examples of achieved status include professions such as collector or police officer, marital roles like husband or father, educational achievements like university graduate, or roles like teacher. Attaining such status necessitates decisions not only about occupation but also about social circles, partners, residences, educational institutions, and affiliations with various organizations or interest groups.

Bases of Achieved Status:

The main bases of achieved status are:

1. Achievements: The prioritization of recognition or achievement is greatly influenced by societal norms and values. Whether a society leans towards valuing participation or accomplishment is largely shaped by its cultural context. In the United States, the emphasis on achievement is intricately tied to values like individualism, freedom of choice, democracy, and equal opportunities. Achievements across various domains such as sports, arts, literature, science, music, academia, and innovation confer elevated status and prestige. Contemporary society places a significant emphasis on achievement, a shift that has been catalyzed by the complexities of industrialization and its associated changes. However, it’s important to note that not all avenues are equally open to achievements. Only certain domains, characterized by exceptional talent, informal societal acceptance, and extensive training, offer ample opportunities for recognition and achievement.

2. Cultural Capital: Cultural capital, a concept pioneered by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, encompasses both attained and cultivated attributes. These encompass desirable traits—whether tangible or symbolic—that shape an individual’s societal standing; they are the assets contributing to one’s elevated position within society. Such assets may encompass lofty expectations, forms of expertise, skills, and education. Parents bestow upon their children the cultural capital, attitudes, and knowledge requisite for navigating the educational system with ease and familiarity. Additionally, there exist other forms of capital; social capital denotes affiliation with groups, relationships, and networks, which can profoundly influence levels of achievement. Within society, individuals garner status based on the assistance and contributions they provide to others. Proficiency correlates positively with status, with higher skill levels translating to elevated societal standing.

3. Occupation: Social status can often hinge on one’s profession, with higher-ranking professions typically correlating with higher status. This trend is evident across various cultures. For instance, in certain regions of sub-Saharan Africa, blacksmiths often find themselves relegated to a lower-status stratum. Similarly, within the Hindu caste system, sweepers occupy the lowest rung due to the nature of their work.

Professions such as those in medicine, engineering, academia, administration, policymaking, politics, fine arts, and other similar fields generally enjoy elevated social standing compared to occupations positioned lower in the societal occupational hierarchy.

In many Western urban-industrial societies, factors like the prestige associated with one’s job, the acquisition and display of material possessions, personal appearance and attire, and adherence to social etiquette hold greater sway in determining social status than lineage or ancestry. These societies typically view occupations along a more fluid continuum rather than a strict hierarchy.

4. Education: Education serves as a gateway to employment opportunities, equipping individuals with essential skills essential for securing a job and establishing their position in society. With the advent of industrialization in contemporary society, there has been a significant rise in the standard of living attainable for ordinary individuals, but this improvement has also become imperative. To enhance productivity, workers now require more extensive education, rendering them less replaceable and consequently more efficient. Consequently, education emerges as a fundamental determinant of attained social status.

5. Employment: According to sociologist Rodney Stark, a minority of Americans perceive themselves as hailing from affluent backgrounds or possessing influential political ties conducive to advancement. Conversely, in numerous other developed nations, there’s a prevalent belief in the indispensability of these elements for success. Stark argues, however, that the primary determinant of achieving and maintaining one’s status is diligent effort, not networking with the influential. He emphasizes the pivotal role of “hard work” in attaining higher societal standing, asserting its paramount importance over political connections in the pursuit of success.

6. Income: Lower incomes often serve as a prime illustration of social stratification and status attainment. This phenomenon typically arises because individuals with lower incomes are frequently driven to pursue higher status through their aspirations and diligent efforts. High earners typically represent the culmination of status achievement. Conversely, individuals with higher incomes may have acquired their status unfairly or through inherited privileges (e.g., through familial businesses or aristocratic lineage). Those lacking inherent privileges are often more incentivized to strive for status attainment. Moreover, an individual’s socioeconomic position and their capacity to attain it are often shaped by the overall economic prosperity of the society in which they reside.

7. Skill and Competition: Certainly, the restriction of competition for attained status may dissuade individuals from taking initiative and giving their utmost effort, thereby depriving society of extraordinary talents. However, social frameworks should be structured to accommodate the potential contributions of the average person, who can be trained to fulfill various roles competently, if not exceptionally. Societies vary significantly in their emphasis on assigned versus attained statuses. In simpler, traditional societies, assigned status holds greater significance, whereas in modern industrial societies, emphasis is placed on achievement, particularly in professional roles. Within evolving societies, numerous opportunities exist for individuals to attain status through their accomplishments. Weber contends that attained status has diminished rapidly as a means of attaining economic and political influence in modern society.

8. Adjustment to Environment: When a social structure harmonizes with its surroundings, it functions efficiently without relying on exceptional talents. However, when societal shifts occur, it becomes imperative to identify and harness these talents. Consequently, communities facing new or evolving circumstances often feature accessible opportunities and expansive competition. Conversely, stable societies typically prioritize predetermined statuses over those achieved through competition. Even within competitive environments, innate attributes often outweigh acquired status. Adaptability to the environment emerges as a crucial factor, elevating the status of those most adept at adaptation while diminishing that of those less adaptable.

Conclusion: An indication of societal transformation has ushered in fresh roles that defy conventional categorization due to their innovativeness. Moreover, urban settings have enabled individuals to secure specific positions based on their demonstrated accomplishments. In contemporary business realms, one’s talents afford greater avenues for personal advancement. Lundberg aptly articulates that the allocation of particular statuses, coupled with rigorous training associated with such roles, ensures competence, even if performance may be average. This exchange of status entails relinquishing the potential for exceptional role execution in favour of assured satisfactory fulfilment.

Social Role

Social scientists originally drew upon the concept of social role, which finds its roots in Greek drama, where actors wore masks to portray characters. Similarly, the term “person” stems from the Latin word “persona,” initially denoting a mask. From these origins emerges the understanding of social roles as sets of norms guiding individuals’ behavior within a group, shaping their relationships with fellow members. Essentially, a social role represents an anticipated behavioural pattern linked to a specific social position.

Status and role intertwine as complementary facets of this phenomenon. While status denotes an individual’s position within a group, role pertains to the dynamic behavioural expectations associated with that position across various situations. In sociology, social roles encapsulate societal expectations regarding behavior in specific contexts, shaping the fabric of communities. Notably, these role expectations encompass both actions and characteristics. For instance, a teacher is not only expected to conduct lectures and oversee assessments but also to demonstrate traits like dedication, compassion, and responsibility. Importantly, these role expectations are subject to evolution over time and vary across cultures.

Not too long ago, societal norms dictated that mothers stay at home to care for their children while fathers assumed the role of breadwinners. While this pattern still persists in some cultures today, it’s no longer an absolute expectation for mothers, but rather a valid choice. Conversely, in certain other cultural contexts, the idea of a mother working outside the home remains unconventional or even unthinkable. Individuals often find themselves juggling multiple roles within different contexts, a phenomenon referred to as a role set. For instance, a teacher embodies distinct roles in relation to their students, colleagues, and administrative duties within a school or college setting.

From this discussion, one can assert that each social group delineates expected behaviours for its members. Membership in a group entails specific privileges and responsibilities, with roles defining an individual’s obligations to the collective. Analogous to the success of a theatrical performance hinging on actors’ adept portrayal of their roles, the smooth functioning of society relies on the consistent and effective fulfilment of roles by its members across various groups. Hence, a role encompasses the expected conduct of an individual within a community, delineated by their status within the social hierarchy. Each societal sector imposes its unique role expectations, and social cohesion thrives when individuals align their actions with these role demands.

Characteristics of the Role

A role within a particular environment is intricately connected to other roles. For instance, the role of a father intersects with that of a child, the role of a worker with that of an employer, and the role of a doctor with that of a patient. Individuals assume numerous roles throughout their lives, often fulfilling multiple roles simultaneously. These “multiple” roles encompass the various responsibilities an individual must navigate within different social contexts and groups they belong to. Thus, a person may transition between roles such as husband, teacher, father, and cousin as they progress through life stages. Understanding social roles from a sociological perspective involves examining their defining characteristics, which include:

1. Functional Aspect of Status: Role represents the active dimension of one’s social standing, encompassing a range of behaviors expected by society. These behaviors are dictated not by personal choice, but by societal norms and consequences. Hence, it’s commonly understood that every social role is culturally rooted.

2. Changing Concept of Role: Social roles align with societal norms, beliefs, and standards. These norms, values, and entities are subject to change, thus impacting the perception of roles. Depending on the circumstances and perspectives, a role deemed acceptable at one moment may not hold the same justification later on.

3. Limited Field of Operation: Every role comes with its designated scope of activities, and it’s essential to adhere to those boundaries. For instance, the responsibilities of an officer within the office should not extend beyond that environment. When in the familial context, these professional roles should naturally fade away.

4. Role Expectations: Meeting society’s expectations in full is an elusive goal for anyone. Discrepancies inevitably arise. Take, for instance, an individual who may not entirely meet the expectations of children in their designated role.

5. Difference: From a sociocultural viewpoint, not all roles hold equal significance. Certain roles carry greater importance, while others hold lesser significance. Those roles deemed most crucial are termed “key roles,” whereas those of generally lesser importance are referred to as “general roles.”

6. Set of Expectations: Since a role comprises a series of anticipated behaviors and responsibilities, its definition inherently relies on other roles. For instance, one cannot fulfill the role of a parent in isolation; there must be a corresponding role, such as that of a child. Similarly, to assume the role of an employer necessitates the existence of employees who fulfill certain expectations. Thus, roles are interdependent, each requiring counterparts to meet their respective expectations.

7. Rights and Duties: In essence, roles encompass a set of entitlements and responsibilities, illustrating the interconnections between individuals. Various societal frameworks exhibit numerous such connections. Consequently, a framework of reciprocal rights and duties operates within economic, familial, religious, and political spheres.

8. Attitude toward expected position: It’s important to recognize that effectively fulfilling a role requires having the right mindset towards it. Socialization primarily involves adopting a role attitude, which is the readiness to conform to a prescribed model of behavior. Essentially, a role can be seen as an internal framework or disposition that inclines individuals in a particular position to align their actions with the expectations of those around them.

Conclusion: Based on the aforementioned statement, it becomes evident that within society, individuals are distinguished by various characteristics including gender, ethnicity, age, etc., as well as by their respective occupations, each fulfilling distinct roles. These roles encompass a diverse range of professions such as professors, doctors, laborers, scientists, politicians, and soldiers. Essentially, societal functioning thrives when individuals effectively execute their designated tasks. It’s impractical for one person to undertake all responsibilities, nor is it feasible for everyone to pursue the same occupation. The societal framework relies on the principle of division of labor, wherein each individual is allocated specific responsibilities. The role an individual assumes reflects their anticipated contribution to the community’s collective existence.

Difference between Ascribed and Achieved Status

• The distinction between these two primary types of statuses can be delineated as follows:
• Within society, individuals are assigned a particular status, either sought or unsought. Ascribed status is conferred by society without the individual actively pursuing it, typically rooted in cultural norms and traditions. Conversely, achieved status is attained through personal endeavor, relying on one’s talents and capabilities.
• Ascribed status is bestowed without prerequisites, dictated by societal customs and traditions. On the contrary, achieved status necessitates specific conditions to be met; individuals must demonstrate their competencies and efficacy to attain such a standing.
• Ascribed status is closely intertwined with societal customs, traditions, and cultural factors, primarily grounded in tradition. Achieved status, however, is a product of individual accomplishment, obtained through competition and merit, with a lesser reliance on customs and traditions.
• Ascribed status commonly revolves around factors such as age, gender, race, caste, kinship, and tradition, while achieved status is predicated on individual attributes, skills, and talents.
• Ascribed status tends to be more stable and inflexible, resistant to change. Achieved status, by contrast, rests on a less secure foundation, subject to flux and alteration.
• In traditional societies, ascribed status garners respect, whereas in more progressive and contemporary societies, achieved status holds significance due to its emphasis on personal achievement and meritocracy.
• Roles and actions stemming from ascribed status can be unpredictable, rooted in varying interpretations of tradition, while those arising from achieved status are more foreseeable, based on rationality and judgment.
• Ascribed status often aligns closely with role expectations, whereas achieved status may not necessarily correlate directly with role obligations.
• Ascribed status can deeply influence internal aspects of personality, providing emotional satisfaction and fulfillment, whereas achieved status is a result of personal accomplishments and attributes.
• Ascribed status may alleviate challenges associated with achieved status, and vice versa, as each can mitigate the drawbacks of the other.
• There exists a symbiotic relationship between ascribed and achieved statuses, as each can facilitate the other’s advancement. Ascribed status may aid individuals in attaining achievements, while achieved status can enhance the prestige of ascribed status, potentially leading to higher positions, thereby complementing each other.

Conclusion : Ascribed status is determined by societal norms, traditions, and customs, defining a person’s position even before birth. In contrast, achieved status is earned through personal accomplishments and capabilities. While ascribed status is rigidly set, achieved status allows for flexibility and adaptability based on individual abilities. Both types of status play crucial roles in shaping individuals’ lives.

Module 4: Socialization

Roles and the presentation of self, learning outcomes.

• Describe how individuals present themselves and perceive themselves in a social context

Status and Roles

Sociologists use the term status to describe the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society. Some statuses are ascribed —those you do not select, such as son, elderly person, or female. Others, called achieved statuses , are obtained by choice, such as high school dropout, self-made millionaire, or nurse. As a daughter or son, you occupy a different status than as a neighbor or employee.

As you can imagine, people employ many types of behaviors in day-to-day life. Roles are patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other, and that are representative of a person’s social status. Currently, while reading this text, you are playing the role of a student. However, you also play other roles in your life, such as “daughter,” “neighbor,” or “employee.” These various roles are each associated with a different status.

If too much is required of a single role, individuals can experience role strain . Consider the duties of a parent: cooking, cleaning, driving, problem-solving, acting as a source of moral guidance—the list goes on. Similarly, a person can experience role conflict when one or more roles are contradictory. A parent who also has a full-time career can experience role conflict on a daily basis. When there is a deadline at the office but a sick child needs to be picked up from school, which comes first? When you are working toward a promotion but your children want you to come to their school play, which do you choose? Being a college student can conflict with being an employee, being an athlete, or even being a friend. Our roles in life powerfully affect our decisions and help to shape our identities.

One person can be associated with a multitude of roles and statuses. Even a single status such as “student” has a complex role-set , or array of roles, attached to it (Merton 1957).

Figure 1. Parents often experience role strain or role conflict as they try to balance different and often urgent competing responsibilities. (Credit: Ran Zwigenberg/flickr)

Presentation of Self

Of course, it is impossible to look inside a person’s head and study what role they are playing. All we can observe is outward behavior, or role performance. Role performance is how a person expresses his or her role. Sociologist Erving Goffman presented the idea that a person is like an actor on a stage. Calling his theory dramaturgy , Goffman believed that we use impression management  to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. Each situation is a new scene, and individuals perform different roles depending on who is present (Goffman 1959). Think about the way you behave around your coworkers versus the way you behave around your grandparents or with a blind date. Even if you’re not consciously trying to alter your personality, your grandparents, coworkers, and date probably see different sides of you.

As in a play, the setting matters as well. If you have a group of friends over to your house for dinner, you are playing the role of a host. It is agreed upon that you will provide food and seating and probably be stuck with a lot of the cleanup at the end of the night. Similarly, your friends are playing the roles of guests, and they are expected to respect your property and any rules you may set forth (“Don’t leave the door open or the cat will get out.”). In any scene, there needs to be a shared reality between players. In this case, if you view yourself as a guest and others view you as a host, there are likely to be problems.

Impression management is a critical component of symbolic interactionism. For example, a judge in a courtroom has many “props” to create an impression of fairness, gravity, and control—like her robe and gavel. Those entering the courtroom are expected to adhere to the scene being set. Just imagine the “impression” that can be made by how a person dresses. This is the reason that attorneys frequently select the hairstyle and apparel for witnesses and defendants in courtroom proceedings.

Figure 2. Janus, another possible “prop”, depicted with two heads, exemplifies war and peace. (Photo courtesy of Fubar Obfusco/Wikimedia Commons)

Again, Goffman’s dramaturgical approach expands on the ideas of Charles Cooley and the looking-glass self . We imagine how we must appear to others, then react to this speculation. We put on certain clothes, prepare our hair in a particular manner, wear makeup, use colog ne, and the like—all with the notion that our presentation of ourselves is going to affect how others perceive us. We expect a certain reaction, and, if lucky, we get the one we desire and feel good about it. But more than that, Cooley believed that our sense of self is based upon this idea: we imagine how we look to others, draw conclusions based upon their reactions to us, and then we develop our personal sense of self. In other words, people’s reactions to us are like a mirror in which we are reflected.

Think It Over

• Describe a situation in which you have tried to influence others’ perception of you? How does Goffman’s impression management apply to this situation? 
• Draw a large circle, and then “slice” the c ircle into pieces like a pie, labeling each piece with a role or status that you occupy. Add as many statuses, ascribed and achieved, that you have. Don’t forget things like dog owner, gardener, traveler, student, runner, employee. How many statuses do you have? In which ones are there role conflicts?
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Social Constructions of Reality. Authored by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected].
• Social Constructions of Reality. Provided by : OpenStax. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/4-3-social-constructions-of-reality . Project : Sociology 3e. License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/4-3-social-constructions-of-reality
• Charles Cooley Looking Glass Self. Authored by : Brooke Miller. Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/embed/XCxe9HbfJcM?enablejsapi=1 . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Dramaturgy (Dramaturgical Analysis). Provided by : Sociology Live!. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=5&v=5Qe5TI__ZDU . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

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1. R. Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system, such as child or parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely linked notion of role refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status.

2. Status is also used as a synonym for honor or prestige, when social status denotes the relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale or hierarchy of social worth. (See 'Social Stratification').

It is the first meaning of the term status, status as position, which we are going to refer to in the following paragraphs. Status as honour or prestige is a part of the study of social stratification.

A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. One occupies the status of son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on. Eventually one occupies the statuses of husband, mother bread-winner, cricket fan, and so on, one has as many statuses as there are groups of which one is a member. For analytical purposes, statuses are divided into two basic types:

• Ralf Linton's approach to social role
• GH Mead approach to social role
• Role Expectations
• Role making
• Multiple Roles
• Role Strain
• Role Enactment
• Role Primacy
• Role Distance

Social Roles and Social Norms In Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

There are many ways that people can influence our behavior, but perhaps one of the most important is that the presence of others seems to set up expectations

We do not expect people to behave randomly but in certain ways in particular situations.  Each social situation entails a particular set of expectations about the “proper” way to behave. Such expectations can vary from group to group.

Social roles emphasize the duties and behaviors attached to a specific position, and social norms dictate broader behavioral guidelines within a community or group.

Social Roles

One way these expectations become apparent is when we look at the roles people play in society.

Social roles refer to the behavior patterns expected of individuals in different situations and settings based on their specific position within a social unit. These roles come with rights, responsibilities, expectations, and social norms.

Examples include roles based on family (e.g., parent, sibling), occupation (e.g., teacher, doctor), or societal functions (e.g., leader, citizen).

Social roles help structure interactions within groups, providing a framework for understanding what is expected of individuals in various contexts. They are crucial in shaping individual behavior, identity, and social dynamics.

Social roles can contribute to societal stability by creating predictable behaviors and interactions. In this sense, they serve a functional role that validates their existence and persistence.

Social roles are the part people play as members of a social group. With each social role you adopt, your behavior changes to fit the expectations both you and others have of that role.

In the words of William Shakespeare:

All the worlds a stage,

And all the men and women merely players:

They have their exits, and their entrances;

And one man in his time plays many parts.

These lines capture the essence of social roles.  Think of how many roles you play daily, e.g., son, daughter, sister, brother, student, worker, friend, etc.  Each social role carries expected behaviors called norms.

While social roles provide a framework for behavior, they can also be limiting. They can perpetuate stereotypes, hinder personal expression, and promote inequalities. For instance, rigid gender roles can limit opportunities and potentials for individuals.

Social Norms

Social norms are the unwritten rules of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that are considered acceptable in a particular social group or culture.

Norms provide us with an expected idea of how to behave and function to provide order and predictability in society. For example, we expect students to arrive at a lesson on time and complete their work.

Norms provide order in society. It is difficult to see how human society could operate without social norms. Humans need norms to guide and direct their behavior, provide order and predictability in social relationships, and make sense of and understand each other’s actions. These are some of the reasons why most people, most of the time, conform to social norms.

The idea of norms provides the key to understanding general social influence and conformity. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of social groups.

These groups range from friendship and workgroups to nation-states. Behavior that fulfills these norms is called conformity , and most of the time, roles and norms are powerful ways of understanding and predicting what people will do.

Norms are defining appropriate behavior for every social group. For example, students, neighbors, and patients in a hospital are all aware of the norms governing behavior. As individuals move from one group to another, their behavior changes accordingly.

These norms can vary widely between cultures, regions, and individual societies, and what’s considered normal or acceptable in one context may not be so in another.

• Greetings : Shaking hands when meeting someone in many Western cultures, while bowing is customary in countries like Japan.
• Dining : Using forks and knives for eating in Western societies, whereas chopsticks are used in many East Asian countries.
• Dress Code : Wearing formal attire in corporate settings, or covering one’s head in places of worship in certain religions.
• Queueing : Waiting in line for one’s turn, such as at a supermarket checkout or bus stop.
• Hygiene : Covering one’s mouth when coughing or sneezing.
• Punctuality : Being on time for appointments or meetings is expected in many cultures.
• Personal Space : Maintaining a certain distance when speaking to someone, with variations based on cultural norms.
• Public Behavior : Keeping voice volume down in public places like libraries or cinemas.
• Reciprocity : Sending a thank-you note after receiving a gift.
• Digital Etiquette : Not looking over someone’s shoulder while they’re on their phone or avoiding loud phone conversations in public transport.

There is considerable pressure to conform to social roles. Social roles provide an example of social influence in general and conformity in particular.  Most of us, most of the time, conform to the guidelines provided by the roles we perform.

We conform to the expectations of others. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well and to their disapproval when we play our roles badly.

But how far will conformity go?  Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment illustrates the power of social roles in relation to conformity.

4.3.1 Roles and Status

As you can imagine, people employ many types of behaviors in day-to-day life. Roles are patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other that are representative of a person’s social status. Currently, while reading this text, you are playing the role of a student. However, you also play other roles in your life, such as “daughter,” “neighbor,” or “employee.” These various roles are each associated with a different status.

Sociologists use the term status to describe the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society. Some statuses are ascribed —those you do not select, such as son, elderly person, or female. Others, called achieved statuses , are obtained by choice, such as a high school dropout, self-made millionaire, or nurse. As a daughter or son, you occupy a different status than as a neighbor or employee. One person can be associated with a multitude of roles and statuses. Even a single status such as “student” has a complex role-set , or array of roles, attached to it (Merton 1957). It is important to note that status refers to the rank in social hierarchy, while role is the behavior expected of a person holding a certain status.

If too much is required of a single role, individuals can experience role strain . Consider the duties of a parent: cooking, cleaning, driving, problem-solving, acting as a source of moral guidance—the list goes on. Similarly, a person can experience role conflict when one or more roles are contradictory. A parent who also has a full-time career can experience role conflict on a daily basis. When there is a deadline at the office but a sick child needs to be picked up from school, which comes first? When you are working toward a promotion but your children want you to come to their school play, which do you choose? Being a college student can conflict with being an employee, being an athlete, or even being a friend. Our roles in life have a great effect on our decisions and who we become.

The content of this course has been taken from the free Sociology textbook by Openstax