acknowledges …
takes as its focus …
is concerned with …
is exploratory in nature.
lacks clarity regarding …
pays particular attention to
seems to have been based on …
has emphasised the importance of …
perpetuates out-of-date notions of …
is extensive and focuses particularly on …
Research into X has a long history. For many years, this phenomenon was surprisingly neglected by … Only in the past ten years have studies of X directly addressed how … Prior to the work of Smith (1983), the role of X was largely unknown. Over the past decade, most research in X has emphasized the use of … In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on … Early examples of research into X include … (Smith, 1962; Jones, 1974). During the past 30 years, much more information has become available on … The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with … Over the past two decades, major advances in molecular biology have allowed … Historically, research investigating the factors associated with X has focused on … It is only since the work of Smith (2001) that the study of X has gained momentum. The construct of X was first articulated by Smith (1977) and popularised in his book: … Around the early 1960s, small-scale research and case studies began to emerge linking … It was not until the late 1960s that historians considered X worthy of scholarly attention. Awareness of X is not recent, having possibly first been described in the 5th century BCE by …
Most research on X has been carried out in … Most researchers investigating X have utilised … Using this approach, researchers have been able to … Several systematic reviews of X have been undertaken. The vast majority of studies on X have been quantitative. What we know about X is largely based on observational studies. There are a number of large cross-sectional studies which suggest … Much of the previous research on X has been exploratory in nature. Much of the X research has focused on identifying and evaluating the … What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate … Publications that concentrate on X more frequently adopt a historical or chronological approach …
What we know about X is largely based upon | case clinical empirical qualitative simulation laboratory longitudinal comparative experimental observational epidemiological | studies that investigate … |
To date, several studies have investigated … A number of studies have begun to examine … Various studies have assessed the efficacy of … Researchers attempted to evaluate the impact of … A great deal of previous research into X has focused on … Several studies have used longitudinal data to examine … Previous studies have explored the relationships between X and Y. Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between … A number of authors have considered the effects of … (Smith, 2003; Jones, 2004). At least 120 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between … Numerous studies have attempted to explain … (for example, Smith, 1996; Jones, 1998; …).
Several lines of evidence suggest that … Previous research has established that … Data from several studies suggest that … Recent evidence suggests that … (Smith, 2020; …). It is now well established from a variety of studies that … New findings amongst X provides further evidence that …
A number of studies have postulated a convergence between … Recently, considerable evidence has accumulated to show that … Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (2015) have shown that … Many recent studies (e.g. Smith, 2019; Jones, 2020) have shown that … Traditionally, it has been argued that … (e.g. Smith, 1960; Jones, 1972). Several biographies of Brown have been published. Smith (2016) presents …
In previous studies on X, different variables have been found to be related to … Many historians have argued that … (e.g. Jones, 1997; Brown, 1999; Smith, 2019). There is a consensus among social scientists that … (e.g. Smith, 2019; Jones, 2020; … Data from several sources have identified the increased X and Y associated with obesity. Recently, in vitro studies have shown that X can … (Smith et al. , 2018; Jones et al. , 2021). It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to … (Smith, 2015; …).
To date, Thus far, Up to now, | several studies previous studies a number of studies | have | used … found … reported … shown that… indicated that … linked X with Y. suggested that … demonstrated that … begun to examine the use of … confirmed the effectiveness of … revealed a correlation between X and Y. highlighted factors that are associated with … |
X increases when … (Smith, 2015) X is able to affect Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020). X is positively related to Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020). X is proportional to Y as expressed by the… (Smith, 2015). X is one of the most important … (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020). X is one of the most intense reactions following Y (Jones, 2020). A relationship exists between X and Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020). X is a principal determining factor of Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020). There is an unambiguous relationship between X and Y (Smith, 2015). X is significantly reduced during the first months of … (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020). X has been found to oppose the anti-inflammatory actions of Y on Z (Smith, 2020).
Smith’s comparative study (2017) found that … Jones’s comprehensive review concluded that … Brown’s (1998) model of X assumes three main … Smith’s cross-country analysis (2017) showed that … Jones’s (2010) review of the literature concluded that … Brown’s (2022) recent analysis of X provides a strong critique of …
Smith (2015) | reported … identified … showed that … demonstrated that … found that as levels X rise … |
Jones (2015) | compared the rate of … labelled these subsets as … measured both components of the … used a survey to assess the various … investigated the differential impact of … identified parents of disabled children as … set up a series of virtual experiments using … examined the flow of international students … carried out a number of investigations into the … studied the effects of X on unprotected nerve cells. conducted a series of trials in which she mixed X with … analysed the data from 72 countries and concluded that … interviewed 250 undergraduate students using semi-structured … performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that … reviewed the literature from the period and found little evidence for this … |
In 1959, a seminal article was published entitled … Following this period, Smith actively searched for X. In the 1950s, Smith pointed to some of the ways in which … Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of X which … Almost 20 years ago, Jones (1995) formulated his X theory, centred around …
In 1990, | Smith | found that … performed the first … published a paper in which they described introduced a system of classification based on … demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to reported a new and convenient synthetic procedure to … |
One longitudinal study found that … A seminal study in this area is the work of … One study by Smith (2014) examined the trend in … A recent study by Smith and Jones (2012) involved … A qualitative study by Smith (2003) described how … A recent systematic literature review concluded that … Preliminary work on X was undertaken by Jones (1992). A longitudinal study of X by Smith (2012) reports that … A key study comparing X and Y is that of Smith (2010), in which … The first systematic study of X was reported by Smith et al. in 1986. Detailed examination of X by Smith and Jones (1961) showed that … Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith et al. (1983). A significant analysis and discussion on the subject was presented by Smith (1988). The study of the structural behaviour of X was first carried out by Jones et al. (1986). A small scale study by Smith (2015) reached different conclusions, finding no increase in … The study by Jones (1990) offers probably the most comprehensive empirical analysis of …
In a(n) | follow-up study, major study of X, investigation into X, study investigating X, comprehensive study of X, recent cross-sectional study, large-scale longitudinal study, randomised controlled study of X, study which set out to determine X randomised controlled study of X, | Smith (2015) | found … reported … |
To determine the effects of X, Jones et al . (2005) compared … X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from … (Jones et al. , 1952). The electronic spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith and Jones in 1970. X formed the central focus of a study by Smith (2002) in which the author found … To better understand the mechanisms of X and its effects, Jones (2013) analysed the … X was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov (Smith, 2002). In his seminal study … The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Y was first reported by Smith in 1872. The way in which X is regulated was studied extensively by Smith and colleagues (Smith et al. 1995 and 1998).
In Chapter 2, Smith provides us with a number of important … In the subsequent chapter, Smith examines the extent to which … By drawing on the concept of X, Smith has been able to show that … Some analysts (e.g. Smith, 2015) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between … Drawing on an extensive range of sources, the authors set out the different ways in which … Other authors (see Smith, 2010; Jones, 2014) question the usefulness of such an approach.
Smith (2000) | defines X as … questions whether … lists three reasons why … identifies X, Y, and Z as the major causes of … draws on an extensive range of sources to assess … traces the development of X during the 19th century. highlights the need to break the link between X and Y. mentions the special situation of X as an example of … uses examples of these various techniques as evidence that … draws our attention to distinctive categories of X often observed in … discusses the challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting … considers whether countries work well on cross-border issues such as … provides in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to … |
In her review of …, In her major study, In her analysis of …, In her seminal article, In her case study of …, In her introduction to …, In her classic critique of …, In her interesting analysis of …, | Smith (2012) identifies five characteristics of … |
As noted by Smith (2003) X is far more cost effective, and therefore … According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore …
Smith (2013) | argues claims suggests maintains concludes points out | that | preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world. |
Smith (2013) | offers proposes suggests argues for | an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief. |
Similarly, Jones (2015) found that X … This is consistent with the data obtained by … Smith (1995) makes a similar point in his study of X … In the same vein, Smith (1995) in his book XYZ notes This view is supported by Jones (2015) who writes that Along the same lines, Smith (1995) subsequently argued that … Smith argues that her data support Jones’s (1995) view that Jones’s (1986) work on X is complemented by Smith’s (2009) study of Almost every paper that has been written on X includes a section relating to A broadly similar point has also recently been made by Johnson (2019), who …
Smith (2015) | sees X as … argues that … | Like Smith, Jones (2016) maintains that … Similarly, Jones (2016) makes the case for … Likewise, Jones (2016) holds the view that … Supporting this view, Jones (2016) writes that … Adopting a similar position, Jones (2016) argues that … In the same vein, Jones (2016), in his book , notes … |
Other writers have argued that … Other studies have concluded that … Unlike Smith, Jones (2013) argues that In contrast to Smith, Jones (2013) argues that Smith (2010) presents an X account, whilst Jones (2011) While Smith (2008) focuses on X, Jones (2009) is more concerned with A broader perspective has been adopted by Smith (213) who argues that Contrary to previously published studies, Jones et al. demonstrated the efficacy of… This result conflicts with Smith’s (1965) previously mentioned study which found that … Conversely, Smith (2010) reported no significant difference in mortality between X and Y.
Some writers (e.g. Smith, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between … break Some authors have mainly been interested in questions concerning X and Y (Smith, 2001; Jones … break Much of the available literature on X deals with the question of … | Others (see Jones, 2003; Brown, 2004) question the usefulness of … break Others have highlighted the relevance of … break But Smith (2015) is much more concerned with … |
Smith (2015) notes that … break Smith (2013) found that X accounted for 30% of Y. | However, Jones’s (2018) study of Y found no link between … break Other researchers, however, who have looked at X, have found … Jones (2010), for example, … |
Smith (2010) presents an X account, break While Smith (2008) focusses on X, | whilst Jones (2011) … break Jones (2009) is more concerned with … |
Commenting on X, Smith (2003) argues: ‘… …’ As Smith (2004: 215) states: ‘there are many good reasons to be sceptical’. As Smith argues: ‘In the past, the purpose of education was to …’ (Smith, 2000:150). In the final part of the Theses on Feuerbach , Marx writes: ‘Philosophers have hitherto only …’ Smith concludes: ‘The idea of development stands today like a ruin in …’ (Smith, 1992: 156).
As Smith (2015: 320) | notes: ‘… … … … … ‘ argues ‘ … … … … … ‘ writes: ‘ … … … … … ‘ observes: ‘ … … … … … ‘ points out: ‘ … … … … … ‘ reminds us: ‘ … … … … … ‘ |
Together, these studies indicate that … Overall, these studies highlight the need for … Considering all of this evidence, it seems that … Collectively, these studies outline a critical role for… In all the studies reviewed here, X is recognised as … The evidence presented in this section suggests that … The studies presented thus far provide evidence that … Taken together, these studies support the notion that … Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that … Together these studies provide important insights into the … All of the studies reviewed here support the hypothesis that … Two important themes emerge from the studies discussed so far: However, such studies remain narrow in focus dealing only with … The evidence reviewed here seems to suggest a pertinent role for … These studies clearly indicate that there is a relationship between … In view of all that has been mentioned so far, one may suppose that … There remain several aspects of X about which relatively little is known.
Overall, these studies | show … suggest … provide … indicate … highlight … |
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Get your writing to flow by trying these words and phrases to link words and connect your ideas. Once you are tuned into these words, you will see them throughout academic writing.
However | Similarly /Similar to | At first/Firstly/First of all/Initially/To begin with |
Nevertheless | More generally | Following this/Prior to this |
Although | Likewise | Since |
Alternatively | Just as Smith(2001) claims…, so too does Jones (2004), who… | Before continuing |
On the other hand | Equally | Subsequently |
In contrast to this | In the same way | Finally |
Whereas | Not only…but also… | Lastly |
While Smith (2009) claims this,studies by Jones (2008) show that… | By comparison | As a conclusion / In summary/ In conclusion |
Unlike….,Green (2011) stresses that… | In a similar study… | Simultaneously |
For instance | As a result | Moreover / Furthermore |
In particular | Thus | Another reason /example / aspect |
In this case | Consequently | So |
Especially significant is | Therefore | Indeed |
As an example | An effect of this is | In addition / Additionally |
In order to argue this | Otherwise | Relating to this is… |
For example | Hence | Equally |
Specifically | Due to this | In the same way |
By way of illustration | For this reason | Above all |
In other words | This suggests that… | As well |
Download these on our helpsheet, University Speak .
4 literature review and citations/references.
Figure 4.1: Literature reviews and references
Your may have done a literature survey as part of your proposal. This will be incorporated into your dissertation, not left as separate stand-alone. Most economics papers include a literature review section, which may be a separate section, or incorporated into the paper’s introduction. (See organising for a standard format.)
Some disambiguation:
A ‘Literature survey’ paper: Some academic papers are called ‘literature surveys’. These try to summarise and discuss the existing work that has been done on a particular topic, and can be very useful. See, for example, works in The Journal of Economic Perspectives, the Journal of Economic Literature, the “Handbook of [XXX] Economics”
Many student projects and undergraduate dissertations are mainly literature surveys.
Your literature review should explain:
what has been done already to address your topic and related questions, putting your work in perspective, and
what techniques others have used, what are their strengths and weaknesses, and how might they be relevant tools for your own analysis.
Figure 4.2: Take notes on this as you read, and write them up.
Focus on literature that is relevant to your topic only.
But do not focus only on articles about your exact topic ! For example, if your paper is about the relative price of cars in the UK, you might cite papers (i) about the global automobile market, (ii) about the theory and evidence on competition in markets with similar features and (iii) using econometric techniques such as “hedonic regression” to estimate “price premia” in other markets and in other countries.
Consider: If you were Colchester a doctor and wanted to know whether a medicine would be effective for your patients, would you only consider medical studies that ran tests on Colchester residents, or would you consider more general national and international investigations?
You should aim to read and cite peer-reviewed articles in reputable economics journals. (Journals in other fields such as Finance, Marketing and Political Science may also be useful.) These papers have a certain credibility as they have been checked by several referees and one or more editors before being published. (In fact, the publication process in Economics is extremely lengthy and difficult.)
Which journals are “reputable”? Economists spend a lot of time thinking about how to rank and compare journals (there are so many papers written about this topic that they someone could start a “Journal of Ranking Economics Journals”. For example, “ REPEC ” has one ranking, and SCIMAGO/SCOPUS has another one. You may want to focus on journals ranked in the top 100 or top 200 of these rankings. If you find it very interesting and relevant paper published somewhere that is ranked below this, is okay to cite it, but you may want to be a bit more skeptical of its findings.
Any journal you find on JSTOR is respectable, and if you look in the back of your textbooks, there will be references to articles in journals, most of which are decent.
You may also find unpublished “working papers”; these may also be useful as references. However, it is more difficult to evaluate the credibility of these, as they have not been through a process of peer review. However, if the author has published well and has a good reputation, it might be more likely that these are worth reading and citing.
You may also find unpublished “working papers” or ‘mimeos’; these may also be useful as references. In fact, the publication process in Economics is so slow (six years from first working paper to publication is not uncommon) that not consulting working papers often means not being current.
However, it is more difficult to evaluate the credibility of this ‘grey literature’, as they have not been through a process of peer review. However, if the author has published well and has a good reputation, it might be more likely that these are worth reading and citing. Some working paper series are vetted, such as NBER; in terms of credibility, these might be seen as something in between a working paper and a publication.
Which of the following are “peer-reviewed articles in reputable economics journals”? Which of the following may be appropriate to cite in your literature review and in your final project? 8
Klein, G, J. (2011) “Cartel Destabilization and Leniency Programs – Empirical Evidence.” ZEW - Centre for European Economic Research Discussion Paper No. 10-107
Spencer, B. and Brander, J.A. (1983) “International R&D Rivalry and Industrial Strategy”, Review of Economic Studies Vol. 50, 707-722
Troisi, Jordan D., Andrew N. Christopher, and Pam Marek. “Materialism and money spending disposition as predictors of economic and personality variables.” North American Journal of Psychology 8.3 (2006): 421.
The Economist,. ‘Good, Bad And Ugly’. Web. 11 Apr. 2015. [accessed on…]
Mecaj, Arjola, and María Isabel González Bravo. “CSR Actions and Financial Distress: Do Firms Change Their CSR Behavior When Signals of Financial Distress Are Identified?.” Modern Economy 2014 (2014).
Universities, U. K. “Creating Prosperity: the role of higher education in driving the UK’s creative economy.” London Universities UK (2010).
You should be able to find and access all the relevant articles online. Leafing through bound volumes and photocopying should not be neededs. (Having been a student in the late 90’s and 2000’s, I wish I could get those hours back.)
Figure 4.3: The old way!
Good online tools include Jstor (jstor.org) and Google Scholar (scholar.google.co.uk). Your university should have access to Jstor, and Google is accessible to all (although the linked articles may require special access). You will usually have the ‘most access’ when logged into your university or library computing system.If you cannot access a paper, you may want to consult a reference librarian.
It is also ok, if you cannot access the journal article itself, to use the last working paper version (on Google scholar find this in the tab that says “all X versions”, where X is some number, and look for a PDF). However, authors do not always put up the most polished versions, although they should do to promote open-access. As a very last resort, you can e-mail the author and ask him or her to send you the paper.
When looking for references, try to find ones published in respected refereed economics journals (see above ).
A “survey article” is a good place to start; this is a paper that is largely a categorization and discussion of previous work on a particular topic. You can often find such papers in journals such as
These will be useful as a “catalog” of papers to read and considers citing. They are also typically very readable and offer a decent introduction to the issue or the field.
It is also helpful to consult module (course) notes and syllabi from the relevant field. Do not only limit yourself to the ones at your own university; many of universities make their course materials publicly accessible online. These will not only typically contain reading lists with well-respected and useful references, they may also contain slides and other material that will help you better understand your topic and the relevant issues.
However, be careful not to take material from course notes without properly citing it. (Better yet, try to find the original paper that the course notes are referring to.)
Textbooks serve as another extremely useful jumping off point. Look through your own textbooks and other textbooks in the right fields. Textbooks draw from, and cite a range of relevant articles and papers. (You may also want to go back to textbooks when you are finding the articles you are reading too difficult. Textbooks may present a simpler version of the material presented in an article, and explain the concepts better.)
When you find a useful paper, look for its “family.” You may want to go back to earlier, more fundamental references, by looking at the articles that this paper cited. See what is listed as “keywords” (these are usually given at the top of the paper), and “JEL codes”. Check what papers this paper cites, and check what other papers cited this paper. On Google scholar you can follow this with a link “Cited by…” below the listed article. “Related articles” is also a useful link.
Keep track of all references and citations
You may find it helpful to use software to help you manage your citations
A storage “database” of citations (e.g., Jabref, Zotero, Endnote, Mendeley); these interface well with Google Scholar and Jstor
An automatic “insert citation” and “insert bibliography” in your word processing software
Use a tool like Endnote to manage and insert the bibliographies, or use a bibliography manager software such as Zotero or Jabref,
Further discussion: Citation management tools
Put your list of references in alphabetical order by author’s last name (surname).
Include all articles and works that you cite in your paper; do not include any that you don’t cite.
Here is a definition of plagiarism
The main point is that you need to cite everything that is not your own work. Furthermore, be clear to distinguish what is your own work and your own language and what is from somewhere/someone else.
Why cite? Not just to give credit to others but to make it clear that the remaining uncited content is your own.
Here are some basic rules:
(Rephrased from University of Essex material, as seen in Department of Economics, EC100 Economics for Business Handbook 2017-18, https://www1.essex.ac.uk/economics/documents/EC100-Booklet_2017.pdf accessed on 20 July 2019, pp. 15-16)
Do not submit anything that is not your own work.
Never copy from friends.
Do not copy your own work or previously submitted work. (Caveat: If you are submitting a draft or a ‘literature review and project plan’ at an earlier stage, this can be incorporated into your final submission.
Don’t copy text directly into your work, unless:
It is not sufficient merely to add a citation for the source of copied material following the copied material (typically the end of a paragraph). You must include the copied material in quotation marks. … Ignorance … is no defence.’ (ibid, pp. 15 )
(‘Ibid’ means ‘same as the previous citation’.)
Your university may use sophisticated plagiarism-detection software. Markers may also report if the paper looks suspect
Before final submission, they may ask you to go over your draft and sign that you understand the contents and you have demonstrated that the work is your own.
Not being in touch with your supervisor may put you under suspicion.
Your university may give a Viva Voce oral exam if your work is under suspicion. It is a cool-sounding word but probably something you want to avoid.
Your university may store your work in its our database, and can pursue disciplinary action, even after you have graduated.
Penalties may be severe, including failure with no opportunity to retake the module (course). You may even risk your degree!
Comprehension questions; answers in footnotes
True or false: “If you do not directly quote a paper you do not need to cite it” 9
You should read and cite a paper (choose all that are correct)… 10
Use the right terminology.
“Johnson et al. (2000) provide an analytical framework that sheds substantial doubt on that belief. When trying to obtain a correlation between institutional efficiency and wealth per capita, they are left with largely inconclusive results.”
They are not trying to “obtain a correlation”; they are trying to measure the relationship and test hypotheses.
Don’t take everything that is in print (or written online) as gospel truth. Be skeptical and carefully evaluate the arguments and evidence presented. Try to really survey what has been written, to consider the range of opinions and the preponderance of the evidence. You also need to be careful to distinguish between “real research” and propaganda or press releases.
The returns to higher education in Atlantis are extremely high. For the majority of Atlanian students a university degree has increased their lifetime income by over 50%, as reported in the “Benefits of Higher Education” report put out by the Association of Atlantian Universities (2016).
But don’t be harsh without explanation:
Smith (2014) found a return to education in Atlantis exceeding 50%. This result is unlikely to be true because the study was not a very good one.
A theoretical economic model can not really prove anything about the real world; they typically rely on strong simplifying assumptions.
Through their economic model, they prove that as long as elites have incentives to invest in de facto power, through lobbying or corruption for example, they will invest as much as possible in order to gain favourable conditions in the future for their businesses.
In their two period model, which assumes \[details of key assumptions here\] , they find that when an elite Agent has an incentive to invest in de facto power, he invests a strictly positive amount, up to the point where marginal benefit equals marginal cost”
Empirical work does not “prove” anything (nor does it claim to).
It relies on statistical inference under specific assumptions, and an intuitive sense that evidence from one situation is likely to apply to other situations.
“As Smith et al (1999) proved using data from the 1910-1920 Scandanavian stock exchange, equity prices always increase in response to reductions in corporate tax rates.”
“Smith et al (199) estimated a VAR regression for a dynamic CAP model using data from the 1910-1920 Scandanavian stock exchange. They found a strongly statistically significant negative coefficient on corporate tax rates. This suggests that such taxes may have a negative effect on publicly traded securities. However, as their data was from a limited period with several simultaneous changes in policy, and their results are not robust to \[something here\] , further evidence is needed on this question.”
Use the language of classical 11 statistics:
Hypothesis testing, statistical significance, robustness checks, magnitudes of effects, confidence intervals.
Note that generalisation outside the data depends on an intuitive sense that evidence from one situation is likely to apply to other situations.
This policy was explained by Smith and Johnson (2002) in their research on subsidies and redistribution in higher education. Their results showed that people with higher degree have higher salaries and so pay higher taxes. Thus subsidizing higher education leads to a large social gain.
The results the student discusses seem to show an association between higher degrees and higher salaries. The student seems to imply that the education itself led to higher salaries. This has not been shown by the cited paper. Perhaps people who were able to get into higher education would earn higher salaries anyway. There are ways economists used to try to identify a “causal effect” (by the way, this widely used term is redundant as all effects must have a cause), but a mere association between two variables is not enough
As inflation was systematically lower during periods of recession, we see that too low a level of inflation increases unemployment.
Economists have long debated the nature of this “Phillips curve” relationship. There is much work trying to determine whether the association (to the extent it exists) is a causal one. We could not rule out reverse causality, or third factor that might cause changes in both variables.
Don’t write: “I accept the null hypothesis.”
Do write: “The results fail to reject the null hypothesis, in spite of a large sample size and an estimate with small standard errors” (if this is the case)
Note: The question of what to infer from acceptance/rejection of null hypotheses is a complex difficult one in Classical (as opposed to Bayesian) statistics. This difficulty is in part philosophical: classical hypothesis testing is deductive , while inference is necessarily inductive.
You need to read this paper more clearly; it is not clear what they conclude nor what their evidence is.
A common marking comment:
These papers seem to be discussed in random order – you need some structure organising these papers thematically, by finding, by technique, or chronologically perhaps.
How should you organise it? In what order?
Thematically (usually better)
By method, by theoretical framework, by results or assumptions, by field
Chronologically (perhaps within themes)
Exercise: Compare how the literature review section is organized in papers you are reading.
Figure 4.4: Organising a set of references
Q: What sort of structure am I using in the above outline?
It may also be helpful to make a ‘table’ of the relevant literature, as in the figure below. This will help you get a sense of the methods and results, and how the papers relate, and how to assess the evidence. You may end up putting this in the actual paper.
Figure 4.5: Organisational table from Reinstein and Riener, 2012b
Consult a survey paper, textbook, or lecture notes that discuss this paper and this topic
Try to find an easier related paper
Ask your supervisor for help; if he or she can
Try to understand what you can; do not try to “fake it”
Do not cite irrelevant literature.
Do not merely list all the papers you could find.
Discuss them, and their relevance to your paper.
What are their strengths and weaknesses? What techniques do they use, and what assumptions do they rely on? How do they relate to each other?
Use correct citation formats.
Try to find original sources (don’t just cite a web link).
Don’t just cut and paste from other sources. And make sure to attribute every source and every quote. Be clear: which part of your paper is your own work and what is cited from others? The penalties for plagiarism can be severe!
How to discuss empirical results: “Causal” estimation, e.g., with Instrumental Variables
Which is the best way to state it? 12
“As I prove in table 2, more lawyers lead to slower growth (as demonstrated by the regression analysis evidence).”
“Table 2 provides evidence that a high share of lawyers in a city’s population leads to slower growth.”
3.“Table 2 shows that a high share of lawyers in a city’s population is correlated with slower growth.”
Which is better? 13
Stating empirical results: descriptive
“Using the US data from 1850-1950, I find that inflation is lower during periods of recession. This is statistically significant in a t-test [or whatever test] at the 99% level, and the difference is economically meaningful. This is consistent with the theory of …, which predicts that lower inflation increases unemployment. However, other explanations are possible, including reverse causality, and unmeasured covarying lags and trends.”
“I find a significantly lower level of inflation during periods of recession, and the difference is economically meaningful. This relationship is statistically significant and the data is accurately measured. Thus I find that inflation increases unemployment.”
Some tips on writing a good paper– relevant to literature reviews
Answer: only b is a ‘peer reviewed article in a reputable economics journal’. All of these might be useful to cite, however. ↩
False. You need to cite any content and ideas that are not your own. ↩
Answers: 1, 5, and 6. Note that 2 and 3 are too narrow criteria, and 4 is too broad. ↩
or Bayesian if you like ↩
The second one; if this is really causal evidence. ↩
The first one. There is no ‘correct regression’. It is also not really correct in classical statistics to ‘find no effect’. ↩
It’s very common for students to use long words they don’t understand very well in their essays and theses because they have a certain idea of what academic writing should be. Many students believe that academic writing is wordy and convoluted, and uses a lot of jargon. This leads many students to fall into a trap of imagining that the longer the word, the more impressive and intelligent their writing will seem.
We often see long sentences and multisyllabic words where shorter sentences and simpler words would do. Some students even use Microsoft Word’s thesaurus function to replace a common word with a more complicated word. This is a risky move, because unless you’re very careful, the new word may not carry quite the same meaning as the original, even if it’s similar.
The result can range from funny to confusing, which defeats the purpose of academic writing: to be as clear and concise as possible, using just the right words to convey your argument. Using uncommon words, instead of making your paper seem smarter, generally detracts from your ideas.
To avoid this, using linking or transition words that signpost your arguments can help to clarify your views and show the reader what to expect from certain paragraphs or sentences. These words give structure to the whole, helping you to organise your ideas and assist the reader in understanding them.
We have prepared some flashcards containing linking words you can use in academic writing.
CLICK HERE to download these FREE flashcards
Below is a handy list of words that are both useful and appropriate to academic language.
Describing similarities
Correspondingly
Not only… but also
In the same way
Showing cause and effect
Consequently
As a result
Hence (never ‘hence why’)
Since (try to avoid ‘as’ when showing cause and effect)
Accordingly
This suggests that
It follows that
For this reason
Comparing and contrasting
Alternatively
On the other hand
On the contrary
Showing limitation or contradiction
Despite/in spite of
While (not whilst!)
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
Emphasis, addition or examples
To illustrate
Further (not ‘furthermore’)
First, second and third (not firstly, secondly and thirdly)
For instance
In addition
To summarise
It can be concluded that
As can be seen
Given the above
As described
The best way to get better at writing academic language is to read academic writing. You’ll pick up all sorts of useful tips from published papers in your area of study.
Updated 31 January 2023 Ellen McRae, PhD, AE (IPEd), MNZSTI Senior Managing Editor
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additionally; also; moreover; furthermore; again; further; then; besides; too; similarly; correspondingly; indeed; regarding .
Relate your findings to the findings of those previous studies and indicate where your findings aligned and where they did not align . Offer possible explanations as to why your findings corroborated or contradicted the findings of previous studies. If your findings are novel, mention and expand on that.
Conducting a literature review establishes your familiarity with and understanding of current research in a particular field before carrying out a new investigation . After doing a literature review, you should know what research has already been done and be able to identify what is unknown within your topic.
Literature Review: Conducting & Writing
Linking Words & Phrases In English
Additionally, and, also, apart from this, as well (as), in addition, moreover, further, furthermore. If, in that case, provided that, unless. Correspondingly, equally, for the same reason, in a similar manner, in comparison, in the same way, on the one hand, similarly.
The literature review is important because: • It describes how the proposed research is related to prior research in statistics . It shows the originality and relevance of your research problem. Specifically, your research is different from other statisticians. It justifies your proposed methodology.
A good literature review will result in a series of logically connected arguments that support the research question . The need to make arguments in relation to the literature, not just review existing literature, results in a different approach to writing.
There are five key steps to writing a literature review:
A linking word is a word which shows a connection between clauses or sentences . ‘However’ and ‘so’ are linking words.
It is important to find all the relevant keywords for the topic to ensure the search is comprehensive by identifying:
Keyword search
Linking words show the relationships between ideas. Linking words serve different functions, such as to compare ideas or to give examples, and can go at the start or in the middle of a sentence. Check a dictionary like the Cambridge Dictionary to see examples of how to use a particular linking word.
The following table shows some common linking words and example sentences:
Function | Linking words | Example |
---|---|---|
(to add an idea) | also furthermore moreover additionally | Exam performance is influenced by personal factors, such as anxiety and confidence. |
(to show that one thing is a result of another) | so therefore as a result consequently accordingly because | The defendant was intoxicated and not fully aware of his actions. |
(to show differences) | in contrast however whereas while conversely | In 2016, the proportion of Australian citizens born overseas was approximately 29%. , this proportion varied between states, with just 13% of Tasmanian residents born overseas, compared with 31% in Victoria (ABS, 2021). |
(to show similarities) | similarly likewise in the same way | In the global response to COVID-19, WHO has repeatedly urged that countries must work together as one global family to address the impacts of the pandemic. , the global health threat of climate change requires global collaboration, increased finance, and the equitable sharing of solutions (World Health Organization, 2021). |
| is defined as that is | A migrant a “person who was born overseas whose usual residence is Australia” (ABS, 2018). |
| for example for instance such as including | Adolescents spend hours per day browsing social media applications, Facebook, TikTok and Instagram. |
(to indicate the order of events, or to separate ideas) | firstly secondly thirdly first then | There are several issues arising from this case. the company failed to provide a working environment that was safe and free of risks to health. |
| in conclusion in summary to conclude overall | females reported higher levels of pain post-surgery than men. |
See the Word and PDF documents below for a downloadable version of the common linking words.
Still have questions? Do you want to talk to an expert? Peer Learning Advisors or Academic Skills and Language Advisors are available.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2018). Migrant. In Glossary . https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Lookup/3415.0Glossary12017?OpenDocument Used under CC BY 4.0 license
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2021). Migration, Australia . https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/migration-australia/latest-release Used under CC BY 4.0 license
World Health Organization. (2021). 2021 Global conference on health and climate change . https://www.who.int/news-room/events/detail/2021/11/06/default-calendar/2021-global-conference-on-health-and-climate-change Used under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO license
COMMENTS
Transition words and phrases (also called linking words, connecting words, or transitional words) are used to link together different ideas in your text. ... Jack is a Brit based in Amsterdam, with an MA in comparative literature. He writes for Scribbr about his specialist topics: grammar, linguistics, citations, and plagiarism. In his spare ...
A well-written academic literature review not only builds upon existing knowledge and publications but also involves critical reflection, comparison, contrast, and identifying research gaps. The following 17 strong academic key phrases can assist you in writing a critical and reflective literature review. Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a
Linking words expressing order and sequence in academic writing. 1. First (ly), second (ly), third (ly) Example: First, I review the existing literature on cross-border collaboration. Second, I explain the methodology …. 2.
Linking/Transition Words. Transitions link one main idea to another separated by a semi-colon or full-stop. When the transition word is at the beginning of the sentence, it should be followed by a comma: Among other functions, they can signal cause and effect or sequencing (see examples in the table below). Additional comments or ideas.
he simplest thing of all—structure. Everything you write has three components: a beginning, a middle and an e. d and each serves a different purpose. In practice, this means your review will have an introduction, a main body where you review the literature an. a conclusion where you tie things up.
In this blog, we discuss phrases related to literature review such as summary of previous literature, research gap and research questions. The literature review should clearly demonstrate that the author has a good knowledge of the research area. A well-written literature review should provide a critical appraisal of previous studies related to the current research area rather than a simple ...
Transitional words and phrases can create powerful links between ideas in your paper and can help your reader understand the logic of your paper. However, these words all have different meanings, nuances, and connotations. Before using a particular transitional word in your paper, be sure you understand its meaning and usage completely and be sure…
These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and defining time. They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions. at the present time. from time to time. sooner or later. at the same time. up to the present time. to begin with.
Although your literature review will rely heavily on the sources you read for its information, you should dictate the structure of the review. It is important that the concepts are presented in an order that makes sense of the context of your research project. ... When authors disagree, linking words that indicate contrast will show how you ...
To join ideas and sentences, we use a number of connecting words and phrases. For example: Addition To add an idea. Additionally, and, also, apart from this, as well (as), in addition, moreover, further, furthermore. Condition to provide a condition. If, in that case, provided that, unless. For comparison To show how things are similar.
Literature reviews are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing output of scientific publications .For example, compared to 1991, in 2008 three, eight, and forty times more papers were indexed in Web of Science on malaria, obesity, and biodiversity, respectively .Given such mountains of papers, scientists cannot be expected to examine in detail every ...
Here's the structure of a sample paragraph in your literature review that may help you if you have never written one before (See #9 for an example): 1. Introduce a concept / Make a point about a particular topic of research (topic sentence) +. 2. Supported it with references or previous research results +. 3.
Writing a Literature Review. A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels ...
Words and Phrases to Include in a Literature Review. 1. "According to" - This phrase is commonly used to introduce evidence from scholarly sources. For example, "According to Smith (2016), the impact of climate change on biodiversity is a pressing concern.". 2.
Beyond the use of the academic terms suggested above, 'linking' words are also particularly important when writing a literature review, since you'll be grouping a lot of writers together with either similar or divergent opinions. Useful linking words and phrases include: similarly, there are parallels, in convergence with…
This section of Academic Phrasebank lists some of the phrases that writers may use for this purpose. A note on the literature review: It is the purpose of the literature review section of a paper or dissertation to show the reader, in a systematic way, what is already known about the research topic as a whole, and to outline the key ideas and ...
Download these on our helpsheet, University Speak. Get your writing to flow by trying these words and phrases to link words and connect your ideas. Once you are tuned into these words, you will see them throughout academic writing. Contrasting ideas Comparing ideas Sequencing ideas However Similarly /Similar to At first/Firstly/First of all ...
Figure 4.1: Literature reviews and references. Your may have done a literature survey as part of your proposal. This will be incorporated into your dissertation, not left as separate stand-alone. Most economics papers include a literature review section, which may be a separate section, or incorporated into the paper's introduction.
Below is a handy list of words that are both useful and appropriate to academic language. Describing similarities. Likewise. Correspondingly. Equally. Not only… but also. In the same way. Similarly. Showing cause and effect.
Literature Review: Conducting & Writing. Choose a topic. Define your research question. Decide on the scope of your review. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches. Conduct your searches and find the literature. Keep track of your searches! Review the literature. What are 5 linking words? Linking Words & Phrases In English
In terms of the theory under review … In the review of the literature, _____ will be discussed. Interest has been generated in … It has been noted that … It is only recently that researchers have begun to examine systematically the effect of … More attention is being devoted to … Most of the literature suggests that there is some
The document discusses the importance of using linking words in literature reviews. It states that linking words play a pivotal role in structuring the narrative flow and establishing logical connections between different parts of a literature review. However, mastering the use of linking words can be challenging for writers. The document then promotes a writing service that can help writers ...
Linking words show the relationships between ideas. Linking words serve different functions, such as to compare ideas or to give examples, and can go at the start or in the middle of a sentence. Check a dictionary like the Cambridge Dictionary to see examples of how to use a particular linking word. The following table shows some common linking ...