The term ‘violence within close relationships’ is a new approach that deviates from the earlier framings of ‘men’s violence against women’, and is a specific Swedish policy term.
This new approach indicates a gender-neutral conceptualisation in which both victim and perpetrator are invisible in terms of gender.Legal obligations and the problems for the healthcare sector are only vaguely defined.
Discourse analysis can be used to analyse small and large data sets with homogenous and heterogenous samples. It can be applied to any type of data source, from interviews and focus groups to diary entries, news reports and online discussion forums. However, interpretation in discourse analysis can lead to limitations and challenges that tend to occur when discourse analysis is misapplied or done poorly. Discourse analysis can be highly flexible and is best used when anchored in a theoretical approach. Because discourse analysis involves subjective interpretation, training and support from a qualitative researcher with expertise in the method is required to ensure that the interpretation of the data is meaningful. Finally, discourse analysis can be time-consuming when analysing large volumes of texts.
Discourse analysis is a process whereby texts are examined and interpreted. It looks for the meanings ‘behind’ text in cultural and social contexts. Discourse analysis is flexible, and the researcher has scope to interpret the text(s) based on the research topic and aim(s). Having a theoretical approach assists the researcher to position the discourse in cultural and social grounding.
Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Tess Tsindos is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
What is a discourse analysis, the application of discourse analysis in the academic thesis, discourse analysis with maxqda.
Tuesday, September 19, 2023
MAXQDA supports various methodological approaches, including discourse analysis. This guide will introduce you to the tools of MAXQDA, which are ideal for performing discourse analysis with MAXQDA quickly and easily. MAXQDA is a qualitative data analysis software that helps you import, code, and identify patterns in your discourse.
Discourse analysis is a multidisciplinary method used in the humanities and social sciences to develop a deeper understanding of the interactions between language, society, and culture. It focuses on the study of linguistic expressions, structures, and practices in order to capture social meanings and power dynamics. Both verbal and nonverbal communication are considered. The overarching goal of discourse analysis is to explore how discourses influence the construction of knowledge, identities, and social relations. It enables the study of the role of language and communication in shaping and influencing social reality. Overall, discourse analysis makes a valuable contribution to the study of social phenomena and processes by providing an in-depth understanding of how language and communication are used to create meanings, shape social relationships, and establish social power dynamics. Discourse analysis contributes to critical reflection and knowledge acquisition in various academic disciplines.
A primary motivation for using discourse analysis is the ability to uncover dominant discourses, ideological assumptions, and power structures in texts, media content, or political speeches. Discourse analysis allows researchers to better understand and critically reflect on the role of language and discourse in society. Another important area of application of discourse analysis in dissertations is the study of the relationship between discourses and identity constructions. For example, gender roles, ethnic identities, or sexual orientations can be studied. Discourse analysis can help to understand how identities are negotiated, constructed, and reproduced in specific social contexts. Another area of application in dissertations is the study of discourses in the media. The analysis of media discourses makes it possible to identify, critically expose and reflect on patterns and trends in reporting. This can contribute to a better understanding of the media’s role in constructing and disseminating discourses. In summary, discourse analysis offers a valuable methodological perspective for the study of complex social phenomena in the context of academic work.
Researchers typically follow these steps in discourse analysis: defining the research question, selecting relevant textual data, coding and categorizing the data, analyzing patterns and meanings within the discourse, interpreting the results, and documenting their findings in written form. The specific steps may vary depending on the research question and methodology.
As mentioned earlier, there are clear advantages to using software like MAXQDA to conduct discourse analysis. With MAXQDA, you can segment data, code it, and develop analytical ideas all at the same time. This makes the process more efficient and allows you to refine your theoretical approaches in real time. If you do not have a MAXQDA License yet, download the free 14-day trial to get started:
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Importing data into MAXQDA is a crucial step in beginning the analysis of qualitative data. MAXQDA provides several options for importing data into the program, allowing you to effectively organize your research materials. You can import different types of data, such as text documents, transcripts, media content, or existing MAXQDA Projects. MAXQDA gives you the flexibility to import both individual files and entire folders of data, which is especially helpful when working with large data sets. The import process is designed to be simple and user-friendly, making it easier for you to work with your data. Another advantage of MAXQDA is that it supports a wide variety of file formats. You can import files in various formats, including TXT, DOC, PDF, MP3, MP4 and many more. This versatility allows you to work with different types of data and incorporate different media into your analysis. Importing your data into MAXQDA makes it structured and accessible for further analysis. Within MAXQDA, you can organize, code, and link your data with other analytical tools. This makes it easier to navigate and access relevant information during the analysis process. Overall, importing data into MAXQDA is an efficient way to manage your qualitative research materials and prepare them for analysis. It serves as a critical first step in launching your project in MAXQDA and taking full advantage of the program’s extensive analytical capabilities.
Importing data into MAXQA plays a crucial role in conducting discourse analysis. With MAXQDA, you can segment your data into documents and annotate them with relevant metadata such as title, author, and date. This allows you to organize your texts during the analysis phase. You can sort, filter, and group your data based on various criteria to access specific texts. In addition, MAXQDA provides the ability to annotate the imported text with notes, comments, or memos. This feature is invaluable for capturing important information, thoughts, or interpretations that arise during analysis. You can document your observations and insights directly in MAXQDA, thus fostering a comprehensive understanding of the discourse being analyzed. In MAXQDA, you can assign meaningful titles to your data and include relevant metadata such as author and date in the document names. This ensures a clear organization of your texts during the analysis phase. You can sort, filter, and group your data according to various criteria to access specific texts. In addition, MAXQDA allows you to annotate the imported texts with comments and notes using memos. This feature is very useful for capturing key information, thoughts, or interpretations that emerge during the analysis. You can document your observations and insights directly in MAXQDA and develop a thorough understanding of the discourse being analyzed. Importing data into MAXQDA is fundamental to conducting a systematic and comprehensive discourse analysis.The structured organization of data in MAXQDA facilitates the effective application of various analysis methods and techniques. You can create codes to identify and analyze important themes, terms, or patterns within the discourse. Importing data into MAXQDA provides a central platform where you can manage, analyze, and interpret your data. This greatly streamlines the entire process of discourse analysis, allowing you to make informed statements about social meanings, power dynamics, and identity constructions within the discourse you are analyzing.
Coding data in MAXQDA plays a critical role in the analysis process. Coding involves identifying and marking specific themes, categories, or concepts within the data. This allows researchers to systematically organize and extract relevant information from the data. In MAXQDA, different types of data can be coded, such as text passages, images, videos, or audio files. Codes can be used to associate these data segments with specific content or meanings. Researchers can use codes to identify and mark certain phenomena or themes in the data, allowing for targeted access later. Coding in MAXQDA allows researchers to identify complex relationships and patterns within the data. By linking and combining codes and organizing them hierarchically, researchers can establish relationships between different elements. These connections provide new insights and help understand the relationships within the data. The coded data can be further used in MAXQDA for additional analysis. For example, complex queries or filters can be applied to examine specific aspects of the discourse in detail. By analyzing the coded data, researchers can identify patterns, trends, and significant relationships that lead to valuable insights. MAXQDA provides an intuitive and easy-to-use platform to efficiently perform the coding and analysis process. The program offers several tools and features that allow researchers to customize the coding process and tailor the analysis to their specific needs. Overall, coding data in MAXQDA is a critical step in analyzing and understanding qualitative data.
Coding data in MAXQDA allows researchers to identify and analyze specific discursive elements such as themes, arguments, or language strategies in the texts under study. To code data in MAXQDA, researchers can select relevant text passages and assign them codes that represent specific meanings or categories. These codes can be organized hierarchically to illustrate relationships between different discursive elements. In addition to coding, MAXQDA offers features such as text annotation, the ability to create memos, and options for visual data presentation at later stages. These features facilitate the organization and interpretation of coded data, enabling researchers to gain deep insights into the discourse under study and to visualize their findings. MAXQDA provides a comprehensive and efficient platform for coding and analyzing data in discourse analysis.
A Codebook in MAXQDA defines codes for units of meaning within data. It enables structured and consistent coding, improves traceability and reproducibility, increases the efficiency of data analysis, facilitates comparisons and cross-references between codes and data, and provides flexibility and adaptability. In summary, a codebook promotes structured, consistent, and efficient data analysis, improving traceability and identification of relationships and patterns.
A Codebook is also very useful for discourse analysis in MAXQDA. Here are some reasons why:
In summary, a well-designed codebook in MAXQDA promotes structured, consistent, and efficient data analysis.
MAXQDA offers a wide range of visualization tools to help you present your research data in an engaging and meaningful way. These include not only different types of charts, such as bar or pie charts for visualizing numerical data, but also other innovative visualization tools that help you identify and analyze complex relationships.
With the Code Matrix Browser , in MAXQDA, you can visually display and analyze the occurrence of codes in your data. This feature is invaluable for identifying similarities, differences, and patterns in discourse. Here are some of the ways the Code Matrix Browser can help you:
The Code Relations Browser , in MAXQDA allows you to visually display and analyze the connections and dependencies between the codes in your discourse. This feature is extremely valuable for understanding the interactions and hierarchy between codes. Here are some of the ways the Code Relations Browser can help you:
The Code Map in MAXQDA visualizes selected codes as a map, showing the similarity of codes based on overlaps in the data material. Each code is represented by a circle, and the distance between the circles indicates their similarity. Larger circles represent more instances of coding with the code. Colors can highlight group membership, and connecting lines indicate overlap between codes, with thicker lines indicating more significant overlap. Visualizing the similarities between codes in the data provides an overview of different discursive elements. Grouping codes into clusters allows for the identification of specific discourse themes or dimensions. The connecting lines also show how codes interact and which codes frequently appear together. This allows for a detailed examination of the relationships between discursive elements, facilitating the interpretation and analysis of the discourse.
The Document Map visualizes selected documents like a map. The positioning of the circles on the map is based on the similarity of the code assignments between the documents. Documents with similar code mappings are placed closer together, while those with different code mappings are placed further apart. Variable values from the documents can be used to determine similarity. Optionally, similar documents can be color-coded. Larger circles represent documents with more of the analyzed codes. The Document Map is a useful tool for visually grouping cases and can be used for typing or further investigation of the identified groups. The Document Map can be used in several ways in discourse analysis:
The Profile Comparison Chart MAXQDA allows you to select multiple documents and compare the use of codes within those documents. This comparison allows you to identify differences or similarities in discourse between the selected documents. Below are some steps for using the Profile Comparison Chart:
The Document Portrait feature in MAXQDA allows you to visually represent important features, themes, or characteristics of a document by visualizing the sequence of coding within that document. This feature allows you to identify relevant aspects of the discourse and analyze their weight in this particular document. Below are some steps for using the Document Portrait:
The Codeline is a powerful tool in MAXQDA that allows you to visually represent the use of different codes within a document. By displaying the sequence of codes, you can see the flow and development of the discourse. With the Codeline, you can not only see which codes were used in specific sections of the document, but you can also track the progression of codings within a document. This allows you to identify crucial stages, turning points, or focal points in the discourse. The Codeline also allows you to analyze coded segments over time. You can examine specific codes and their occurrences or changes over time. This allows you to examine and interpret trends, patterns, or changes in the discourse more closely. The Codeline is therefore a valuable tool for considering the temporal progression and development of discourse in your analysis. By analyzing coded segments over time, you can gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics and context of the discourse, leading to more informed interpretations.
The Word Cloud is a powerful visualization tool in MAXQDA that helps you visually represent frequently occurring words or terms in the discourse. By looking at the size or weight of the words in the Word Cloud, you can quickly see which terms are particularly prevalent or significant in the discourse. By analyzing the Word Cloud, you can identify key terms in the discourse and examine their weight or frequency in relation to other terms. This allows you to identify and understand important themes, trends, or focuses in the discourse. In addition, you can use the Word Cloud to identify connections between different terms. If certain words occur frequently together or are used in similar contexts, you can identify associations or links in the discourse. The Word Cloud is thus a valuable tool for getting a quick and clear representation of the most common words or terms in the discourse. By analyzing the key terms and their weighting, you can gain important insights into the content and structure of the discourse and make a well-informed interpretation.
We offer a variety of free learning materials to help you get started with MAXQDA. Check out our Getting Started Guide to get a quick overview of MAXQDA and step-by-step instructions on setting up your software and creating your first project with your brand new QDA software. In addition, the free Literature Reviews Guide explains how to conduct a literature review with MAXQDA.
Getting Started with MAXQDA
Literature Reviews with MAXQDA
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“Methods and Approaches of Discourse Analysis” article serves as a gateway for readers interested in the complex ways that language influences and reflects social structures. The article details various analytical frameworks and methodologies used in Discourse Analysis (DA), ranging from Content Analysis and Conversation Analysis to more critical perspectives like Foucauldian Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis . Each approach is carefully outlined to show how it contributes to understanding language in texts and social interactions, whether through quantitative measurement of language features or qualitative interpretations of textual meanings. Additionally, the article addresses the significance of methodological diversity in DA, including mixed methods approaches that combine qualitative depth with quantitative breadth, offering a richer, more comprehensive understanding of discourse. This introductory guide not only equips readers with the knowledge of different DA methods but also emphasizes the importance of rigorous data collection, ethical considerations, and the thoughtful analysis necessary to explore the powerful role of language in shaping human experience and social order.
2) conversation analysis (ca), 3) critical discourse analysis (cda), 4) ethnography of communication, 5) foucauldian discourse analysis, 6) narrative analysis, 7) multimodal discourse analysis, 8) corpus linguistics, 1) qualitative approaches, 2) quantitative approaches, 3) differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches, 4) mixed methods in da, 1) data collection and analysis, 2) coding and categorizing data, 3) ethical considerations, frequently asked questions, 1. analytical frameworks.
Discourse Analysis (DA) encompasses a variety of methods and approaches for examining language use across texts, talks, and social practices . These methods vary widely depending on the theoretical perspective and the specific objectives of the research. Below are some key methods and approaches used in Discourse Analysis:
This method involves systematically categorizing the content of texts (which could be written texts, speech, or other forms of communication) to quantify certain aspects, such as the frequency of certain words, phrases, themes, or concepts. Content analysis can be both qualitative and quantitative and is useful for analyzing large volumes of text to identify patterns or trends.
CA is a methodological approach that focuses on the detailed, systematic study of the talk in interaction . It examines the sequential organization of speech to understand how participants in a conversation manage turn-taking, repair, openings, closings, and how they achieve mutual understanding. CA is particularly interested in the procedural aspects of conversation and how social actions are accomplished through talk.
CDA is an approach that aims to understand the relationship between discourse and social power . It analyzes how discourse structures (such as texts, talks, or visual images) serve to establish, maintain, or challenge power relations within society. CDA pays close attention to the ways in which language is used to represent different social groups and interests, often focusing on issues of ideology , identity , and hegemony.
This approach combines ethnographic methods with the analysis of discourse, focusing on the ways in which language use is embedded within cultural contexts . Researchers adopting this method study communication practices within their socio-cultural settings to understand the norms, values, and expectations that govern how language is used in specific communities.
Inspired by the work of Michel Foucault , this approach examines how discourses construct subjects, objects, and knowledge within specific historical and social contexts . It is concerned with the rules and practices that produce discourses, how discourses are related to power and knowledge , and the effects they have on society and individual subjects.
Narrative analysis focuses on the ways in which people use stories to make sense of their experiences and the world around them. This method examines the structure, content, and function of narratives to understand how individuals construct identities and social realities through storytelling.
With the recognition that communication is not only verbal but also involves other modes (such as visual, audio, gestural), multimodal discourse analysis studies how these different modes interact and contribute to the meaning-making process. It is particularly relevant in the analysis of digital media, advertising, and other forms of communication that use multiple semiotic resources.
While not exclusively a method of discourse analysis, corpus linguistics involves analyzing large collections of texts (corpora) using computational tools to identify patterns, frequencies, collocations, and other linguistic features. This method can support discourse analysis by providing empirical evidence of language use across different contexts .
Each of these methods and approaches brings a unique perspective to the study of discourse, allowing researchers to explore the complex ways in which language shapes and is shaped by social reality . The choice of method often depends on the research questions, the data available, and the theoretical framework guiding the analysis.
Discourse Analysis (DA) can be approached through qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods, depending on the research objectives, the nature of the data, and the theoretical framework adopted. Understanding these different approaches and how they can be integrated provides a comprehensive toolkit for researchers in the field.
Qualitative approaches to DA focus on the interpretation of textual or spoken data to understand the underlying meanings, themes, and patterns within a discourse. This method is less about counting occurrences and more about understanding the context, the social practices, and the power relations that discourse reflects and constructs. Qualitative DA is deeply concerned with the nuances of language use, such as metaphors, narrative structures, and the ways in which language constructs identities and social realities.
Applications: Qualitative DA is often used in studies where the goal is to explore the complexities of discourse in shaping social phenomena, such as identity formation, social inequality , or cultural practices. Methods like Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Conversation Analysis (CA) typically adopt a qualitative approach.
Quantitative approaches to DA involve the systematic coding and counting of features within texts or spoken language to identify patterns, frequencies, and correlations. This method relies on statistical analysis to draw conclusions about the data, offering a more objective measurement of discourse patterns.
Applications: Quantitative DA is suitable for studies aiming to generalize findings from a larger corpus of text or speech. It can be used to track changes in discourse over time, compare discourse across different groups, or measure the prevalence of certain linguistic features. Content analysis and corpus linguistics are examples of methods that can be applied quantitatively.
Mixed methods involve the combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches in the analysis of discourse. This integration allows for a more comprehensive understanding of discourse by leveraging the strengths of both methodologies.
Applications: Mixed methods can be particularly useful when researchers seek to explore a complex research question that requires both an in-depth understanding of contextual meanings (qualitative) and the generalizability or measurement of certain features across a larger dataset (quantitative). For example, a mixed-methods study might first use qualitative methods to explore the themes and narratives within a set of interviews and then apply quantitative methods to measure how frequently certain themes appear across a broader range of texts.
Advantages: Mixed methods in DA offer a robust framework for research, allowing researchers to validate findings through triangulation, enrich the analysis by combining insights from different methodological perspectives, and provide a more nuanced understanding of the phenomena under study.
In summary, the choice between qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods in Discourse Analysis depends on the research questions, the nature of the data, and the goals of the study. Each approach offers unique insights and has its place in the comprehensive study of discourse.
Discourse Analysis (DA) involves a meticulous process of data collection and analysis, with careful consideration of the types of texts or corpora selected, the methodologies employed for coding and categorizing data, and adherence to ethical standards. Here’s an overview:
In DA, data can comprise a wide variety of texts, including written documents (books, articles, social media posts), spoken language (interviews, conversations, speeches), or multimodal texts (videos, images with captions). The choice of data depends on the research question and the theoretical framework guiding the analysis.
Selecting Texts and Corpora The selection of texts or corpora is a critical step in DA. Researchers must choose texts that are representative of the discourse being studied, considering factors such as genre, context, and the social practices they reflect. For instance, a study on political discourse might analyze speeches and social media posts of political figures, while research on medical discourse might examine patient-doctor conversations and medical textbooks. It’s essential to justify the selection of texts to ensure the study’s relevance and reliability.
Analyzing the Data Analysis in DA varies widely across different approaches but generally involves closely reading and interpreting the text to uncover patterns, themes, meanings, and structures. This might involve identifying discourse strategies, narrative structures, rhetorical devices, or specific uses of language that reveal underlying ideologies, power relations, or social identities .
Coding involves systematically labeling segments of the text to identify specific features or themes. This can be done manually or with the help of software. Coding can be inductive, emerging from the data itself, or deductive, based on pre-existing theoretical frameworks.
Categorizing involves grouping coded segments into broader categories that reflect major themes, concepts, or discourse strategies identified in the analysis. This process helps in structuring the analysis and facilitating the interpretation of how language functions within the texts.
Ethical considerations in DA are paramount, especially when dealing with sensitive topics or personal data. Key ethical concerns include:
Overall, DA requires a thoughtful and rigorous approach to data collection, analysis, coding, and ethical practices. These steps ensure that the research is robust, reliable, and respectful of the communities and discourses it aims to understand.
In conclusion, the analytical frameworks of Discourse Analysis (DA) present a rich tapestry of methodologies that enable researchers to delve into the complexities of language and its role in shaping social phenomena. From qualitative approaches that unveil nuanced meanings embedded within discourse to quantitative methods that uncover patterns and frequencies, each framework contributes to a comprehensive understanding of language use. Moreover, the integration of mixed methods offers a holistic approach, bridging the qualitative-depth and quantitative-breadth to provide multifaceted insights into discourse analysis. As researchers navigate the terrain of data collection, analysis, and ethical considerations, they engage in a rigorous process that not only illuminates the mechanisms of discourse but also upholds principles of integrity and respect. Ultimately, these analytical frameworks serve as invaluable tools for unraveling the multifaceted nature of language and its profound impact on society, paving the way for deeper insights and transformative understanding.
DA is a field that examines language use across texts, talks, and social practices to uncover how language shapes and is shaped by social reality. It incorporates various methods and approaches, influenced by theoretical perspectives and research objectives.
Key methods include Content Analysis, Conversation Analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis, Ethnography of Communication , Foucauldian Discourse Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Multimodal Discourse Analysis, and Corpus Linguistics. Each method offers a unique lens for analyzing discourse.
Content Analysis systematically categorizes text content to quantify aspects like word frequencies, themes, or concepts. It can be qualitative or quantitative and is ideal for analyzing large volumes of text to identify patterns.
CA focuses on the detailed study of talk in interaction, examining how participants manage conversation through turn-taking, repair, and achieving mutual understanding. It emphasizes the procedural aspects of conversation and social action accomplishment.
CDA aims to understand the relationship between discourse and social power, analyzing discourse structures to see how they establish, maintain, or challenge power relations. It explores language use in representing social groups and focuses on ideology, identity, and hegemony.
This approach merges ethnographic methods with discourse analysis, studying how language use is embedded in cultural contexts. It aims to understand the norms, values, and expectations governing language use in specific communities.
Inspired by Michel Foucault, this approach examines how discourses construct subjects, objects, and knowledge within historical and social contexts. It focuses on discourse production rules, power-knowledge relations, and societal effects.
Narrative Analysis studies how people use stories to construct identities and realities, examining narrative structure, content, and function to understand storytelling’s role in experience interpretation.
Recognizing that communication involves various modes (visual, audio, gestural), this analysis studies how different modes interact and contribute to meaning-making, especially in digital media and advertising.
Although not exclusively for DA, Corpus Linguistics analyzes large text collections using computational tools to identify linguistic patterns, frequencies, and features, providing empirical language use evidence across contexts.
Qualitative approaches focus on interpreting textual or spoken data to understand underlying meanings and contexts. In contrast, quantitative approaches involve systematic coding and counting of text features to identify patterns and correlations. Mixed methods combine both to offer a comprehensive discourse understanding.
Ethical considerations include obtaining informed consent, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality, considering research impact, and being reflexive about biases and power dynamics in the research process.
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The “big 6” methods + examples.
By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (D.Tech) | May 2020 (Updated April 2023)
Qualitative data analysis methods. Wow, that’s a mouthful.
If you’re new to the world of research, qualitative data analysis can look rather intimidating. So much bulky terminology and so many abstract, fluffy concepts. It certainly can be a minefield!
Don’t worry – in this post, we’ll unpack the most popular analysis methods , one at a time, so that you can approach your analysis with confidence and competence – whether that’s for a dissertation, thesis or really any kind of research project.
To understand qualitative data analysis, we need to first understand qualitative data – so let’s step back and ask the question, “what exactly is qualitative data?”.
Qualitative data refers to pretty much any data that’s “not numbers” . In other words, it’s not the stuff you measure using a fixed scale or complex equipment, nor do you analyse it using complex statistics or mathematics.
So, if it’s not numbers, what is it?
Words, you guessed? Well… sometimes , yes. Qualitative data can, and often does, take the form of interview transcripts, documents and open-ended survey responses – but it can also involve the interpretation of images and videos. In other words, qualitative isn’t just limited to text-based data.
So, how’s that different from quantitative data, you ask?
Simply put, qualitative research focuses on words, descriptions, concepts or ideas – while quantitative research focuses on numbers and statistics . Qualitative research investigates the “softer side” of things to explore and describe , while quantitative research focuses on the “hard numbers”, to measure differences between variables and the relationships between them. If you’re keen to learn more about the differences between qual and quant, we’ve got a detailed post over here .
So, qualitative analysis is easier than quantitative, right?
Not quite. In many ways, qualitative data can be challenging and time-consuming to analyse and interpret. At the end of your data collection phase (which itself takes a lot of time), you’ll likely have many pages of text-based data or hours upon hours of audio to work through. You might also have subtle nuances of interactions or discussions that have danced around in your mind, or that you scribbled down in messy field notes. All of this needs to work its way into your analysis.
Making sense of all of this is no small task and you shouldn’t underestimate it. Long story short – qualitative analysis can be a lot of work! Of course, quantitative analysis is no piece of cake either, but it’s important to recognise that qualitative analysis still requires a significant investment in terms of time and effort.
In this post, we’ll explore qualitative data analysis by looking at some of the most common analysis methods we encounter. We’re not going to cover every possible qualitative method and we’re not going to go into heavy detail – we’re just going to give you the big picture. That said, we will of course includes links to loads of extra resources so that you can learn more about whichever analysis method interests you.
Without further delay, let’s get into it.
There are many different types of qualitative data analysis, all of which serve different purposes and have unique strengths and weaknesses . We’ll start by outlining the analysis methods and then we’ll dive into the details for each.
The 6 most popular methods (or at least the ones we see at Grad Coach) are:
Let’s take a look at each of them…
Content analysis is possibly the most common and straightforward QDA method. At the simplest level, content analysis is used to evaluate patterns within a piece of content (for example, words, phrases or images) or across multiple pieces of content or sources of communication. For example, a collection of newspaper articles or political speeches.
With content analysis, you could, for instance, identify the frequency with which an idea is shared or spoken about – like the number of times a Kardashian is mentioned on Twitter. Or you could identify patterns of deeper underlying interpretations – for instance, by identifying phrases or words in tourist pamphlets that highlight India as an ancient country.
Because content analysis can be used in such a wide variety of ways, it’s important to go into your analysis with a very specific question and goal, or you’ll get lost in the fog. With content analysis, you’ll group large amounts of text into codes , summarise these into categories, and possibly even tabulate the data to calculate the frequency of certain concepts or variables. Because of this, content analysis provides a small splash of quantitative thinking within a qualitative method.
Naturally, while content analysis is widely useful, it’s not without its drawbacks . One of the main issues with content analysis is that it can be very time-consuming , as it requires lots of reading and re-reading of the texts. Also, because of its multidimensional focus on both qualitative and quantitative aspects, it is sometimes accused of losing important nuances in communication.
Content analysis also tends to concentrate on a very specific timeline and doesn’t take into account what happened before or after that timeline. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing though – just something to be aware of. So, keep these factors in mind if you’re considering content analysis. Every analysis method has its limitations , so don’t be put off by these – just be aware of them ! If you’re interested in learning more about content analysis, the video below provides a good starting point.
As the name suggests, narrative analysis is all about listening to people telling stories and analysing what that means . Since stories serve a functional purpose of helping us make sense of the world, we can gain insights into the ways that people deal with and make sense of reality by analysing their stories and the ways they’re told.
You could, for example, use narrative analysis to explore whether how something is being said is important. For instance, the narrative of a prisoner trying to justify their crime could provide insight into their view of the world and the justice system. Similarly, analysing the ways entrepreneurs talk about the struggles in their careers or cancer patients telling stories of hope could provide powerful insights into their mindsets and perspectives . Simply put, narrative analysis is about paying attention to the stories that people tell – and more importantly, the way they tell them.
Of course, the narrative approach has its weaknesses , too. Sample sizes are generally quite small due to the time-consuming process of capturing narratives. Because of this, along with the multitude of social and lifestyle factors which can influence a subject, narrative analysis can be quite difficult to reproduce in subsequent research. This means that it’s difficult to test the findings of some of this research.
Similarly, researcher bias can have a strong influence on the results here, so you need to be particularly careful about the potential biases you can bring into your analysis when using this method. Nevertheless, narrative analysis is still a very useful qualitative analysis method – just keep these limitations in mind and be careful not to draw broad conclusions . If you’re keen to learn more about narrative analysis, the video below provides a great introduction to this qualitative analysis method.
Discourse is simply a fancy word for written or spoken language or debate . So, discourse analysis is all about analysing language within its social context. In other words, analysing language – such as a conversation, a speech, etc – within the culture and society it takes place. For example, you could analyse how a janitor speaks to a CEO, or how politicians speak about terrorism.
To truly understand these conversations or speeches, the culture and history of those involved in the communication are important factors to consider. For example, a janitor might speak more casually with a CEO in a company that emphasises equality among workers. Similarly, a politician might speak more about terrorism if there was a recent terrorist incident in the country.
So, as you can see, by using discourse analysis, you can identify how culture , history or power dynamics (to name a few) have an effect on the way concepts are spoken about. So, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding culture or power dynamics, discourse analysis can be a powerful method.
Because there are many social influences in terms of how we speak to each other, the potential use of discourse analysis is vast . Of course, this also means it’s important to have a very specific research question (or questions) in mind when analysing your data and looking for patterns and themes, or you might land up going down a winding rabbit hole.
Discourse analysis can also be very time-consuming as you need to sample the data to the point of saturation – in other words, until no new information and insights emerge. But this is, of course, part of what makes discourse analysis such a powerful technique. So, keep these factors in mind when considering this QDA method. Again, if you’re keen to learn more, the video below presents a good starting point.
Thematic analysis looks at patterns of meaning in a data set – for example, a set of interviews or focus group transcripts. But what exactly does that… mean? Well, a thematic analysis takes bodies of data (which are often quite large) and groups them according to similarities – in other words, themes . These themes help us make sense of the content and derive meaning from it.
Let’s take a look at an example.
With thematic analysis, you could analyse 100 online reviews of a popular sushi restaurant to find out what patrons think about the place. By reviewing the data, you would then identify the themes that crop up repeatedly within the data – for example, “fresh ingredients” or “friendly wait staff”.
So, as you can see, thematic analysis can be pretty useful for finding out about people’s experiences , views, and opinions . Therefore, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding people’s experience or view of something, thematic analysis can be a great choice.
Since thematic analysis is a bit of an exploratory process, it’s not unusual for your research questions to develop , or even change as you progress through the analysis. While this is somewhat natural in exploratory research, it can also be seen as a disadvantage as it means that data needs to be re-reviewed each time a research question is adjusted. In other words, thematic analysis can be quite time-consuming – but for a good reason. So, keep this in mind if you choose to use thematic analysis for your project and budget extra time for unexpected adjustments.
Grounded theory is a powerful qualitative analysis method where the intention is to create a new theory (or theories) using the data at hand, through a series of “ tests ” and “ revisions ”. Strictly speaking, GT is more a research design type than an analysis method, but we’ve included it here as it’s often referred to as a method.
What’s most important with grounded theory is that you go into the analysis with an open mind and let the data speak for itself – rather than dragging existing hypotheses or theories into your analysis. In other words, your analysis must develop from the ground up (hence the name).
Let’s look at an example of GT in action.
Assume you’re interested in developing a theory about what factors influence students to watch a YouTube video about qualitative analysis. Using Grounded theory , you’d start with this general overarching question about the given population (i.e., graduate students). First, you’d approach a small sample – for example, five graduate students in a department at a university. Ideally, this sample would be reasonably representative of the broader population. You’d interview these students to identify what factors lead them to watch the video.
After analysing the interview data, a general pattern could emerge. For example, you might notice that graduate students are more likely to read a post about qualitative methods if they are just starting on their dissertation journey, or if they have an upcoming test about research methods.
From here, you’ll look for another small sample – for example, five more graduate students in a different department – and see whether this pattern holds true for them. If not, you’ll look for commonalities and adapt your theory accordingly. As this process continues, the theory would develop . As we mentioned earlier, what’s important with grounded theory is that the theory develops from the data – not from some preconceived idea.
So, what are the drawbacks of grounded theory? Well, some argue that there’s a tricky circularity to grounded theory. For it to work, in principle, you should know as little as possible regarding the research question and population, so that you reduce the bias in your interpretation. However, in many circumstances, it’s also thought to be unwise to approach a research question without knowledge of the current literature . In other words, it’s a bit of a “chicken or the egg” situation.
Regardless, grounded theory remains a popular (and powerful) option. Naturally, it’s a very useful method when you’re researching a topic that is completely new or has very little existing research about it, as it allows you to start from scratch and work your way from the ground up .
Interpretive. Phenomenological. Analysis. IPA . Try saying that three times fast…
Let’s just stick with IPA, okay?
IPA is designed to help you understand the personal experiences of a subject (for example, a person or group of people) concerning a major life event, an experience or a situation . This event or experience is the “phenomenon” that makes up the “P” in IPA. Such phenomena may range from relatively common events – such as motherhood, or being involved in a car accident – to those which are extremely rare – for example, someone’s personal experience in a refugee camp. So, IPA is a great choice if your research involves analysing people’s personal experiences of something that happened to them.
It’s important to remember that IPA is subject – centred . In other words, it’s focused on the experiencer . This means that, while you’ll likely use a coding system to identify commonalities, it’s important not to lose the depth of experience or meaning by trying to reduce everything to codes. Also, keep in mind that since your sample size will generally be very small with IPA, you often won’t be able to draw broad conclusions about the generalisability of your findings. But that’s okay as long as it aligns with your research aims and objectives.
Another thing to be aware of with IPA is personal bias . While researcher bias can creep into all forms of research, self-awareness is critically important with IPA, as it can have a major impact on the results. For example, a researcher who was a victim of a crime himself could insert his own feelings of frustration and anger into the way he interprets the experience of someone who was kidnapped. So, if you’re going to undertake IPA, you need to be very self-aware or you could muddy the analysis.
In light of all of the qualitative analysis methods we’ve covered so far, you’re probably asking yourself the question, “ How do I choose the right one? ”
Much like all the other methodological decisions you’ll need to make, selecting the right qualitative analysis method largely depends on your research aims, objectives and questions . In other words, the best tool for the job depends on what you’re trying to build. For example:
As you can probably see, each of these research aims are distinctly different , and therefore different analysis methods would be suitable for each one. For example, narrative analysis would likely be a good option for the first aim, while grounded theory wouldn’t be as relevant.
It’s also important to remember that each method has its own set of strengths, weaknesses and general limitations. No single analysis method is perfect . So, depending on the nature of your research, it may make sense to adopt more than one method (this is called triangulation ). Keep in mind though that this will of course be quite time-consuming.
As we’ve seen, all of the qualitative analysis methods we’ve discussed make use of coding and theme-generating techniques, but the intent and approach of each analysis method differ quite substantially. So, it’s very important to come into your research with a clear intention before you decide which analysis method (or methods) to use.
Start by reviewing your research aims , objectives and research questions to assess what exactly you’re trying to find out – then select a qualitative analysis method that fits. Never pick a method just because you like it or have experience using it – your analysis method (or methods) must align with your broader research aims and objectives.
In this post, we looked at six popular qualitative data analysis methods:
Of course, these aren’t the only options when it comes to qualitative data analysis, but they’re a great starting point if you’re dipping your toes into qualitative research for the first time.
If you’re still feeling a bit confused, consider our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the research process to help you develop your best work.
This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...
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Very insightful and useful
Good work done with clear explanations. Thank you.
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Thanks madam . It is very important .
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This has been very well explained in simple language . It is useful even for a new researcher.
Great to hear that. Good luck with your qualitative data analysis, Pramod!
This is very useful information. And it was very a clear language structured presentation. Thanks a lot.
Thank you so much.
very informative sequential presentation
Precise explanation of method.
Hi, may we use 2 data analysis methods in our qualitative research?
Thanks for your comment. Most commonly, one would use one type of analysis method, but it depends on your research aims and objectives.
You explained it in very simple language, everyone can understand it. Thanks so much.
Thank you very much, this is very helpful. It has been explained in a very simple manner that even a layman understands
Thank nicely explained can I ask is Qualitative content analysis the same as thematic analysis?
Thanks for your comment. No, QCA and thematic are two different types of analysis. This article might help clarify – https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nhs.12048
This is my first time to come across a well explained data analysis. so helpful.
I have thoroughly enjoyed your explanation of the six qualitative analysis methods. This is very helpful. Thank you!
Thank you very much, this is well explained and useful
i need a citation of your book.
Thanks a lot , remarkable indeed, enlighting to the best
Hi Derek, What other theories/methods would you recommend when the data is a whole speech?
Keep writing useful artikel.
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The session was very helpful and insightful. Thank you
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Very insightful. Please, which of this approach could be used for a research that one is trying to elicit students’ misconceptions in a particular concept ?
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great overview
What do we call a research data analysis method that one use to advise or determining the best accounting tool or techniques that should be adopted in a company.
Informative video, explained in a clear and simple way. Kudos
Waoo! I have chosen method wrong for my data analysis. But I can revise my work according to this guide. Thank you so much for this helpful lecture.
This has been very helpful. It gave me a good view of my research objectives and how to choose the best method. Thematic analysis it is.
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very educative
Nicely written especially for novice academic researchers like me! Thank you.
choosing a right method for a paper is always a hard job for a student, this is a useful information, but it would be more useful personally for me, if the author provide me with a little bit more information about the data analysis techniques in type of explanatory research. Can we use qualitative content analysis technique for explanatory research ? or what is the suitable data analysis method for explanatory research in social studies?
that was very helpful for me. because these details are so important to my research. thank you very much
I learnt a lot. Thank you
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Clear explanation on qualitative and how about Case study
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This was so helpful as it was easy to understand. I’m a new to research thank you so much.
so educative…. but Ijust want to know which method is coding of the qualitative or tallying done?
Thank you for the great content, I have learnt a lot. So helpful
precise and clear presentation with simple language and thank you for that.
very informative content, thank you.
You guys are amazing on YouTube on this platform. Your teachings are great, educative, and informative. kudos!
Brilliant Delivery. You made a complex subject seem so easy. Well done.
Beautifully explained.
Thanks a lot
Is there a video the captures the practical process of coding using automated applications?
Thanks for the comment. We don’t recommend using automated applications for coding, as they are not sufficiently accurate in our experience.
content analysis can be qualitative research?
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
Thank you very much for such a wonderful content
do you have any material on Data collection
What a powerful explanation of the QDA methods. Thank you.
Great explanation both written and Video. i have been using of it on a day to day working of my thesis project in accounting and finance. Thank you very much for your support.
very helpful, thank you so much
The tutorial is useful. I benefited a lot.
This is an eye opener for me and very informative, I have used some of your guidance notes on my Thesis, I wonder if you can assist with your 1. name of your book, year of publication, topic etc., this is for citing in my Bibliography,
I certainly hope to hear from you
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Methodology
Published on September 6, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.
Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data . It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or transcripts . The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.
There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up. Following this process can also help you avoid confirmation bias when formulating your analysis.
This process was originally developed for psychology research by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke . However, thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to many different kinds of research.
When to use thematic analysis, different approaches to thematic analysis, step 1: familiarization, step 2: coding, step 3: generating themes, step 4: reviewing themes, step 5: defining and naming themes, step 6: writing up, other interesting articles.
Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where you’re trying to find out something about people’s views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data – for example, interview transcripts , social media profiles, or survey responses .
Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:
To answer any of these questions, you would collect data from a group of relevant participants and then analyze it. Thematic analysis allows you a lot of flexibility in interpreting the data, and allows you to approach large data sets more easily by sorting them into broad themes.
However, it also involves the risk of missing nuances in the data. Thematic analysis is often quite subjective and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your own choices and interpretations.
Pay close attention to the data to ensure that you’re not picking up on things that are not there – or obscuring things that are.
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Once you’ve decided to use thematic analysis, there are different approaches to consider.
There’s the distinction between inductive and deductive approaches:
Ask yourself: Does my theoretical framework give me a strong idea of what kind of themes I expect to find in the data (deductive), or am I planning to develop my own framework based on what I find (inductive)?
There’s also the distinction between a semantic and a latent approach:
Ask yourself: Am I interested in people’s stated opinions (semantic) or in what their statements reveal about their assumptions and social context (latent)?
After you’ve decided thematic analysis is the right method for analyzing your data, and you’ve thought about the approach you’re going to take, you can follow the six steps developed by Braun and Clarke .
The first step is to get to know our data. It’s important to get a thorough overview of all the data we collected before we start analyzing individual items.
This might involve transcribing audio , reading through the text and taking initial notes, and generally looking through the data to get familiar with it.
Next up, we need to code the data. Coding means highlighting sections of our text – usually phrases or sentences – and coming up with shorthand labels or “codes” to describe their content.
Let’s take a short example text. Say we’re researching perceptions of climate change among conservative voters aged 50 and up, and we have collected data through a series of interviews. An extract from one interview looks like this:
Interview extract | Codes |
---|---|
Personally, I’m not sure. I think the climate is changing, sure, but I don’t know why or how. People say you should trust the experts, but who’s to say they don’t have their own reasons for pushing this narrative? I’m not saying they’re wrong, I’m just saying there’s reasons not to 100% trust them. The facts keep changing – it used to be called global warming. |
In this extract, we’ve highlighted various phrases in different colors corresponding to different codes. Each code describes the idea or feeling expressed in that part of the text.
At this stage, we want to be thorough: we go through the transcript of every interview and highlight everything that jumps out as relevant or potentially interesting. As well as highlighting all the phrases and sentences that match these codes, we can keep adding new codes as we go through the text.
After we’ve been through the text, we collate together all the data into groups identified by code. These codes allow us to gain a a condensed overview of the main points and common meanings that recur throughout the data.
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Next, we look over the codes we’ve created, identify patterns among them, and start coming up with themes.
Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, you’ll combine several codes into a single theme. In our example, we might start combining codes into themes like this:
Codes | Theme |
---|---|
Uncertainty | |
Distrust of experts | |
Misinformation |
At this stage, we might decide that some of our codes are too vague or not relevant enough (for example, because they don’t appear very often in the data), so they can be discarded.
Other codes might become themes in their own right. In our example, we decided that the code “uncertainty” made sense as a theme, with some other codes incorporated into it.
Again, what we decide will vary according to what we’re trying to find out. We want to create potential themes that tell us something helpful about the data for our purposes.
Now we have to make sure that our themes are useful and accurate representations of the data. Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against it. Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in the data? What can we change to make our themes work better?
If we encounter problems with our themes, we might split them up, combine them, discard them or create new ones: whatever makes them more useful and accurate.
For example, we might decide upon looking through the data that “changing terminology” fits better under the “uncertainty” theme than under “distrust of experts,” since the data labelled with this code involves confusion, not necessarily distrust.
Now that you have a final list of themes, it’s time to name and define each of them.
Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data.
Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily understandable name for each theme.
For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine exactly who we mean by “experts” in this theme. We might decide that a better name for the theme is “distrust of authority” or “conspiracy thinking”.
Finally, we’ll write up our analysis of the data. Like all academic texts, writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish our research question, aims and approach.
We should also include a methodology section, describing how we collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or open-ended survey questions ) and explaining how we conducted the thematic analysis itself.
The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn. We describe how often the themes come up and what they mean, including examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our conclusion explains the main takeaways and shows how the analysis has answered our research question.
In our example, we might argue that conspiracy thinking about climate change is widespread among older conservative voters, point out the uncertainty with which many voters view the issue, and discuss the role of misinformation in respondents’ perceptions.
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
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Caulfield, J. (2023, June 22). How to Do Thematic Analysis | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/thematic-analysis/
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