essay about the evolution of philippine politics and governance

Essay on Philippine Politics And Governance

Students are often asked to write an essay on Philippine Politics And Governance in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Philippine Politics And Governance

Introduction to philippine politics.

Philippine politics is a blend of democracy and a republic system. The Philippines is a democratic country, meaning the people have the power to choose their leaders. The republic part means that the country has a President, who is the head of state.

The Structure of Government

The Philippine government has three branches: the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judicial. The Executive branch is led by the President. The Legislative branch makes laws and is divided into two parts: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Judicial branch interprets laws.

Role of the President

The President of the Philippines has a vital role. They are the chief executive and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. They are responsible for implementing laws and maintaining peace and order.

The Election Process

Elections in the Philippines are held every six years. Citizens aged 18 and above can vote. They choose their leaders, including the President, Vice President, Senators, and Representatives. These leaders are expected to serve the people and the country.

Challenges in Philippine Politics

Understanding Philippine politics and governance is crucial. It helps us understand the country’s challenges and how they can be solved. It also helps us appreciate the role of citizens in shaping the nation’s future.

250 Words Essay on Philippine Politics And Governance

Politics in the Philippines is a complex subject. It is run as a democratic republic, which means the people have the power to choose their leaders. The President is the head of the state and the government.

Elections are important events in the Philippines. They happen every six years for the President and Vice President, and every three years for other officials. The people vote for their leaders, which is a way of saying who they want to run the country.

Political Parties

There are many political parties in the Philippines. These parties represent different views and ideas. They play a big role in the elections as they support their candidates and help them win.

Role of the Government

The government has a big job to do. It has to make laws, keep the peace, and make sure people have what they need. The government is divided into three parts: the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judicial branches. Each has its own duties and powers.

Challenges in Governance

Philippine politics and governance are interesting to learn about. They show how people’s choices can shape a country. It also teaches us about the challenges of running a country and the importance of good leadership.

500 Words Essay on Philippine Politics And Governance

Introduction to philippine politics and governance.

Philippine politics and governance are interesting subjects. They are based on a democratic system, which means that the people have the power to choose their leaders. The Philippines has a president who is the head of the state, and also a prime minister who is the head of government.

The Political Structure

Political parties in the philippines.

In the Philippines, there are many political parties. These parties represent different beliefs and ideas about how the country should be run. During elections, these parties present candidates for the people to vote for. The party with the most votes usually takes control of the government.

Elections and Voting

Elections are very important in the Philippines. They are a way for people to choose their leaders and have a say in how their country is run. Voting is a right of all citizens who are 18 years old and above. During elections, people vote for their preferred candidates for various positions such as president, vice president, senators, and representatives.

Efforts for Improvement

Despite these challenges, there are efforts to improve the political system in the Philippines. Some people are working to fight corruption and promote good governance. There are also laws that aim to limit political dynasties and promote fair elections.

In conclusion, Philippine politics and governance are shaped by the democratic system, political parties, and elections. Although there are challenges such as corruption and political dynasties, there are also efforts to improve the system. Understanding these aspects can help us appreciate the importance of active participation in the political process.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

UP Department of Political Science

• Announcement

Philippine Politics and Governance [Full Text]

Faculty and students of political science can now download the full text of Philippine Politics and Governance books for FREE ! Just click the links below.

Philippine Politics and Governance: An Introduction Edited by Noel M. Morada and Teresa S. Encarnacion Tadem

PHL CHED Connect Platform Link Mirror Link

Philippine Politics and Governance: Challenges to Democratization and Development Edited by Teresa S. Encarnacion Tadem and Noel M. Morada

The books were published by the UP Department of Political Science in collaboration with the Philippine Commission on Higher Education. The full texts were made available through the PHL CHED Connect Platform.

Download two books as one

You are now being redirected to google.com....

Module 5 Historical Development of Philippine Democratic Politics

In this module, you will be able to:

In the previous modules, you have learned the basic concepts of political science. This and the succeeding modules will elaborate on the history and structure of the Philippine government. The 1987 Philippine Constitution forms the basis for the current governmental structure of the country. Article II, Section 1 provides that “the Philippines is a democratic and republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them.” But how did our government structure evolve into what it is today? Take a look at a general overview of the historical background of Philippine politics and governance in this module.

The Development of Philippine Government

The evolution of Philippine politics may be presented through the various historical periods that the country has undergone. The discussion will be divided as follows:

1. Precolonial period (before 1565)

2. Spanish period (1565–1898)

3. Revolutionary period (1868–1898)

4. American period (1898–1941)

5. Japanese occupation (1941–1945)

6. Postwar era or the Third Philippine Republic (1946–1971)

7. Martial Law era (1972–1981) and the Fourth Republic (1981–1986)

8. Post-EDSA or the Fifth Republic (1986–present)

Precolonial Period

Even before the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in 1521, there already existed a system of governance in precolonial Philippines. Back then, the Philippines was an archipelago organized into several independent and self-sufficient political units known as the barangay . (The precolonial Muslims in Mindanao, however, were organized differently. They had a sultanate.)

This unit is headed by a chief known as the datu . In other parts of the archipelago, the rulers were called rajah, sultan, or hadji. The datu held vast legislative, executive, and judicial powers. You will learn more about these three powers in the succeeding modules. But for now, suffice it to say that the chieftain had powers to create rules, implement these regulations, and decide on cases. The datu also served as the military head.

During this period, the barangays already had a legal system too. Most of the laws, which evolved based on native customs and traditions, were unwritten and were passed on from one generation to the next by oral tradition. In terms of justice, a system of trial in the form of trial by ordeal was administered. A system of punishment also existed during that time. The barangay administered laws, and cases were settled as well through mediation and compromise.

Present also during the precolonial times was the system of stratification , which was deemed politically significant. The stratification was based on class, which included the nobility ( maharlika ), the freemen ( timawa ), the serfs ( aliping namamahay ), and the slaves ( aliping sagigilid ). The datu belonged to the maharlika class. Women also played a pivotal role during this period as they held important positions in precolonial Philippine society. The precolonial system was already complex and sophisticated, such that foreign relations were already established as early as this period. The following photos depict such organized and systematic government our forefathers established during that time.

Fig. 5.1 A painting by Fernando Amorsolo depicting Lapulapu, a datu of Mactan

Source : http://www.filipiknow.net/life-in-pre-colonial-philippines/

Fig. 5.2 The datu occupied the highest rank in the barangay, the most basic political unit in precolonial Philippines and up to this day.

Source : https://gintongkalatas.files.wordpresscom/2015/09/first-1.jpg

Fig. 5.3 This painting by Manuel Pañares depicts trade at Port of Sugbu. Foreign trade was existent long before the Europeans arrived in the Philippines.

Source : http://panarescollections.weebly.com/uploads/8/5/0/5/8505258/8753905_orig.jpg

Fig. 5.4 This painting by Fernando Amorsolo depicts Princess Urduja. Women during the precolonial times exercised a multitude of powers and privileges and enjoyed a high status.

Source : http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-oeKT0YQ04UY/Tgucn-B6zmI/AAAAAAAAAO0/v7EwgJcAYUY/s1600/Princess+Urduja.jpg

What Have I Learned So Far?

What makes the barangay a symbol of tribal government system in the Philippines? Search online for a discussion on barangay mentality. What is the implication of barangay mentality in the larger Philippine political society?

Reflect Upon

What program(s) in your barangay have you participated in? Narrate your experience and the lessons you have learned in participating in these programs.

Spanish Period

Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival in the Philippines in 1521 brought about the Spanish Crown’s the occupation of the archipelago. Thereafter, a number of expeditions were sent to formally colonize the archipelago. However, it was only during Miguel Lopez de Legazpi’s conquest of the islands in 1565 did the formal establishment of a colonial government take place.

The Spanish colonial administration changed the precolonial government system of the Philippines into formal government structures. However, the local elite managed to maintain power at the community level.

The Spanish takeover brought changes in the archipelago’s governmental structure. The Philippines was indirectly governed by the king of Spain through Mexico through the Council of Indies in Spain. When Mexico gained independence in 1821, the Philippines was directly ruled by Spain until 1898. The country was ceded to the United States of America under the Treaty of Paris in 1898.

If the precolonial government was characterized by independent barangays (and sultanates), the Spaniards consolidated power under a centralized government, which was led by the governor-general . With his authority based in Manila (Intramuros), the governor-general was likewise an all-powerful individual. He had executive, legislative, judicial, administrative, and military powers. The centralization of power and the creation of a basic unitary government is thus a Spanish influence.

When the Spaniards were about to implement their imperial design, they noticed that the sparse indigenous population were scattered in forest lands and coastal areas. With this, the friars enticed the natives to live in towns.

Recognizing the influence of the datus for the easier pacification of natives, the Spaniards appointed the chieftains as the cabeza de barangay. The datu’s traditional powers, however, were lost and were limited to collecting taxes. The unified barangays composed the pueblos or towns, which were led by the gobernadorcillo (“little governor”). The consolidated towns then formed into provinces, which could be categorized into two. Provinces that were fully subjugated were called alcaldia , headed by the alcalde mayor ; while provinces that were not entirely pacified under Spanish authority were called corregimiento , led by the corregidor.

If during the precolonial period the datu and the council of elders created laws, laws during the Spanish period emanated from Spain. On the other hand, there was a Royal Audiencia which was an independent body created to hear and solve cases. Initially, the governor-general headed the judicial body, but the chief justice replaced him permanently. Audiencias were established in Manila, Cebu, and Vigan. While the Audiencia was not an exact model of the present-day Supreme Court (Santos, n.d.), it nonetheless had influence on its structure.

Despite the modern approach to administrative systems, the traditional and colonial government structures are still evident in Philippine politics today.

1. What are some of the political policies made by the Spanish colonial administration that are still evident in the Philippines today?

2. Do you think the Philippine administrative system is resistant to government innovations and changes? What do you say so?

Revolutionary Period

During the second half of the 19th century, the nationalist sentiments of the Filipinos were awakened. The Propaganda Movement , led by key figures such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena, advocated reforms—such that the same rights and freedoms being enjoyed in Spain would also be granted to the Filipinos. They wrote novels, manifestos, and articles that called for reforms. However, the failure of the Propaganda to initiate changes in the society gave birth to a secret association, the Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Katipunan). Founded in 1892 by Andres Bonifacio and a group of patriots, the Katipunan sought independence from Spain and set the 1896 Revolution in motion.

The Propaganda movement has fueled the political ideology of the Philippine revolutionary government. The executive, legislative, and judicial branches created during this period have manifested an ideal independent Philippine governance.

Fig. 5.5 The pacifist and Europe-based members of the Propaganda Movement were from the elite and wealthy.

Source : http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/Filipino%20Ilustrados_1890.jpg

Fig. 5.6 A Carlos V. Francisco painting that depicts the Philippine Revolution of 1896

Source : http://nosfecatu.blogspot.com/2016_01_01_archive.html

As an organization, the Katipunan adopted its own form of government, which had national and local levels. The Katipunan was governed by the Kataastaasang Sanggunian (Supreme Council), which was composed of the president, secretary/secretaries, treasurer, and fiscal. The Sangguniang Balangay (Provincial Council) and the Sangguniang Bayan (Popular Council) was also organized in each province and town, respectively. A Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council) was also created to adjudicate cases involving members of the organization.

Events, however, led to the division of the Katipunan into two factions: the Magdalo and Magdiwang. The Spaniards were about to make an offensive in Cavite and a unified leadership was deemed necessary. On 22 March 1897, the Tejeros Convention was called, where Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as president.

On 1 November 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-Bato Republic . Its constitution declared the creation of an independent Philippine state. The republic, however, lasted for only a month after the Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed. It provided for the amnesty and monetary indemnity of Aguinaldo and other revolutionaries, including the exile of the revolutionary government to Hong Kong. The pact was supposed to signal the end of the revolution, but Aguinaldo and his men purchased more arms and ammunition to prepare themselves for another siege.

By April 1898, the Spanish-American war broke out. Aguinaldo sailed for Cavite from Hong Kong, and by 24 May, he established a dictatorial government. It was under this dictatorial government that the Philippine independence from Spain was declared on 12 June in Kawit, Cavite.

Soon after, the dictatorial government was replaced by a revolutionary government. On 15 September 1898, months after the declaration of independence, the Malolos Congress convened, which produced the Malolos Constitution. On 23 January 1899, the First Philippine Republic was established with Emilio Aguinaldo as its president. A Supreme Court of Justice was likewise created, which addressed cases. However, the outbreak of the Filipino-American War suspended the activities of these institutions. In 1901, Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by American forces, leading to the dissolution of the First Philippine Republic.

Fig. 5.7 The opening of the Malolos Congress at the Barasoain Church in Bulacan

Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malolos_Congress.png

1. What is a revolutionary movement? Why do you think most of the Filipino revolts during the Spanish colonial period failed? How can a revolution succeed?

2. After the period of colonization in the Philippines, there were several social movements and revolutions clamoring for development. Cite some of these social movements and revolutions.

American Period

The signing of the Treaty of Paris signaled the end of the Spanish-American War. The treaty involved United States’ payment of $20 million to Spain after the latter ceded all its imperial possessions, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The American occupation of the Philippines definitely precipitated the Philippine-American War. Following the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo and the defeat of revolutionary forces, the official end of hostilities was declared in 1902. Regardless of this, individual uprisings all over the archipelago still persisted, making the Philippine-American War one of the longest wars the United States has ever been to.

Fig. 5.8 The Treaty of Paris was signed on 10 December 1898.

Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/John_Hay_signs_Treaty_of_Paris%2C_1899JPG

Fig. 5.9 A photograph of Filipino soldiers during the Filipino-American War

Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Filipino_soldiers_outside_Manila_1899.jpg

In 1898, after America’s capture of Manila, the United States forces established a military government in the Philippines. It was led by a military governor, who exercised all powers of the government. The military governor administered the Philippines through the authority of the US President, who was also the Commander in Chief of the US Armed Forces. The military governors were Gen. Wesley Merritt (1898), Gen. Elwell Otis (1898–1900), and Maj. Gen. Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (1900–1901).

The Spooner Amendment eventually ended the military regime. A civilian governor replaced the military governor. The Americans established the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands under the authority of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, a division which oversaw the civil affairs of some US foreign territories. What ensued thereafter was the establishment of governmental structures that would later on affect or shape the course of Philippine politics.

The Americans’ conquest of the Philippines was founded on the belief in democracy. However, it is ironic that Filipinos experienced inequality, injustice, and absence of freedom during the American occupation.

William H. Taft (in office 1901–1904) became the first civil governor of the Philippines. The civil governor acted as the head of the executive branch and also exercised legislative powers as the head of the Philippine Commission , a lawmaking body, whose members were all appointed.

In 1902, the Philippine Organic Act (Cooper Act) was enacted, which provided for the creation of a Philippine legislature. The legislature would be bicameral, with the all-appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house; and the Philippine Assembly , whose members were to be elected, as the lower house. In 1907, the first nationwide election was held and the Philippine legislature held its first session. By 1916, the Philippine Autonomy Act (Jones Law) provided for the reorganization of the Philippine legislature into a fully elected and Filipino-controlled bicameral body. The Philippine Commission became the Senate , while the Philippine Assembly became the House of Representatives .

Fig. 5.10 William H. Taft, first civil governor of the Philippines

Source : https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft#/media/File:William_Howard_Taft.jpg

Fig. 5.11 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Tydings-McDuffie Law with American and Filipino statesmen behind him.

Source : http://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/photos/5305778/Mcduff.jpg?1396505938

Meanwhile, Filipino statesmen were already working toward total Philippine independence from the United States. Until in 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence Act) was ratified by the US Congress. It established the Philippine Commonwealth , which provided for a 10-year transition period that would prepare the Filipinos for self-governance. The 1935 Constitution was promulgated, which paved the way for a presidential and unicameral legislative system called the National Assembly of the Philippines. The legislature was later restored to bicameral after an amendment in the Commonwealth Constitution. An independent judiciary was also established, with judicial power vested in a supreme court and such other inferior courts as provided by law. President Manuel Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña headed the first Commonwealth government. The Commonwealth government went in exile when the Japanese occupied the Philippines from 1942–1945.

The influence of the American occupation on the structure of government of the country is very evident. The democratic political institutions established, including electoral and party politics, constitutional law, the secret ballot, and the legislature, are manifestations of the strong influence the Americans had on our current political system. Similarly, our belief in the democratic ideals that guide governance of the country is by itself an American influence. As Teehankee (2002) noted, colonialism became the defining force in the emergence of democracy in the Philippine nation-state.

The political institutions and legal frameworks in the Philippines that were established during the American period were inspired by the ideals of democracy in the USA. However, there are still instances of incongruence with our political culture.

Beyond Walls 5.1 Read and Answer

Read the poem “The White Man’s Burden” written by Rudyard Kipling in 1899 for you to have another perspective on the American colonization of the Philippines. Answer the questions that follow.

Take up the White Man’s burden— Send forth the best ye breed— Go send your sons to exile To serve your captives’ need To wait in heavy harness On fluttered folk and wild— Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half devil and half child.

Take up the White Man’s burden In patience to abide To veil the threat of terror And check the show of pride; By open speech and simple An hundred times made plain To seek another’s profit And work another’s gain.

Take up the White Man’s burden— The savage wars of peace— Fill full the mouth of Famine And bid the sickness cease; And when your goal is nearest The end for others sought, Watch sloth and heathen Folly Bring all your hopes to nought.

Take up the White Man’s burden— No tawdry rule of kings, But toil of serf and sweeper— The tale of common things. The ports ye shall not enter, The roads ye shall not tread, Go mark them with your living, And mark them with your dead.

Take up the White Man’s burden— And reap his old reward: The blame of those ye better The hate of those ye guard— The cry of hosts ye humour (Ah slowly!) to the light: “Why brought ye us from bondage, Our loved Egyptian night?”

Take up the White Man’s burden— Ye dare not stoop to less— Nor call too loud on Freedom To cloke your weariness; By all ye cry or whisper, By all ye leave or do, The silent, sullen peoples Shall weigh your gods and you.

Take up the White Man’s burden— Have done with childish days— The lightly proffered laurel, The easy, ungrudged praise. Comes now, to search your manhood Through all the thankless years, Cold-edged with dear-bought wisdom, The judgment of your peers!

Source : http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/kipling.asp

1. What is your perception on the message of the poem?

2. Do you agree that the Americans should be responsible for the welfare of the Filipinos during the colonial period? Explain.

3. How does the poem show the way Americans perceive Filipinos?

With your seatmate, discuss the government structure that took place during the American period in the Philippines. Come up with an illustrative map and a short narrative to explain your answers. Share your outputs with the class.

The Spanish colonial administration in the Philippines lasted for more than 300 years. Do you think the political, social, and cultural influences of the Americans are much stronger than those of the Spaniards? What do you think are the reasons for this?

Japanese Occupation

The Japanese occupation of Manila signaled the establishment of the Japanese Military Administration on 3 January 1942. It consequently led to the interruption of American rule in the Philippines.

As a fundamental strategy in forcing grievance, the Japanese military forces established the Philippine Executive Commission (PEC), a civil government that would temporary rule the country. It was composed of Filipinos, with Jorge B. Vargas as its chairman. While this commission exercised executive and legislative powers, everything was subject to approval by the commander in chief of the Japanese forces.

In 1943, a new constitution was promulgated and the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic was established. Jose P. Laurel served as its president. Also called the Second Republic, its executive, legislative, and judiciary structures were similar to those of the PEC. While Filipinos assumed government positions, the Japanese apparently influenced how the country would be administered. Thus, the Second Republic is commonly referred to as a “puppet” government.

Fig. 5.12 Japanese soldiers after the fall of Bataan on 9 April 1942

Source : http://www.emersonkent.com/images/bataan.jpg

Soon after the return of Gen. Douglas MacArthur to the Philippines in 1944 and the eventual defeat of the Japanese forces, the Commonwealth government was reestablished. The 1935 Constitution again became the highest law of the land. Meanwhile, Manila suffered as the second most devastated city after the Second World War, next to the city of Warsaw in Poland. By 5 July 1945, MacArthur announced the liberation of the Philippines. The reestablishment of the government under Osmeña saw enormous problems: devastation by war, destruction of the economy, political warfare, and guerilla violence. Thus, the primary problem during this period was the reconstruction of the country and of the government.

Fig. 5.13 Intramuros after the war

Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Manila_Walled_City_Destruction_May_1945.jpg

1. What role did the Philippine Executive Commission (PEC) play during the Japanese occupation?

2. How did the Japanese invasion of the Philippines change the political structure, cultural environment, and social interactions among Filipinos? What do you think is the most significant legacy of the Japanese occupation in the Philippines?

Postwar Era

As what has been mentioned earlier, the Tydings-McDuffie Act granted independence to the Philippines after the 10-year transitional period. This happened on 4 July 1946, despite the fact that the Philippines was still rising up from the ashes brought by the war. The Third Republic was also inaugurated on this day.

The structure of postwar Philippine politics and government was founded on the 1935 Constitution. The said constitution provided for a presidential and unitary system, wherein the president will be directly elected by the people and will serve for four years with a maximum of two terms. There was also a bicameral legislature composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives, whose members are also directly elected by the people. An independent judicial body—composed of the Supreme Court and the lower courts—was also created. Philippine politics and government were democratic in a sense that they provided for the separation of powers and a system of checks and balances among the three branches of the government. Electoral and party politics (see unit II, module 10 ) also characterized pre- and postwar periods.

The first president of the Third Republic was Manuel Roxas (in office 1946–1948), followed by Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953), Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957), Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961), Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965), and the first term of Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1969). Marcos’s second term saw changes in the governmental structure and the ratification of a new constitution in 1973.

Fig. 5.14 Manuel Roxas took his oath of office during the Independence Day ceremony on 4 July 1946.

Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Manuelroxasinaguration.jpg

Fig. 5.15 The Philippine flag was raised as the US flag was lowered during the inauguration of the Third Philippine Republic.

Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Philippine_Independence,_July_4 _1946.jpg

Martial Law Era and the Fourth Republic

In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected to the presidency and his administration was characterized by an increased agricultural productivity, massive infrastructure development, and a defining diplomatic policy. In 1969, he ran for reelection and succeeded, making him the only president under the 1935 Constitution to be elected for a second term. That time, however, the country was undergoing worsening economic condition, deteriorating peace and order, social discontent, and a growing Communist and Muslim insurgencies.

The Martial Law era brought back the concept of the “rule of man” rather than the “rule of law.” It sets aside the values of democracy and freedom among Filipinos.

To “save” the Republic from this turmoil and to reform the society, Marcos, on 23 September 1972, announced on nationwide radio and television that he was placing the entire country under martial law. The declaration was made through the virtue of Proclamation 1081 which was signed on 21 September. Marcos rationalized that martial law was the only option that would solve the rebellion which posed a threat to the peace and order of the country. He then instituted the Bagong Lipunan (New Society), which envisioned a thriving and self-reliant society that is based on new social and political values.

Under Marcos’s administration, a new constitution was adopted in 1973. The 1973 Constitution provided that the Philippines will have a modified parliamentary form of government. The president will serve as a ceremonial head of state, with the following functions: address the National Assembly at the opening of its regular section; proclaim the election of prime minister; dissolve the National Assembly and call for a general election; appoint all officers and employees in accordance with the Civil Service Law, among others (Article VII, Section 6). On the other hand, the prime minister will be the head of the cabinet (Article IX, Section 1), be responsible to the National Assembly for the program of government approved by the president and determine the guidelines of national policy (Section 2), and be the commander in chief of all armed forces in the Philippines (Section 12), among others. The president and the prime minister were to be elected by the National Assembly, a unicameral legislative body composed of assemblymen elected by the people.

By 1976, the 1973 Constitution was amended. Instead of having an election for the National Assembly, an interim Batasang Pambansa would be established, composed of the incumbent president, the current regional and sectoral representatives, and the members of the cabinet. The interim Batasang Pambansa would have the same power as that of the National Assembly.

The third item in the 1976 amendments allowed Marcos to be the president and the prime minister at the same time. He shall “continue to exercise all his powers even after the interim Batasang Pambansa is organized and ready to discharge its functions. Likewise, he shall continue to exercise his powers and prerogatives under the 1935 Constitution and the powers vested on the President and the Prime Minister under this Constitution.” Ultimately, Marcos’s legislative powers were solidified as the sixth item allowed him to “issue the necessary decrees, orders, or letters of instructions, which shall form part of the law of the land” if the interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular National Assembly fails to address matters deemed requiring immediate action by the president–prime minister. In 1981, the constitution was again amended. With these changes in the government structure, Marcos was able to stay in the presidency longer and exercise greater powers.

During martial law, the political rights and civil liberties of the people as well as their human rights were suppressed and violated. The suspension of the writ of habeas corpus led to the arrest and detention of any person without proper court proceeding. There were also cases of human rights abuses among those who were vocal against the regime. Press freedom was suppressed as Marcos established control of mass media. Through Letter of Instruction No. 1, Marcos ordered the closure of media establishments in the country. He also used his power to seize companies and industries and to place them under the control of his trusted supporters and relatives, instituting what came to be known as crony capitalism.

The declaration of Martial Law is an epitome of the abuse of power. It symbolizes how the exercise of power corrupted the government system.

While Marcos already lifted martial law by 1981, he continued to exercise dictatorial powers. Calls to end his dictatorial regime brought Filipinos to take to the streets to participate in a popular and nonviolent uprising called the EDSA People Power Revolution in 1986, which ousted Marcos and ended his dictatorial rule.

Fig. 5.16 People carried religious images during the peaceful demonstration.

Source : http://poliscidemocracy.weebly.com/uploads/4/1/6/6/41664589/7037677_orig.jpg

Fig. 5.17 People flocked to EDSA in efforts to end the authoritarian regime.

Source : https://www.flickr.com/photos/govph/15945416394/in/album-72157650893299265/

Post-EDSA Period

The period from 1986 onward is the restoration of democracy. The fall of the dictatorship marked the shift toward redemocratization and return to constitutionalism. A revolutionary government was created following Corazon Aquino’s ascent to presidency. A Freedom Constitution was also framed, which served as the foundation of the transitory government. When a new Philippine Constitution was ratified in 1987, a democratic and republican government was established.

The 1987 Philippine Constitution paved the way for the revival of democracy in our country. It adapted the values of human rights, welfare, justice, and social order.

The 1987 Constitution featured aspects that reflected those of the 1935 Constitution, albeit several changes. The post-EDSA era, also known as the Fifth Republic, saw the revival of democracy, wherein governmental powers emanate from the people. Elections, political parties, and civil societies were thus reinstituted. Civilian authority (through the president) was recognized supreme over the military. An independent judiciary was also reestablished. The Philippine legislature also returned to a bicameral form, with the rebirth of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Corazon Aquino (in office 1986–1992) served as the first president of the Fifth Republic. She was followed by Fidel Ramos (1992–1998) and Joseph Estrada, who only served half of his term (1998–2001) after being deposed by the EDSA People Power II. Estrada was succeeded by his vice president, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, who eventually won the 2004 presidential election and thus served as executive for almost a decade (2001–2010). She was followed by Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010–2016), son of former president Corazon Aquino. Today, the Philippines is headed by Rodrigo Duterte, the first president to have hailed from Mindanao.

The present practice of democratic principles is confronted by incongruence in Philippine political behavior and values.

Differentiate the US political system from the Philippine political system using the principle and practice of democracy.

Beyond Walls 5.2 Go Online

For more information and activities about the constitution, visit the Diwa Learning Town website at http://bit.ly/diwa-PPG2ED . Share your output with the class.

Beyond Walls 5.3 Apply It in Real Life

You are a photojournalist commissioned by an international magazine that features salient events in global history. You need to capture scenes that illustrate democracy in everyday life. The Philippines has been chosen as the subject of your photography by the editorial board of the magazine. Your task is to take at least five photographs that will be featured in the next issue of the magazine. The editor in chief of the magazine will evaluate your photographs based on the creativity of the shots, the message portrayed, and the relevance to the theme.

Extend Your Knowledge

Essential learning.

You have learned in this module a brief overview on how Philippine politics and government transformed through time. Nonetheless, what this module points out is that the current developments in the country’s political landscape are heavily influenced by what took place in the past. There are several institutions and political processes that trace their roots from the precolonial up to the colonial periods. The structure of Philippine politics to date is not only a reflection of the country’s struggle with colonialism but also with dictatorship. After all, the return to democracy and constitutionalism, through the 1987 Constitution, is a reflection of the nation’s victory against the authoritarian system. While it is true that the Philippines espouses democratic ideals, the extent and real essence of democracy are definitely challenged in the present time. This is addressed in the succeeding modules.

• No category

Evolution of Philippine Politics and Governance (American Period)

Related documents.

Add this document to collection(s)

You can add this document to your study collection(s)

Add this document to saved

You can add this document to your saved list

Suggest us how to improve StudyLib

(For complaints, use another form )

Input it if you want to receive answer

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Philippine History with Politics, Governance and Constitution

Related Papers

Zohaib Tahir

Chandran Kukathas

Nadeem morshed

Saadiq Chogle

Agora International Journal of Juridical Sciences

Cristian Jura

The organisation of international society in state entities, appearing as subjects ofinternational law, represented an essential element in the overall evolution and developmentof it, the state-policy making leading to the incorporation, maintenance and development ofinternational community. The state may be considered the main creator, beneficiary anddefender of public international law.

Nirmalya Das

Ioannis Moraitis

To an outsider, the following seems breathtakingly absurd: relations between the Balkan nations of Greece and Macedonia have been defined by conflict for two decades, because the latter's constitutional name is 'Republic of Macedonia'. As a result of that, the small landlocked state with a population of just over two million, has been unable to join its post-Communist neighbours in accessing NATO and the European Union. The Hellenes refuse to allow the former Yugoslav republic to do so, unless the term 'Macedonia' is removed from its name. Although negotiations between the two parties have taken place for almost 20 years now, no compromise was reached. Currently, the situation has reached an impasse. This inevitably poses the question, why no middle ground could be established. This essay will put forward the argument, that both sides use historical aspects of the naming dispute for the purpose of nation-building. Using history for the creation and further consolidation of identity is an idea that has been discussed by numerous academics, and it will be argued that the naming dispute between Greece and Macedonia can be regarded as a critical case in an evaluation of the applicability of this idea. Firstly, the theoretical framework behind the processes of state and nation-building will be reflected on. The relationship between nations, Nationalism, states and history will be shown. Then the naming dispute will be presented as the case-study underlying the principal argument. The use of history by both Greece and Macedonia will be highlighted, and finally the role of external actors, particularly the EU, NATO and the UN, will be assessed. Finally, some conclusions will be drawn based in the findings presented here. History has shown that both states and nations are not rigid entities, but that they are constructed and sometimes even reconstructed. In order give an analysis of the processes of state

Elvis Asiedu, PhDBA Candidate

Many scholars have tried to explain the ,meaning of the word "state". Some believe that the state we are living in is an organised community inhabited by the people and controlled by the government within a defined territory. Others have also found it very difficult to outline the major features of the state. How the state we are living in emerged has also been a big headache to students. This study therefore, conceptualize the definition of the term "state", its major features, the functions and the machineries the state uses to ensure the performance of its duties.

Kairosz Edition

The meaning of the concept of the state arose from the establishment of the concept of sovereignty as the basis of European power relations in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648.The concept of the state states that a group of people or a community of people living in a well-defined territory have exclusive rights over that territory. Thus, the possibility of special rights of foreign ethnic or religious groups living in the territory of any state was gradually abolished, and a single legal system set the standards for all people living there. The above development was exemplified by the emergence of the concept of constitution in the 1750s as a legal clarification of the earlier idea of social contract theory. After the chaotic constitutionalism of the French Revolution, the first permanent constitutions were drawn up by the American colonial states that had just gained their independence and were in the process of organizing their states, and these became the Constitution of the United States in 1787. From the first decades of the 19th century, it gradually became accepted in the Western world that a state-organized society must have a constitution as the basis for its governmental life. Constituent power is thus also a doubling of the expression of sovereignty, a concept equal to it, because only the holders of constituent power can also decide on the union of a state into a more comprehensive entity, and only constituent power can rule indefinitely in relations within the state.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Amos Lokaii

The American Journal of Jurisprudence

Richard Ekins

6th International Legal Issues Conference ILIC2021 ISBN (978-9922-9036-7-5)

Saeideh Shariati

Daniel Kroslak

Herald of The Russian Academy of Sciences

Leonid Grinin

alfred GABANA

Ruth Ajonye

Conflict Management and Peace Science

Faten Ghosn

Claudeth Gonzales

Irasha Siriwardhane

Karlo Basta

Gökhan ERELİ

Sadik Haxhiu

Prizren Social Science Journal

Melody Manalo

Kapil Gupta

Chandara Khun

The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies

HiKMET MENGUASLAN

Sergey Shestopal

In: HERALD OF OMSK UNIVERSITY

Juan J. Linz (1926-2013)

Journal of Democracy

Ashutosh Varshney

Nitish Yadav

Daniel Mpala

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Subject List
• Take a Tour
• For Authors
• Subscriber Services
• Publications
• African American Studies
• African Studies
• American Literature
• Anthropology
• Architecture Planning and Preservation
• Art History
• Atlantic History
• Biblical Studies
• British and Irish Literature
• Childhood Studies
• Chinese Studies
• Cinema and Media Studies
• Communication
• Criminology
• Environmental Science
• Evolutionary Biology
• International Law
• International Relations
• Islamic Studies
• Jewish Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Latino Studies
• Linguistics
• Literary and Critical Theory
• Medieval Studies
• Military History

Political Science

• Public Health
• Renaissance and Reformation
• Social Work
• Urban Studies
• Victorian Literature
• Browse All Subjects

How to Subscribe

• Free Trials

In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Philippine Politics and Government

Introduction.

• Theories of Philippine Politics
• Philippine Political Development
• Elite and Dynastic Politics
• Philippine Civil Society
• Democracy and Autocracy
• Philippine Constitution
• Philippine Presidency
• Philippine Legislature
• Philippine Judiciary
• Philippine Bureaucracy and Local Governments
• Philippine Elections
• Philippine Political Parties
• Philippine Social Movements
• Foreign Policy, International Relations, and Security

Related Articles Expand or collapse the "related articles" section about

About related articles close popup.

Lorem Ipsum Sit Dolor Amet

Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Aliquam ligula odio, euismod ut aliquam et, vestibulum nec risus. Nulla viverra, arcu et iaculis consequat, justo diam ornare tellus, semper ultrices tellus nunc eu tellus.

• Constitutional Politics in Asia
• Democratization
• Political Party Systems in East and Southeast Asia
• Politics of the Philippines: From Rizal to Duterte
• Presidential Candidate Selection in Comparative Perspective
• Women and Politics in East and Southeast Asia

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

• Cross-National Surveys of Public Opinion
• Politics of School Reform
• Ratification of the Constitution
• Find more forthcoming articles...
• Export Citations
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Philippine Politics and Government by Julio Teehankee LAST REVIEWED: 26 October 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2023 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0366

The study of politics and government in the Philippines was borne out of critical junctures in historical state-making and nation-building in the country. From colonialism to nationalism, modernization, authoritarianism, and democratization, the Philippines is an interesting case study since it reflects significant periods in its political history. The emergence of political science in the Philippines has contributed to the rise of several Philippine politics and government theories that frame the analysis of its political development. Despite the early influence of American political science on the study of Philippine politics and government, Philippine political science has avoided quantitative methods until recently. Nonetheless, the latest studies by Filipino political scientists present a dynamic and pluralist perspective. For the most part, the bulk of research publications has focused on democratic and state institutions that include executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government; the bureaucracy; local government and decentralization; policymaking in general; the military and police; elections; voting; election rules; and political parties. Philippine politics has been largely criticized for being corrupt, patronage-based, and lacking ideological grounding. However, political and social movements have mobilized ideology in contesting power in the country. Essentially, there have been four ideological traditions in the Philippines: nationalism, liberalism, radical Marxism, and socialism. Despite several attempts to articulate an ideologically based discourse, Philippine politics continue to revolve around candidate-centered alliances of provincial bosses, political machines, and local clans, grounded on clientelistic, parochial, and personal inducements rather than issues, ideologies, and party programs. Nonetheless, alternative theories have emerged to challenge this view of Philippine politics. In recent years, the strong institutionalist and statist approach of the discipline in the country has been receptive to alternative and multidisciplinary perspectives. The Philippines is also home to a broad range of voluntary associations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and other manifestations of a relatively vibrant civil society and social movements. New ideological formations gravitating around postmodern, cultural, and identity-based issues have also emerged. Moreover, new challenges, such as democratic regression, authoritarian revival, and digital disinformation, necessitate looking at old problems with new academic lenses. In addition, domestic politics continue to impact how the country navigates its foreign policy, particularly in defense of its “national interest” in the rapidly shifting global arena.

What happened in the Kolkata rape case that triggered doctors’ protests?

Activists and doctors in India demand better safeguarding of women and medical professionals after a trainee medic was raped and murdered in Kolkata.

Activists and doctors across India continued to protest on Wednesday to demand justice for a female doctor, who was raped and murdered while on duty in a hospital in the eastern city of Kolkata.

Feminist groups rallied on the streets in protests titled “Reclaim the Night” in Kolkata overnight on Wednesday – on the eve of India’s independence day – in solidarity with the victim, demanding the principal of RG Kar Medical College resign. Some feminist protesters also marched well beyond Kolkata, including in the capital Delhi.

Keep reading

Doctors across india protest rape and murder of medic in kolkata, india supreme court to monitor investigations into manipur sexual violence, goals not guns: how a girls football team in india’s manipur beats violence, four arrested after spanish blogger on india motorcycle tour gangraped.

While the protests were largely peaceful, a small mob of men stormed the medical college and vandalised property. This group was dispersed by the police.

This comes after two days of nationwide protests by doctors following the incident at RG Kar Medical College in West Bengal’s capital city. “Sit-in demonstrations and agitation in the hospital campus will continue,” one of the protesting doctors, identified as Dr Mridul, told Al Jazeera.

Services in some medical centres were halted indefinitely, and marches and vigils shed light on issues of sexual violence, as well as doctors’ safety in the world’s most populous nation.

What happened to the doctor in Kolkata?

A 31-year-old trainee doctor’s dead body, bearing multiple injuries, was found on August 9 in a government teaching hospital in Kolkata.

The parents of the victim were initially told “by hospital authorities that their daughter had committed suicide,” lawyer and women’s rights activist Vrinda Grover told Al Jazeera. But an autopsy confirmed that the victim was raped and killed.

Grover has appeared for victims in sexual violence cases in India in the past, including Bilkis Bano , a Muslim woman who was gang-raped during the 2002 Gujarat riots, and Soni Sori, a tribal activist based in Chhattisgarh state.

Thousands of doctors marched in Kolkata on Monday, demanding better security measures and justice for the victim.

On Tuesday, the Kolkata High Court transferred the case to the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI).

The Federation of Resident Doctors Association (FORDA) called for a nationwide halting of elective services in hospitals starting on Monday. Elective services are medical treatments that can be deferred or are not deemed medically necessary.

On Tuesday, FORDA announced on its X account that it is calling off the strike after Health Minister Jagat Prakash Nadda accepted protest demands.

One of these demands was solidifying the Central Protection Act, intended to be a central law to protect medical professionals from violence, which was proposed in the parliament’s lower house in 2022, but has not yet been enacted.

FORDA said that the ministry would begin working on the Act within 15 days of the news release, and that a written statement from the ministry was expected to be released soon.

Press release regarding call off of strike. In our fight for the sad incident at R G Kar, the demands raised by us have been met in full by the @OfficeofJPNadda , with concrete steps in place, and not just verbal assurances. Central Healthcare Protection Act ratification… pic.twitter.com/OXdSZgM1Jc — FORDA INDIA (@FordaIndia) August 13, 2024

Why are some Indian doctors continuing to protest?

However, other doctors’ federations and hospitals have said they will not back down on the strike until a concrete solution is found, including a central law to curb attacks on doctors.

Those continuing to strike included the Federation of All India Medical Associations (FAIMA), Delhi-based All India Institute Of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and Indira Gandhi Hospital, local media reported.

Ragunandan Dixit, the general secretary of the AIIMS Resident Doctors’ Association, said that the indefinite strike will continue until their demands are met, including a written guarantee of the implementation of the Central Protection Act.

Medical professionals in India want a central law that makes violence against doctors a non-bailable, punishable offence, in hopes that it deters such violent crimes against doctors in the future.

Those continuing to protest also call for the dismissal of the principal of the college, who was transferred. “We’re demanding his termination, not just transfer,” Dr Abdul Waqim Khan, a protesting doctor told ANI news agency. “We’re also demanding a death penalty for the criminal,” he added.

“Calling off the strike now would mean that female resident doctors might never receive justice,” Dr Dhruv Chauhan, member of the National Council of the Indian Medical Association’s Junior Doctors’ Network told local news agency Press Trust of India (PTI).

Which states in India saw doctors’ protests?

While the protests started in West Bengal’s Kolkata on Monday, they spread across the country on Tuesday.

The capital New Delhi, union territory Chandigarh, Uttar Pradesh capital Lucknow and city Prayagraj, Bihar capital Patna and southern state Goa also saw doctors’ protests.

Who is the suspect in the Kolkata rape case?

Local media reported that the police arrested suspect Sanjoy Roy, a civic volunteer who would visit the hospital often. He has unrestricted access to the ward and the police found compelling evidence against him.

The parents of the victim told the court that they suspect that it was a case of gang rape, local media reported.

Why is sexual violence on the rise in India?

Sexual violence is rampant in India, where 90 rapes were reported on average every day in 2022.

Laws against sexual violence were made stricter following a rape case in 2012, when a 22-year-old physiotherapy intern was brutally gang-raped and murdered on a bus in Delhi. Four men were hanged for the gang rape, which had triggered a nationwide protests.

But despite new laws in place, “the graph of sexual violence in India continues to spiral unabated,” said Grover.

She added that in her experience at most workplaces, scant attention is paid to diligent and rigorous enforcement of the laws.

“It is regrettable that government and institutions respond only after the woman has already suffered sexual assault and often succumbed to death in the incident,” she added, saying preventive measures are not taken.

In many rape cases in India, perpetrators have not been held accountable. In 2002, Bano was raped by 11 men, who were sentenced to life imprisonment. In 2022, the government of Prime Minister Narendra Modi authorised the release of the men, who were greeted with applause and garlands upon their release.

However, their remission was overruled and the Supreme Court sent the rapists back to jail after public outcry.

Grover believes that the death penalty will not deter rapists until India addresses the deeply entrenched problem of sexual violence. “For any change, India as a society will have to confront and challenge, patriarchy, discrimination and inequality that is embedded in our homes, families, cultural practices, social norms and religious traditions”.

What makes this case particularly prominent is that it happened in Kolkata, Sandip Roy, a freelance contributor to NPR, told Al Jazeera. “Kolkata actually prided itself for a long time on being really low in the case of violence against women and being relatively safe for women.”

A National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report said that Kolkata had the lowest number of rape cases in 2021 among 19 metropolitan cities, with 11 cases in the whole year. In comparison, New Delhi was reported to have recorded 1, 226 cases that year.

Prime Minister Modi’s governing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has called for dismissing the government in West Bengal, where Kolkata is located, led by Mamata Banerjee of All India Trinamool Congress (AITC). Banerjee’s party is part of the opposition alliance.

Rahul Gandhi, the leader of the opposition in parliament, also called for justice for the victim.

“The attempt to save the accused instead of providing justice to the victim raises serious questions on the hospital and the local administration,” he posted on X on Wednesday.

Roy spoke about the politicisation of the case since an opposition party governs West Bengal. “The local government’s opposition will try to make this an issue of women’s safety in the state,” he said.

Have doctors in India protested before?

Roy explained to Al Jazeera that this case is an overlap of two kinds of violence, the violence against a woman, as well as violence against “an overworked medical professional”.

Doctors in India do not have sufficient workplace security, and attacks on doctors have started protests in India before.

In 2019, two junior doctors were physically assaulted in Kolkata’s Nil Ratan Sircar Medical College and Hospital (NRSMCH) by a mob of people after a 75-year-old patient passed away in the hospital.

Those attacks set off doctors’ protests in Kolkata, and senior doctors in West Bengal offered to resign from their positions to express solidarity with the junior doctors who were attacked.

More than 75 percent of Indian doctors have faced some form of violence, according to a survey by the Indian Medical Association in 2015.

What happens next?

The case will now be handled by the CBI, which sent a team to the hospital premises to inspect the crime scene on Wednesday morning, local media reported.

According to Indian law, the investigation into a case of rape or gang rape is to be completed within two months from the date of lodging of the First Information Report (police complaint), according to Grover, the lawyer.

The highest court in West Bengal, which transferred the case from the local police to the CBI on Tuesday, has directed the central investigating agency to file periodic status reports regarding the progress of the investigation.

The FIR was filed on August 9, which means the investigation is expected to be completed by October 9.

Bengal women will create history with a night long protest in various major locations in the state for at 11.55pm on 14th of August’24,the night that’ll mark our 78th year as an independent country. The campaign, 'Women, Reclaim the Night: The Night is Ours', is aimed at seeking… pic.twitter.com/Si9fd6YGNb — purpleready (@epicnephrin_e) August 13, 2024