filipino christian living essay

Five Hundred Years of Philippine Christianity: Living Heritage and Social Project

Five hundred years ago Christianity arrived in the Philippines. The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) began celebrations with a Mass on April 17, 2021, to mark the first Easter Sunday on native soil. The Covid-19 pandemic pushed a key moment for the Church in the Philippines, the International Mission Congress, ahead to April 2022, [1]  while other events moved online for accessibility. During the Eucharist celebrated in the Vatican on March 14, 2021, Pope Francis told Philippine Catholics worldwide: “we see the joy of the Gospel in your eyes, on your faces, in your songs, and in your prayers… I want to thank you for the joy you bring to the whole world and to our Christian communities.” [2]

This extended time allows us to give consideration to differing aspects of the quincentennial celebration. On March 18, 2021, government celebration, President Rodrigo Duterte, a known critic of the Catholic Church, did not mention Christianity and focused on native victory over Spanish forces: “I, therefore, call on all our  kababayans  (countrymen) to appreciate our rich history and learn from the experiences of those that came before us so that we may never again allow any other tribe to compromise our sovereignty.” [3]

Sectors within and outside the Churches marked the milestone by recalling various aspects. For instance, the 2019 conference of the Catholic Theological Society of the Philippines ( Dakateo ) stressed the perspective of indigenous peoples and echoed earlier demands for Hispano-American apologies.

This essay presents a contextual framework for the Philippine commemoration and articulates Philippine Christianity’s significance as a living heritage social project.

Framework for the Quincentennial

The CBCP’s March 28, 2021 letter, “Celebrating the 500th Year of Christianity in the Philippines” [4]  follows the account of the expedition’s chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, and the following description of the leader, Portuguese Catholic Ferdinand Magellan. He first came as a “mercenary,” but upon seeing the native’s “fertile soil of goodwill” he became a “missionary,” only to revert back to “mercenary” upon realizing native demands. This description is then spiritualized, noting that bearers of the Gospel are “flawed human beings” or, in biblical terms, “earthen vessels.”

Intended as a pastoral exhortation rather than a scholarly account, the statement sets aside historical analyses such as Resil Mojares’ contextualization of Antonio Pigafetta’s chronicle [5]  and William Henry Scott’s critique of Magellan’s “religious” role. [6]

The letter aligns with earlier CBCP statements on Christianity’s link with colonization. Some have simplistically identified evangelization with the emergence of the nation. [7]  The bishops’ 1998 exhortation on the nation’s centennial acknowledged the problematic link between evangelization and colonialization, using the vague term “ambiguous”: “For our part as an institution, we apologize for the ambiguous stand some Church people held during the revolution, which partly explains the rise of the religious revolution.” [8]  They repeatedly stated their wariness about anti-Catholic nationalism, past, and present.

An important document is a one-page statement from Catholic, Protestant, and evangelical Churches, “One Ecumenical Family: A Unity Statement of the Christian Churches on the Occasion of the 500th Year of Christianity in the Philippines.” It confronts the link between Christianity and colonization. [9]

This statement is historic in both content and process. It took a painstaking two-year process, which, though initiated by the Catholic Episcopal Commissions on Ecumenical Affairs and on Mutual Relations, fully engaged leaders from other Christian Churches and associated groups. Drafting committee members bonded through respect and friendship, and overcame past animosities and present differences. Before pandemic health restrictions were put in place, they gathered to pray and discuss in each other’s Churches. When the restrictions came, the Catholic  Tanging Yaman Foundation  provided relief goods for poor communities served by Protestant and evangelical communities.

This process exemplifies the statement’s historic nature, being the first expression of Christian unity between traditions and Churches. As its title “One Ecumenical Family” suggests, it acknowledges the history of “distrust and acrimony, which have ruptured relationships, not only among ourselves but also with God and all of creation” and thus resolves to “becoming channels of reconciliation.” This ecumenical family makes three substantive points – gratitude for the gift of Christian faith, acknowledgment of contributing to indigenous peoples’ suffering, and common commitment to the marginalized in Philippine society.

First, these Christian leaders express gratitude for the gift of faith: “we, the Christian Churches, give thanks and praise to our loving Triune God for the grace that sustained the faith.” Moreover, they call attention to the valuable work of missionaries: “We are thankful for the countless men and women who offered their lives in fulfilling the mission.”

Second, they acknowledge “that Christianity came along with colonialism under Spain and the United States of America.” The statement decries that “such colonization brought about unprecedented violence and caused suffering to our people, including abuses committed against our indigenous people, and exploitation of our resources, to which some missionary activities contributed.” Nevertheless, it notes “the unrelenting missionary work, such as defending the rights of the natives against the aggression of colonizers and the sowing and cultivation of the Gospel across the archipelago.” Here it implicitly refers to the 1582 Synod of Manila’s defense of natives, as pointed out by historian John N. Schumacher. [10]

Third, the leaders have articulated the current task for all Christians: “In the spirit of renewal, we reaffirm our preferential option for the poor, and our commitment to the protection of the exploited and oppressed, and the promotion of the rights of our indigenous brothers and sisters. We minister anew to those who suffer physically, emotionally, and spiritually. We commit to defend the sacredness of life and the fundamental rights of every human being; support gender equality in morally legitimate ways and promote efforts that advocate a more prominent role for  women in the Church and society.” In addition: “We furthermore commit to social justice and a simpler way of life; to engage in peacebuilding and protecting our sovereignty; to address consumerism and climate change. We pledge to pursue all these common advocacies as expressions of faith in our respective traditions and in the spirit of ecumenism.”

Through these emphases, the ecumenical statement provides the appropriate framework. It celebrates the common gift of the Christian faith, and at the same time acknowledges the failures of Christian Churches in witnessing this faith, and outlines focus for the future.  

Philippine Christianity as Living Heritage

The gift of faith that Christian leaders celebrate consists of this heritage incarnated in Philippine Christianity and made visible on the local landscape and in the social calendar. Whether rural or urban, outdoor or interior, spaces are marked by Christian signs and symbols: churches and chapels, pilgrimage shrines, altars at workplaces, in homes, and vehicles. Calendars indicate religious occasions: the Christmas and Lenten seasons, as well as the feasts of the Black Nazarene,  Santo Niño  (Holy Child), and the relevant patron saint.

This ubiquitous presence is the tangible manifestation of Christianity’s encounter with local contexts and its institutionalization in pastoral, social, and educational ministries. This encounter, however, did not spare Christian Churches from external and internal resistance because of colonial links, foreign missionaries’ prejudices, and collusion with the elite. [11] Catholic and Protestant missions experienced schism because of these sentiments: the  Iglesia Filipina Independiente  from the Catholic Church after the 1898 Revolution and the Evangelical Methodist Church in the Philippine Islands from the Methodist mission in 1909. [12]

But what proved decisive for Philippine Christianity’s development was its use of native languages for evangelization. With its entry under the  Patronato Real de las Indias  agreement between the papacy and the Spanish monarchy, Catholic leaders chose to evangelize in their native languages rather than Spanish. Carried out while the scattered settlements were being gathered into European-patterned towns, this linguistic strategy initially translated devotional and catechetical materials from Europe, but eventually produced Christian texts in native languages for communal and personal contexts,  among them, novenas, catechisms, and lives of saints. With the entry of Protestant missions with American colonialism, translating the New Testament into local languages began in the early 1900s. [13]

This evangelical use of local languages was not the transfer ( translation ) of a “frozen” and unchanging Christianity into new languages. These languages brought into Christian practice common meanings, emotive associations, and contextual undertones; in effect, creating Christian practice shaped by the native ethos. [14]  Native Christians became empowered to speak to and about God in their own native tongues.

Thus the gift of faith was incarnated through translation “involv[ing] the interface of languages, semiotic systems, cultural products, and systems of cultural organization, and it makes manifest the differences and similarities of systems across cultures.” [15]  In the end, what is translated into people’s lives is more than Christian vocabulary. It is the Christian story itself.  Even with a growing number of Christians educated in English from the American colonial period onward, religious sensibility has remained rooted in the local context.

Moreover, this heritage, far from being a fossil from the past, remains vibrant as it enters new global contexts. With increased mobility, Philippine Christians bring their heritage to ministries in international pastoral contexts and organizations like the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences and the World Council of Churches.

More recently, Catholic and Protestant laity have undertaken foreign missions. Those from evangelical and charismatic communities have established chapters open to different nationalities. Others go abroad as migrants and workers, but bring expressions of their Philippine Christian heritage; for instance, rosaries and Bibles as well as Christmas novena Masses and local Marian processions. They have thus been called “the new missionaries.” [16]

This heritage proved resilient during the Covid-19 pandemic. Joseph Remus F. Galang et al. have described liturgical adaptations and innovations. [17]  Under strict lockdowns and through social media platforms and initiatives involving music and videos, online worship became accessible to greater participation beyond regular parish services. It engages more participants from diverse geographical locations and spiritual heritages. [18]

This digital migration of the Philippine Christian heritage also initiated ministries for sectors more adversely affected by the pandemic: those suffering from endemic poverty as well as those newly unemployed, like returning overseas workers. [19]  Online Christian communities became hubs of social ministry for development programs, distributing produce bought from distressed agricultural workers, and assisting vulnerable communities, including those of the Muslim faith. These Christian efforts manifest diversity and inclusiveness among all those involved: benefactors, volunteers, and recipients.

These pandemic responses exemplify the vibrant and resilient heritage of Philippine Christianity. As the Galang study indicates, Philippine Christians “manifest the values of  pakikisama  (solidarity),  pakikiramay  (empathy) and  pagkakaisa  (unity), not only through physical distancing, but also by reaching out to those in need amidst the fear of infection.” These reflect “a lived experience of God’s  kagandahang-loob  (loving-kindness).” [20]  Thus Philippine Christianity’s heritage offers some glimpse of “social friendship” which, according to Pope Francis’s  Fratelli Tutti , consists of “love capable of transcending borders” ( FT  99), and acknowledges “the worth of every human person, always and everywhere” ( FT  106).

Philippine Christianity as Social Project

After expressing gratitude for the gift of faith and apologies on account of people’s suffering and environmental degradation, Christian leaders have issued a common call to action: reaffirming the preferential option for the poor, protection of the oppressed, and the rights of indigenous peoples. They further commit to defending the sacredness of life and the fundamental rights of every human being; supporting gender equality in morally legitimate ways and promoting efforts that advocate a more prominent role of women in the church and society. These involve a simpler way of life, engaging in peacebuilding, protecting national sovereignty, and addressing consumerism and climate change. Thus the call involves nothing less than a major social project for Philippine Christianity.

This project follows  Fratelli Tutti ’s integration of social friendship with political love: “love, overflowing with small gestures of mutual care, is also civic and political, and it makes itself felt in every action that seeks to build a better world. For this reason, charity finds expression not only in close and intimate relationships but also in macro-relationships: social, economic and political” ( FT  181).

Moreover, this project takes shape in the context of Philippine politics. According to the CBCP’s 1997 pastoral exhortation, “Philippine politics – the way it is practiced – has been most hurtful to us as a people” and “is possibly the biggest bane in our life as a nation and the most pernicious obstacle to our achieving of full human development.” [21]  It “has degenerated into an arena where the interests of the powerful and rich few are pitted against those of the many weak and poor” and “interferes with the administration of justice and the equal application of the law,   as it is patently heavily weighted on the side of the politically connected.” [22]  Because of established practices governed by self-interest and patronage,  as well as fraudulent activities before, during, and after elections, numerous CBCP letters to Catholics to vote wisely have proved ineffective. This parlous situation has become further entrenched during Duterte’s presidency. [23]

Given this context, Philippine Christianity’s social project requires strategic direction. First and most evidently, it must engage in political education, understood not as traditional politics but as  Fratelli Tutti ’s social friendship and political love. Political education then becomes an integral systematic part of all formation programs in ecclesial ministries and institutions.

Moreover, its methodology transcends the traditional approaches in earlier CBCP statements, by applying general principles of “Gospel values” to specific issues. [24]  It must consider the dynamic interplay between Christian faith and the particularities of actual situations, an interplay that uncovers nuances in the meaning of Christian faith itself. Laymen and women take center stage in this political education because of their numbers and the Vatican II mandate toward “the penetrating and perfecting of the temporal order through the spirit of the Gospel” ( Apostolicam Actuositatem,  No .  2). Such education by and for the laity could help overcome their own collusion with familial and regional patronage.

Second, Philippine Christianity must disentangle itself from traditional politics. Church leaders share official and unofficial bonds with politicians, reinforced by traditional person-oriented culture. Church-state relations must be based, first and foremost, on cooperation for the common good, especially for the marginalized, following established constitutional provisions.

This disentanglement  ad extra  corresponds to the internal  aggiornamento  of Christianity’s institutional culture and communal processes. Institutional renewal considers how certain traditional values could reinforce clericalism, as Aloysius Lopez Cartagenas points out: “Their (clerics’) gender and ethnic provenance hold the key to understanding the various forms of dysfunctions concerning sexuality and intimacy, sex and gender, power and authority to which they are socialized early on and in which they move and have they’re being for the rest of their lives.” [25]  To ignore this could diminish women’s participation in communities and undermine inclusivity, transparency, and accountability within the Church.

Third, Christian Churches must cast a wider net of moral suasion and collaborative praxis based on the common good in both physical and digital spaces. In particular, this net needs to encompass those at the margins of the Church and society, who are identified by the shared ecumenical statement as indigenous peoples, women the poor majority and are central to the social project of Philippine Christianity. For instance, though Christian Churches minister to many among the poor through pastoral and social centers, significant numbers still remain at their margins. Thus notwithstanding its pledge in its 1991 Second Plenary Council of the Philippines to become the “Church of the Poor,” the Catholic Church needs greater efforts to “be in solidarity with the poor” and “collaborate with the poor themselves and with others to lift up the poor from their poverty.” [26]

This immense social project can only be addressed by harnessing all possible platforms. Given the 2020 number of 79.66 million internet users out of the population of 109 million, [27]  Christian Churches could counter traditional politicians’ invasion of digital platforms and build on their online experience during the pandemic to become “influencers” of internet-literate youth. [28]  In order to reach and influence more, all Christian Churches must cooperate among themselves and with others in Philippine society.

With the culmination of the quincentennial celebration of Christianity’s arrival, all Philippine Christians have indeed much to celebrate. They can be grateful for the profound gift of faith, incarnated in a living heritage shaping personal and communal lives and institutionalized in pastoral, educational, and social ministries. More than just a collection of religious traditions and customs or a set of cultural qualities reflected in joyous music and smiling faces, this heritage remains vibrant as it encounters new and unsettling challenges. As shown in its responses to the global Covid-19 pandemic, Philippine Christianity has been resourceful and resilient in serving the faithful and those whose lives and livelihoods have been deeply affected by the pandemic. Church worship, both online and limited in-person, has continued to nourish, even strengthen, the faith at this most unsettling time.

However, together with this gratitude, which cannot be self-serving or triumphalistic, we must acknowledge the need to continue to deepen our faith in Christ, translating it into the social project articulated in the ecumenical statement we have examined. Addressed to all Philippine Christians, this project of building social structures of justice and equality, summed up in  Fratelli Tutti ’s phrase “political love,” undermines Philippine traditional politics responsible for “the death of development.” Christian Churches then must integrate political education in its formation, distance themselves from traditional political practice, and partner with all those working for the common good.

Thus the living heritage and social projects of Philippine Christianity invite each Church to journey together with the people. To borrow Pope Francis’s words: “inasmuch as the Church is nothing other than the ‘journeying together’ of God’s flock along the paths of history toward the encounter with Christ the Lord, then we understand too that, within the Church, no one can be ‘raised up’ higher than others” and “that each person ‘lower’ himself or herself, so as to serve our brothers and sisters along the way.” [29]  Since its arrival five hundred years ago, this has marked the path forward for Philippine Christianity.

Jose Mario C Francisco, SJ is the Professor of Philosophical and Systematic Theology, Ateneo de Manila University.

Reproduced with permission from La Civiltà Cattolica .

[1]  Cf. “Church Pushes Back 500 Years of Christianity Celebration due to Covid-19”, in  CBCPNews  ( cbcpnews.net/cbcpnews/church-pushes-back-500-years-of-christianity-celebration-due-to-covid19 ), September 24, 2020.

[2]  Francis,  Homily during the Mass for 500 Years of Evangelization of the Philippines , March 14, 2021.

[3]  D. de Leon, “Don’t compromise sovereignty, says Duterte on 500 th  year of Magellan’s arrival”, in  Rappler  ( www.rappler.com/nation/duterte-wants-filipinos-reject-compromise-sovereignty-magellan-expedition-commemoration-2021 ), March 18, 2021.

[4]  Cf. “Pastoral letter Celebrating the 500 th  Year of Christianity in the Philippines”, in  CBCPNews  ( https://cbcpnews.net/cbcpnews/pastoral-letter-celebrating-the-500th-year-of-christianity-in-the-philippines/ ), March 23, 2021.

[5]  Cf. R. B. Mojares,  Waiting for Mariang Makiling: Essays in Philippine Cultural History , Quezon City, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2002, 20-51.

[6]  Cf. W. H. Scott,  Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino , Quezon City, New Day Publishers, 1992, 40-63.

[7]  Cf. P. C. Quitorio III (ed),  Pastoral Letters 1945-1995 , Manila, CBCP publications, 1996, 237.

[8]  Cf. idem (ed),  CBCP: On the Threshold of the Next Millennium ,  ibid ., 1999, 150.

[9]  Cf. “One Ecumenical Family: A Unity Statement of the Christian Churches on the Occasion of the 500th Year of Christianity in the Philippines”, in  CBCPNews  ( https://cbcpnews.net/cbcpnews/one-ecumenical-family ).

[10]  Cf. J. N. Schumacher,  Readings in Philippine Church History , Quezon City, Loyola School of Theology, 1979, 28.

[11]  Cf. J. N. Schumacher,  Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850-1903 , Quezon City, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1981.

[12]  Cf. M. D. Clifford, “Iglesia  Filipia Independiente: The Revolutionary Church”, in G.H. Anderson (ed),  Studies in Philippine Church History , Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1969, 223-255; Ruben F. Trinidad, “Nicolas Zamora and the IEMELIF Church”, in  Chapters in Philippine Church History , Mandaluyong City, OMF Literature, 2001, 203-224.

[13]  Cf. A. C. Kwantes, “The Bible Society in the Philippines: The Story of Bible Society Work”, in  idem , (ed),  Chapters in Philippine Church History , 463-481.

[14]  Cf. J. M. C. Francisco, “Fidelity in Translating Religious Practice: Illustrations from Filipino Christianity”, in  Kritika Kultura  Nos .  21-22, 2013, 204-219.

[15]  M. Tymoczko,  Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators , Manchester, St. Jerome, 2010, 8.

[16]  J. M. C. Francisco, “Migration and the New Cosmopolitanism in Asian Christianity”, in F. Wilfred (ed),  The Oxford Handbook of Asian Christianity , New York, Oxford University Press, 2014, 757-792.

[17]  J. R. F. Galang et al., “Social Distancing as a Recontextualization of Filipino Values and Catholic Religious Practices”, in  Journal of Religion and Health  60 (2021/5) 3245-3264 ( www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8322637/ ).

[18]  Cf. B. A. Musa, “Reimagining Place and Presence in the Virtual Church: Community and Spiritual Connection in the Digital Era”, in H.A. Campbell (ed),  Digital Ecclesiology , Digital Religion Publication, 2020 : ( www.researchgate.net/publication/344001719_Digital_Ecclesiology_A_Global_Conversation  _ Ebook_edited_by_Heidi_Campbell )

[19]  Cf. E. C. de Jesus – M. S. Dayrit – I. S. Baysic (eds),  Countering Covid-19: Cases in Crisis Response , Quezon City, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2021.

[20]  J. R. F. Galang et al., “Social Distancing…”,  op. cit.

[21]  P. C. Quitorio III (ed),  CBCP: On the Threshold of the Next Millennium , Manila, CBCP Publications, 1999, 89.

[22]   Ibid ., 89f.

[23]  N. Curato, “We Need to Talk about Rody”, in N. Curato (ed),  A Duterte Reader: Critical Essays on Rodrigo Duterte’s Early Presidency , Quezon City, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2017, 8; M. R. Thompson, “Duterte’s Violent Populism: Mass Murder, Political Legitimacy and the Death of Development in the Philippines”, in  Journal of Contemporary Asia :  https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjoc20 ), April 16, 2021.

[24]  J. M. C. Francisco, “People of God, People of the Nation: Official Catholic Discourse on Nation and Nationalism”, in  Philippine Studies  62/3-4 (2014/3-4), 341-375.

[25]  A. L. Cartagenas, “The Terror of the Sexual Abuse by Roman Catholic Clergy and the Philippine Context”, in  Asian Horizons   5 (2011/2) 371.

[26]   Acts and Decrees of the Second Plenary Council of the Philippines , Manila, Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines, 1992, 49f.

[27]  “Internet Penetration Rate in the Philippines from 2017 to 2020, with forecast until 2026”, in  Statista  ( www.statista.com/statistics/975072/internet-penetration-rate-in-the-Philippines/ ).

[28]  Cf. J. S. Cornelio,  Being Catholic in Contemporary Philippines: Young People Reinterpreting Religion , London – New York, Routledge, 2016, 163.

[29]  Francis,  Address on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Synod of Bishops , October 17, 2015.

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500 Years of Christianity and the Global Filipino/a

Postcolonial Perspectives

• © 2024
• Cristina Lledo Gomez 0 ,
• Agnes M. Brazal 1 ,
• Ma. Marilou S. Ibita 2

BBI-The Australian Institute of Theological Education, Pennant Hills, Australia

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Department of Theology and Religious Education, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines

• Includes theologians around the world examining Christianity in the Philippines with a postcolonial theological lens
• Focuses on introducing the context of Christianity’s arrival in the islands and its effect on its peoples
• Celebrates the ways Christianity as a gift has been critically and creatively reimagined

Part of the book series: Pathways for Ecumenical and Interreligious Dialogue (PEID)

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About this book

• Antonio Pigafetta
• Patronato Real
• Iglesia Filipina Independiente

Table of contents (16 chapters)

Front matter, philippine christianity: 500 years of resistance and accommodation.

• Agnes M. Brazal, Cristina Lledo Gomez, Ma. Marilou S. Ibita

Rethinking the Encounters

Indigenization as appropriation (what being baptized could have meant for the natives of cebu in 1521).

• Pablo Virgilio S. David, Ma. Maricel S. Ibita

The Double Truth of (Colonial) Mission

• Daniel Franklin E. Pilario

Rethinking Encounters and Re-imagining Muslim-Christian Relations in Post-colonial Philippines

• Vivienne S. M. Angeles

The Glocal Filipin@s and the Pasyon Through the Lens of Ethnicity

• Ma. Marilou S. Ibita

An Independent Catholic, Nationalist People’s Movement: The Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine Independent Church)

• Eleuterio J. Revollido

Philippine, Independent and International: The Relationship Between— the Iglesia Filipina Independiente and the Old Catholic Churches

• Peter-Ben Smit

Reappropriation, Resistance & Decolonization

Reappropriation, resistance & decolonization, indigenous inculturation: a hermeneutics of serendipity.

• Antonio D. Sison CPPS

Decolonizing the Diaspora through the Center for Babaylan Studies

• Leny M. Strobel

Back from the Crocodile’s Belly: Christian Formation Meets Indigenous Resurrection Redux

• S. Lily Mendoza

The Ygollotes’ Pudong and the Insurrection of the Reeds In the Post-Human Commune

• Ferdinand Anno

Introducing Jeepney Hermeneutics: Reading the Bible as Canaanites

• Revelation Enriquez Velunta

Inang Diyos, Inang Bayan: The Virgin Mary and Filipino Identity

• Jamina Vesta M. Jugo

Bangon Na, Pinays Rise Up: Reclaiming Pinay Power Dismantled by a Christian Colonial Past and Present

Cristina Lledo Gomez

Re-Baptizing Spirit in Land and Ancestry: An Approach for Un-Doing Christian Colonialism

• James W. Perkinson

Toward Reclaiming the Wisdom of our Forebears: Nature and Environment from a Filipino Perspective

• Ma. Florina Orillos-Juan

Back Matter

"In this illuminating volume, discover a celebrative commemoration of the arrival of Christianity in the Philippines. The different contributors offer a postcolonial and feminist critique, and a global perspective, especially within the Filipino diaspora. Uncover the extraordinary influence of the Philippine Catholic Church on national history, from independence struggles, survival under MartialLaw to environmental preservation.  However, this collection does not shy away from revealing the shadows behind the light, highlighting cultural erasure, the rise of alternative faiths, and interreligious challenges. This comprehensive exploration of Philippine Christianity offers a rich understanding of its complex history."

— Mary John Mananzan OSB , Activist, Theologian, and Superior of the Missionary Benedictine Sisters in Manila,  Author of “Shadows of Light: Philippine Church History Under Spain, A People’s Perspective”

"Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Philippines failed to fully celebrate the significance and meaning of the 500 th  year anniversary of the arrival of in 2021. Fortunately, there are ongoing attempts to revisit and rethink our ancestors’ encounters with the colonizers as well as to determine how we can pursue the tasks of decolonization and resistance. This book – a collection of 16 essays written from aFilipino-centric point of view while adopting postcolonial and feminist perspectives – provides the reader with a detailed assessment of what I have labelled as the chauvinist Christianity handed down to the present generations. Bravo to this book’s writers and editors for this must-read book which will certainly hold a pride of place in  Filipiniana  collections."

— Karl Gaspar CSsR, Anthropologist, Theologian, Artist, and Professor of Philippine Studies, Ateneo De Davao University,  Author of “Handuman (Remembrance): Digging for the Indigenous Wellspring”

" 500 Years of Christianity and the Global Filipino/a: Postcolonial Perspectives  challenges a great deal of what many of us have learned and taught in church history about Christianity in the Philippines.  It also affirms a great deal of what we have learned and taught.  The book does this by consistently engaging both colonizing and decolonizing historical experiences and forms of knowledge over the past five centuries in the Philippines, in all of their complexity.  Along the way it provides us with access to multiple and competing colonial and indigenous narratives, experiences, epistemologies, and people.  The compelling goal of the effort is decolonizing the Philippine nation and Filipino peoples globally, a moral imperative that guides the entire project.  I consider it one of the most important books on Christianity in the Philippines to have been published in the last half-century."

— Dale T. Irvin , Professor of World Christianity, New School of Biblical Theology, Co-Editor, Journal of World Christianity

Editors and Affiliations

Agnes M. Brazal, Ma. Marilou S. Ibita

About the editors

Cristina Lledo Gomez  is the Presentation Sisters Lecturer at BBI-The Australian Institute of Theological Education (BBI-TAITE) and a Research Fellow for the Australian Centre for Christianity and Culture, Charles Sturt University, Australia. Her role at BBI-TAITE is directed toward promoting women’s spiritualities, feminist theologies, and ecotheologies.  

Agnes M. Brazal  is a Full Professor in the Department of Theology and Religious Education at De La Salle University Manila, The Philippines, former President of DaKaTeo (Catholic Theological Society of the Philippines), and author/editor of eleven books that include  A Theology of Southeast Asia: Liberation-Postcolonial Ethics in the Philippines  (2019). 

Ma. Marilou S. Ibita  is an Associate Professor in the Department of Theology and Religious Education at De La Salle University, The Philippines, and a Visiting Professor in the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. Her research centers around biblical literature and Jewish-Christian dialogue.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : 500 Years of Christianity and the Global Filipino/a

Book Subtitle : Postcolonial Perspectives

Editors : Cristina Lledo Gomez, Agnes M. Brazal, Ma. Marilou S. Ibita

Series Title : Pathways for Ecumenical and Interreligious Dialogue

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47500-9

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Religion and Philosophy , Philosophy and Religion (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-031-47499-6 Published: 30 January 2024

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-47502-3 Due: 12 February 2025

eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-47500-9 Published: 29 January 2024

Series ISSN : 2634-6591

Series E-ISSN : 2634-6605

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXV, 317

Number of Illustrations : 4 b/w illustrations

Topics : Christian Theology , Comparative Religion , History of Religion , Asian Culture , History of Southeast Asia

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"The Object and Means of Catechesis According to Contemporary Philippine Catechetical Magisterium." East Asian Pastoral Review 48, no. 3 (2011): 258-281.

This essay is an analysis of the Philippine Church's official teaching on the object and means of catechesis in the light of current realities facing Filipino Catholics today. The first part provides some background information on Philippine civil and ecclesiastical realities, followed by a discussion on specifically catechetical challenges confronting Filipino Catholics in general, and in the settings of the family, parish, and school. The second part presents the sources of Philippine magisterium on catechesis, followed by an analysis of what the sources determine to be the object or goal, and the corresponding means of catechesis in the Philippines today (2011).

Related Papers

Eric Eusebio

This essay is a sequel to a previous article on “The Object and Means of Catechesis in Contemporary Philippine Catechetical Magisterium,” published in the preceding issue of East Asian Pastoral Review. The first part presents concrete examples of catechetical programs and manuals that seek to apply the principle of integration expressed in Philippine magisterial documents, especially in the National Catechetical Directory for the Philippines of 1984 (NCDP) and its 2007 revised edition, the New National Catechetical Directory for the Philippines (NNCDP). These manuals under study are used primarily for family, parish, and school catechesis, respectively. The second part of this essay provides some recommendations directed towards the further improvement of catechesis in the Philippines.

International Journal of Research Studies in Education

Leonardo Jr. Quimson

In 2021, the Philippines makes history and builds milestone for celebrating its 500 years of Christianity. The Filipino faith has been tested through time and became known and recognized in the world. But aside from celebration, it is also a reality that a lot is still to be improved in catechizing the young, for they expect more on the Church to be "guide and companion". This experience also calls for renewal in the Church to make the Gospel known, embraced, and lived upon at present. This study tries to trace back how the Christian faith started in the Philippines through the efforts of people who spread the faith and how it flourished as years went by until the present where the Church, through renewal movements, continues Her mission to all. The researcher uses document analysis approach in collecting and verifying information and faith experiences from resources in Philippine Church history and put side by side with the recent Church documents in the Philippines as way of renewal in catechesis. Finally, it proposes ways to make the teaching of faith more meaningful and effective to learners and, for catechists to be nourished always in this mission they received from Jesus.

Robin Camilleri

Throughout the centuries the Church has given great importance to the passing on of the tenets of Christianity to the faithful. Teaching about our faith is crucial for the transmission of knowledge and the survival of the Catholic faith. Thus, one can perceive the importance of the role of the catechist for the renewal of our Church. Consequently, the identity and the formation of catechists take paramount importance, more so as we are experiencing what Baumann (2016) terms “liquid society”. Secularization, fast change, and individualism, aided and abetted by an ever-important social media, have changed the rules of the game. Recent studies (Census 2017, Faith and Church Attendance Survey Report 2018) reveal that there is a dwindling participation of the faithful at religious events, such as Sunday mass. Furthermore, the number of catechists has undoubtedly diminished. This indicates that the Church needs to re-evaluate fundamental aspects of the way it is reaching out to the faithful. More importantly, it means that the Church must analyse, evaluate and, if necessary, rethink the way in which it is transmitting its teachings to the younger generation, in this case, children. Hence, the crucial role of the catechist comes into the foreground. The Pontifical Council for Promoting new Evangelization, in its Directory for Catechesis (2020) and the Apostolic Letter of Pope Francis Antiquum Ministerium, emphasizes the importance of the formation of the catechist. It goes on to highlight that in a rapidly changing social culture, along with the plurality of cultures enmeshed in our daily narratives, the catechist needs to be firmly grounded in his or her formation and at the same time, keep constantly updated on concepts, processes and basic aims in order to keep up with this all-encompassing change. The Catechetical Scholar Jayne Ragasa-Mondoy, in her article Three-Dimensional Formation of Catechists, stresses the importance of balance between knowledge, attitude and skill, for any individual. This is more so for the catechist. Ragasa-Mondoy matches the cognitive with knowledge, affective with attitude/being and behavioural with skill. This study will focus upon the importance of call, mission and formation of the catechist. It will contribute towards a greater understanding of the identity, mission and formation of Catholic parish catechists, whilst supporting the spiritual growth of individuals within the Catholic faith community through: Examination of the theological foundations; Outlining the responsibilities; Discussing the necessary skills, and; Analyzing formation initiatives.

The Reflection (ISSN 2546-0544)

Philip Joseph Sarmiento

This paper articulates the possible emerging themes of Catholic education in the Philippines. A profile review of some well-known Catholic educational institutions was done to analyze their own charism or identity. The paper concludes that Catholic educational institutions formulated their charisms based on the life and teachings of their patron saints or founders making their institutions unique but they adhered to the same principles of Catholic education. Though many but one heart and mind in mission, Catholic educational institutions bring Filipinos closer to Jesus. After all, they only serve their true purpose when they can turn their students to emulate Christ. Catholic educational institutions should also make it a point that they remain " Catholic " and " Filipino " in fulfilling their mission to the society.

SAMUEL HEINRICH SOLIVEN

International Journal of Research Studies in Education (IJRSE)

Catechesis or Religious Education is the act or process of teaching the faith to make the Gospel of Jesus be known to all people. As the Lord commissioned the apostles during the mission mandate to "go and proclaim the good news to all nations and baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit", it clearly shows the very vital role and mission of the Church to evangelize and make disciples of Christ. With this great responsibility, the Church, through the help of the Catholic schools, must proclaim the Christian faith to all, not only the Catholics and Christians, but to all people, regardless of faith and culture. The message of Christ's teaching is rooted in love, which is common among all religions and beliefs. In celebrating this Year of Ecumenism, Interreligious dialogue and Indigenous cultures, the researcher conducted a study and tried to find out the impact or effect of catechesis or religious education to the students of the University of Santo Tomas Senior High School who are non-Catholics and non-Christians in their faith life. The respondents of this study are the students from the Grade 12 level under the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) strand. Moreover, the researcher used the "mixed method" of descriptive method through survey questionnaires in order to gather and analyze data. The results of the study would be a great help for catechists and religious educators to know if there is an outcome or impact in teaching the Christian faith to people who have different faiths and culture. At the end, this research would also suggest some ways in order to make catechesis more effective, holistic and inclusive in nurturing one's relationship with God and promote dialogue, harmony and understanding among different faiths especially for the strengthening of the mission of Catholic Schools to make known and echo the message of Jesus.

Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints (Special Issue: Filipino Catholicism)

Jayeel Cornelio

PSHEV vol 62 no 3–4 (2014) Table of Contents Jayeel S. Cornelio Guest Editor's Introduction (attached here) ARTICLES David T. Buckley Catholicism’s Democratic Dilemma: Varieties of Public Religion in the Philippines Jose Mario C. Francisco, SJ People of God, People of the Nation: Official Catholic Discourse on Nation and Nationalism Coeli Barry Women Religious and Sociopolitical Change in the Philippines, 1930s–1970s Manuel Victor J. Sapitula Marian Piety and Modernity: The Perpetual Help Devotion as Popular Religion in the Philippines Deirdre de la Cruz The Mass Miracle: Public Religion in the Postwar Philippines Josefina Socorro Flores Tondo Sacred Enchantment, Transnational Lives, and Diasporic Identity: Filipina Domestic Workers at St. John Catholic Cathedral in Kuala Lumpur Jayeel S. Cornelio Popular Religion and the Turn to Everyday Authenticity: Reflections on the Contemporary Study of Philippine Catholicism Julius Bautista and Peter J. Bräunlein Ethnography as an Act of Witnessing: Doing Fieldwork on Passion Rituals in the Philippines Paul-François Tremlett Urban Religious Change at the Neoliberal Frontier: Notes toward a Spatial Analysis of a Contemporary Filipino Vernacular Catholicism RESEARCH NOTES Adrian Hermann The Early Periodicals of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (1903–1904) and the Emergence of a Transregional and Transcontinental Indigenous-Christian Public Sphere Victor L. Badillo, SJ American Jesuit Prisoners of War, 1942–1945 BOOK REVIEWS Grace Liza Y. Concepcion Julius J. Bautista's Figuring Catholicism: An Ethnohistory of the Santo Niño de Cebu Isabel Consuelo A. Nazareno Romeo B. Galang Jr.'s A Cultural History of Santo Domingo Arjan P. Aguirre Lukas Kaelin's Strong Family, Weak State: Hegel’s Political Philosophy and the Filipino Family

Genesis Maylar David

Encyclopedia of Teacher Education

Jove Jim S Aguas

Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft

Fides A . del Castillo

The quincentenary of the Catholic Church in the Philippines is a testimony to the Christian mission’s value. This study explores the various perspectives on faith and the Catholic Church in the Philippines by elaborating the 1) Christianization of the Philippines, 2) Religious Articulations of Filipino Youth, 3) Basic Ecclesial Communities, and 4) Tracing God’s Presence and the Christian Mission. It aims to unravel the salience of religion among Filipinos, the embedment of Christian faith in culture and society, and its various articulations in modern times. The paper concluded that the commemoration of the 500 years of Christianity continues to challenge the Filipino Catholics to lead lives of heroic love and become modern witnesses to the love of Christ.

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Filipino Values And Our Christian Faith

Evelyn miranda-feliciano.

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Remembering 500 Years of Christianity in the Philippines

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Imported to the Philippine islands by Spanish imperialists, Catholicism has had complex and contradictory impacts on the nation’s subsequent evolution.

The Saint Augustine Church, completed in 1710, in the municipality of Paoay, Ilocos Norte, the Philippines.

As I was reading the final papers submitted by the students in the course I teach on world religion, I noticed a common theme when it comes to their appreciation for religion in general, and for Christianity in particular. While most acknowledged the significant role of Christianity as an institution in the Philippines, there was a sense of ambivalence when it came to appreciating the religion’s overall impact in the country, due to the controversies in which it has often been involved, both historically and in contemporary society.

The complexity of these feelings reflects a larger reality in the country as it celebrates the 500th anniversary of the arrival of Christianity in the Philippines this year. The year-long celebration will formally begin on April 4, 2021 – Easter Sunday – and end on April 22, 2022. The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) is spearheading the celebration, and has been working on it for the last nine years. Among the events to be commemorated are the first Easter Mass in the country on the island of Limasawa, and the first baptism in Cebu. More than 500 “ Jubilee churches ” have also been identified for the celebration. Pilgrims who visit one of these churches any time until April 22, 2022 may receive plenary indulgences according to the February 25 decree issued by Pope Francis to the CBCP. Many Filipino Catholics also tuned in to the Pope’s March 14 mass, which was dedicated to the 500-year anniversary of Christianity in the Philippines.

Celebrating – or even remembering – the arrival of Christianity in the Philippines, however, is complex and wrought with controversy. For one thing, the evangelization of the Philippines is understandably tied up with the reality of Spanish colonialism. The phrase “the Sword and the Cross” is commonly used in discussing the Spanish conquest of  the Philippine islands in the 16th century. With Christianity sometimes described by some historians and educators as an instrument of colonialism, it shares some blame for the violence, abuses, and oppression that Filipinos experienced at the hands of Spain.

This narrative still figures significantly today, both in popular memory and formal history education. Textbooks, curriculum guides, and class discussions usually highlight the role of the friars in the pacification of the Philippines, as well as their abuses, especially in the late 19th century. This negative perception of the Church and the friars was entrenched in the popular imagination by Jose Rizal’s path-breaking novels “Noli Me Tangere” and “El Filibusterismo,” which have become required readings in schools and universities. Even President Rodrigo Duterte was dismissive of the commemoration, saying that he does not see the relevance of celebrating an event that led to the colonization and subjugation of Filipinos.

Remembering Christianity’s arrival in the Philippine islands can also be a sensitive topic for segments of the population who have suffered especially because of it. Despite the well-meaning efforts of the friars during the early Spanish colonial period, certain indigenous practices, beliefs and traditions were altered, replaced, or forgotten due to evangelization. One of the most cited issues related to this was that of precolonial shamans called babaylan , who were vilified and disempowered in the process of evangelization. Some feminists and gender rights activists also blame Christianity for the introduction of patriarchal social structures and the prevailing conservatism of the country when it comes to women and gender issues. The Christianization of the country has also led to the marginalization of non-Christian narratives in Philippine history, such as that of Muslim Mindanao .

Certain advocacy groups have also historically clashed with the Catholic Church and other Christian groups over various pieces of progressive legislation. In 1956, for example, the Catholic Church hierarchy and several Christian lay organizations fiercely opposed Republic Act 1425 – more commonly known as the Rizal Law – which required educational institutions to study the life and works of Rizal, particularly the two anti-colonial novels mentioned above. The Catholic Church hierarchy and several Christian groups also lobbied for decades against the Reproductive Health Bill , even after it was eventually passed into law in 2012. Moreover, these same groups continue to represent the most entrenched opposition to the legalization of divorce in the Philippines. Christianity’s involvement in politics has also been highlighted given the tendency of certain politicians to cite Christian values and texts when dealing with social issues, and even when arguing for controversial legislation such as the re-imposition of the death penalty .

As an educator, I believe that one of the greater challenges in the commemoration of Christianity’s 500-year history in the country is the lack of opportunity for most Filipinos to discuss and learn about Church history, something that would make the commemoration more meaningful for many people.

For one thing, an accurate knowledge and appreciation of Philippine Church history can help correct (or add nuance to) some of the common misconceptions about the Church, especially regarding its role in colonization and the abuses usually associated with it. While the negative stereotypes about Christianity have a solid basis, an accurate and a more nuanced study of Philippine Church History could lead to a fuller appreciation of the role of Christianity in the formation of the nation. For example, while supporting the Spanish conquest, the Church has also been at the forefront of fights for justice, from the Synod of Manila in 1582 to the bishops and religious officials who have spoken out against extrajudicial killings of the present day. The Catholic Church and other Christian groups have also been integral in promoting acts of charity throughout history, from setting up hospitals, leprosariums, and asylums during the Spanish colonial period, to providing aid and shelter for typhoon victims and those affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Learning more about the history of Philippine Christianity may also provide Filipino Christians and clerics with the necessary knowledge and perspective to allow them to critically evaluate how they have responded (and are responding) to the call of the times. Christianity’s successes over the last half-millennium may offer inspiration and direction for its leaders and believers, but a recognition of its failures might also provide a much-needed humility, and caution against a triumphalist approach to the commemoration.

Lastly, one can hope that the study of Philippine Church history may also invite people to realize that the quincentennial celebration is also an affirmation of how Christianity has transcended its colonial roots, and has been integrated in the culture and identity of Filipino Christians who have repeatedly chosen the faith despite multiple opportunities to abandon it. It is a testament not just to the relevance of the religion, but to the agency of Filipinos in charting their own destiny.

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Filipino Christian Living

It discussed about to understand a democratic leadership. perpetualite: a man for others states that “In a democratic community each person is assumed to have equal significance without assuming, precisely, that all members have the same skills and gift. It does mean, however, that each person has unique talent that contribute to the group’s power base.

In a Christian point of view, leadership in a democratic style speaks of “Democratic community building that requires a knowledgeable leader who recommends that action be taken by the entire group; no authority figure; the leader listens and respects the other group members, encourages independence and offers guidance in the name of cooperation. Jesus as a democratic leader gives freedom of choice to his discipline and followers. He never forces anybody to follow and believe him. He respects the potentials and capabilities of his followers and the people around him. e is always leading and giving good example to his disciples.

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As a Filipino perpetualite christians, we are expected to live the culture of our race and to be proud of it. In one way or another, we will realize that everything is really temporary. What makes us being remembered is out memory on the people around us especially if you are a leader. Man and the sacred scripture.

Many centuries had passed and many generations had gone, a lot of disasters and events of humankind had changed and shaped human history from ancient to the wonderful story in the holy bible that is still reliable to the present situations. The Word of God is power. It has been the goal of man to attain the fullness of success. But in every success, it is undeniable that temptation is always on the way to destroy and discourage man’s relationship with God.

What is a commandment? A commandments defines the implication of belonging to god through the establishment of the covenant and acknowledgment given to god and worship of thanksgiving/(CCC 2062). To observe something strictly especially which one that interferes of our common understanding of freedom is really very difficult. The observance of commandments. Many Christians failed to live and observe properly the commandments of god due to some reason and excuses. Parental obedience.

In the family, obedience is always expected especially for the parents. The parents are always looked-up as the figure of commanding authority. Respect! Respect is defined as, “a feeling of deep admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities, qualities, or achievements”. The Authority of Commandment. The commandments are the life of every Perpetualite Christian Leaders.

A commandments defines the implication of belonging to god through the establishment of the covenant and acknowledgment given to god and worship of thanksgiving/(CCC 2062). To observe something strictly especially which one that interferes of our common understanding of freedom is really very difficult.

Respect is defined as, “a feeling of deep admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities,qualities, or achievements”. Topic 20: The observance for good manners As Perpetualite, we ought to be a man in the world. In relation to his fellowmen and other creatures, it is a reality that we cannot live without our fellow human beings and the world where we live. The Prime Education objectives. According to Fr. Pedro Arrupe, S. J “today our prime educational objective must be to form person for others; people who will not live for themselves but for god and his Christ-for the god-man who lived and died for the entire World”.

Man as being in the world. Let us borrow the philosophical understanding and explanation of man in the world form the book entitled, “the human person: not real, but existing”, by Eddie R. Bacor, states that “the term world is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words which means:weor and old. The term “weor” means “man” and the term “old” is interpreted as “age”. Literally, the world is interpreted as “ the age of man. ”(Babor, 2007).

Leadership at home Home is both the home or shelter and household or family. ”It plays a very important role in the life of any society, and it is the basic and most fundamental unit in any society. ” Parents need to realize that every world and deed of a parent is a fiber woven into the character of the child. Children on their part have to respect their parents authority over them and pity the home where everyone is the head. Children have an obligation to care for their parents especially in their old age. Christian Value. The Christian value that can help leadership be properly exercised in the family are summarized more concretely by Dr. Paul Kelly, an orthopedic, surgeon and family counselor.

This will emphasize the parental authority and responsibility as part of christian leadership. As we know, leadership always starts at home. Christian family should strive hard in forming and educating their children in according These inclinations are the primary responsibilities of the parents the first inclination speaks of good intention in rearing children as one great responsibility. The second inclination speaks of being true parents and not merely assuming responsibilities and later blames the children. The third inclination speaks of parent main objectives in having families-it is for self-preservations but not for selfish intention. The last inclination is to their parents as role models in community life.

In this chapter, it will discussed about a leadership in work which is a work without a leader would be in the state of chaos for it will be moving in different directions or in decision making without achieving the goal and the mission of the institution. The advantage of having a leader in a work is that it will give us clarity and direction on the mission and vision of the working group where they would stand and move on especially on the expectations of the management or the owner or corporate management. The following discussions will help you understand on how to promote leadership in work and why we need leaders in work.

How to promote leadership in work? The book entitled, “leaders for today hope for tomorrow”,by D’Sourza, Anthony A. (2001). The effective Characteristics of Leadership. Leadership in work must be the channel for progress as the author says, “these characteristics are quite different from those most people think of as reason aspire to leadership in corporations or in civic, social or political life.

The term civic is commonly defined as pertaining to a city, municipal or pertaining to citizenship. It comes from the Latin word “civicus” which means citizen. We need civic leaders to organize the community or municipality and even the city. They are taking in charge of communities’ need and security. In attaining civic organization, the people and the leader should remember the following concepts in attaining a smooth and progressive relationship:

• Effective Communication Skills. It is an on going dialogue for good interaction.
• Motivation. The idea is to inspire people to go beyond just doing a good job.
• Teamwork. Members are valuable contributors to the success of the organization.
• Organization and Time Management. A place for everything and everything in its place is a good rule of thumb.
• Resolving Conflict and Solving Problems. There is a need to identify conflict as early as possible and determine its causes.
• Evaluation. Once the support network is in place, it becomes the leader’s duty to evaluate the members and their work.
• Foster Positive Integrations. This is to support, encourage, and reinforce the mission and culture of the organization.
• Leadership is an Expression of You. Leaders are very special people in many ways.

Many are deprived of the opportunity to benefit the goods and opportunity which is for all.

What is Graph and Corruptions? Graft is defined as,”bribery and other corrupt practices used to secure illicit advantages or gains in politics or business. Many in leadership positions even justify its widespread practice with the following rationale:

• Compensation of government employees is too low that it is natural for civil servants to augment their pay through other (often corrupt) means;
• Corruption could enhance economic efficiency by helping restore artificial and administratively determined prices to market levels;
• Corruption plays a useful role in allowing cumbersome administrative procedures to be by passed and as a vehicle for distributive justice by transferring resources from the wealthy to those of modest means;
• Corruption is lubricant for economic development.

Political leaders of society who looks at public service and elected positions in the government as an opportunity for business, influence, power peddling are more likely will resort to nepotism in their term of office. Nepotism occurs when the person who wields the power to decide gives certain favor to a relative in form of an employment. Nepotism as an Ethical and Moral issue in the Philippines. It can be traced back to the once-treasured-value of Filipinos: “delicadeza” whch aptly corresponds to the sayings: “nakakahiya , nakaka-dyahi; or baka may masabi ang ibang tao”; or walang kamag-anak, walang kumpa-kumpare!

The abandonment of this value subsequently dawns the issue of nepotism. When can we say that nepotism is committed? There are three terms that we just must consider in the definition of nepotism:

• Employment.

This chapter discussed about Hospitality where in how can we revive the culture and practice of hospitality in our country especially in this post modern era? Hospitality is defined as “the friendly and generous reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers” (Oxford, 2003). But why we need hospitality? Commonly heard by many of us but seldom realized the importance of it especially in the post-modern world.

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An Immigrant’s Heritage Sets the Stage for a Life of Service

Christian Gloria was a certified personal trainer working one-on-one with affluent clients in Austin, Texas, when his heartstrings tugged. “I found myself on the second floor of this beautiful, expensive gym, looking literally across the train tracks wishing I could do more,” says the associate professor and deputy chair for the Department of Sociomedical Sciences . “I wanted to work with communities like my family who don’t have access to those kinds of programs and services.”

Gloria was 11 when his family emigrated from the Philippines to California, and then Texas. After earning his PhD from The University of Texas at Austin, he headed west. “I decided to do a leap of faith and move as close to Asia as possible,” says Gloria, who spent nearly a decade on the faculty at Hawaii Pacific University, where he oversaw the launch of the state’s first CEPH-accredited Bachelor of Science in Public Health (BSPH) and its first fully-online 12-month accelerated Master of Public Health (MPH) degree programs. He also started visiting his homeland, intent on giving back through public health research, training, and workforce development.

“People say that public health is a discovery degree—it never goes as planned and the job calls you,” says Gloria, who came to Columbia in 2021 and serves as both director and principal investigator for the U.S. Health Resources and Services Administration’s Columbia Mailman-based Region 2 Public Health Training Center. “Some people prefer to stay in one lane. I love to run to emergencies.”

Filipino nurses are a significant workforce around the world. How has their experience during the pandemic affected your work?

Gloria: In the U.S., Filipinos make up 4 percent of the nursing workforce. But one-third of the nurses who died during COVID were Filipino. In 2023, colleagues and I started Healing Heritage , a project with other Filipino-American researchers that has evolved to include partners from Norfolk State University, Loyola University of Chicago, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Harvard, and Princeton, with funding from Columbia’s Institute for Religion, Culture, and Public Life. We’re interviewing [Filipino nurses] about their experiences during the pandemic—which was also a time of anti-Asian hate events—about how they coped with the stresses, and how religion or faith played any role in their experiences. New York City has a large Filipino community; my dream is to establish a center for Filipino community health that I’m hoping will be based at Columbia.

What are the topics you’re tackling through the Public Health Training Center?

Gloria: We assess the needs of the public health workforce, as well as develop and deliver trainings to meet these needs for our region, which includes New York, New Jersey, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Priority trainings lately have been in the topics of climate health, gun safety, de-escalation and conflict resolution, data science, technology and health, telehealth, trauma informed care, cultural humility and multicultural competence, health policy and advocacy, and mental health promotion and burnout prevention.

You have robust professional ties in the Philippines. How did those come about?

Gloria: In Hawaii, there’s a large Filipino-American community. Most youth there know nothing about our home country, don’t speak our native language. They inspired me to go back home and starting in 2015, to visit every school of public health I could find, with a mission to establish exchange programs for students and faculty.

How did the Philippine government’s 2017 Mental Health Act  set the stage to expand your work there?

Gloria: Historically, there’s been a terrible stigma against even talking about mental health in the Philippines. My PhD was on mental health, stress, coping, and resilience. The 2017 Mental Health Act recognizes mental health as a medical issue and opens up funding for research and intervention programs. The government and universities invited me to become a Balik Scientist (or “Returning” Scientist), which is a program designed to reverse the country’s brain drain, and I became the country’s first mental health expert funded by this government program.

What was your role?

Gloria: My mission as a mental health visiting scientist was to help faculty and students from the department of psychology at Angeles University Foundation (Pampanga, Philippines) who are clinically trained, but not public health trained. They wanted to do population-level surveillance. I helped them bring their clinical training into communities and into the public health field, and I provided trainings on preparing research articles for publications to international scientific journals. The goal of the Balik Scientist Program is to bring scientists back home and incentivize them to stay and serve the country permanently. They certainly tried to do that with me, but it is not yet the right time for me.

What brought you to Columbia Mailman?

Gloria: During the interviews, I fell in love with everyone. People were so accomplished, yet humble. I was so in awe of the support system that Columbia has in place for faculty to be successful and world-renowned. One thing I love about Mailman and its students is how diverse everyone is, coming from all walks of life, all parts of the world, all kinds of experience and training—many are already leaders in their field. It’s a beautiful melting pot of brilliant people.

Stavropol, South Russia: In Search of Gorbachev’s Roots

The origins of a soviet leader revered as a visionary reformer in the west, but reviled as a weak American puppet in his native land

This article is taken from the July 2021 issue of The Critic. To get the full magazine why not subscribe? Right now we’re offering five issue for just £10 .

P eople of my generation — Westerners at least — who grew up at the tail-end of the Cold War can still get a bit starry-eyed about Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev, the former Soviet premier who celebrated his ninetieth birthday in March this year. Leader from 1985 to 1991, he seemed to end the Cold War overnight, showed us “communism with a human face” and appeared at pains to sign away the nuclear weapons we had spent our childhoods cowering from.

A leader popular enough to get a nickname, to us he was “Gorby”, the man in the black trilby, the approachable Soviet premier that Margaret Thatcher could “do business with”. He was the communist who made Reagan revise his estimates of the USSR as “an Evil Empire” and consign the phrase to “another time, another era.”

Yet in Russia itself, away from metropolitan liberal circles, pro-Gorby declarations are usually met with pity or contempt. In his own country, he is remembered as the windbag with port wine stains — “Misha the Marked” — the apparatchik who harangued them with interminable speeches in a Wurzel-like Southern burr and let them down where it really mattered. He left the economy in ruins, the shops empty, the queues for household goods a daily torment.

With his perestroika (a radical restructuring of Soviet life) and glasnost (openness) he managed to break up an empire, shaking the USSR so hard it came to pieces in his hands. “A traitor”, you hear, “a weak, soft leader”, “naïve”, a “bad politician” and — the worst crime of all — “He was working for the Americans”.

Objections that he worked not for but with the Americans and had to do so to save the Soviet economy, are usually dismissed. For many, Gorbachev did the unforgivable. “What can one make,” muttered one Russian acquaintance, “of a man who inherits a family of nations and then just gives it all away?”

Yet as with so many of my generation, Gorby-loyalty is in my DNA. Those of us who have spent our adult lives travelling or living in Eastern Europe largely owe them to Gorbachev and his reforms, his demolishing of the Iron Curtain. At any rate, when I was offered the chance to visit his birthplace in South Russia earlier this year, I grabbed it at once. There were few world-figures whose origins interested me more.

Cupolas and idealism

G orbachev’s birthplace, Privolnoe, can be found about 90 miles north of Stavropol, the Southern city he was later to make, as Regional General Secretary, almost literally his own. It’s a village of about 3,000 people surrounded by, as he put it, “steppe, steppe and more steppe”, endless flat green prairie.

Alongside the motorway heading to it are numerous roadside cemeteries and thickets of trees all painted, in the Russian way, fetlock-high in whitewash, a precaution against insects and heat. The sun beats down from a vast sky and the floating clouds are a procession of wonderful shapes. Some look like work-brigades, some faintly like sputniks, others like combine harvesters. Here the weather can change instantly: Brits will feel at home. Privolnoe today is a well-manicured collection of one-storey brick or wooden houses complete with iris-blue shutters. It is surrounded by playing fields for the village’s kids, and springy-looking meadows with wildflowers.

Unlike many Russian villages it has an infrastructure — for which read a bar and a decent supermarket — and everywhere there are stabs at a kind of (naïve) idealism. By the side of the road an enormous figure of a goose sits by a fairy-tale well, with the slogan “Protect Beauty” next to it. There’s a children’s playground called “The Ant Hill” with a mocked-up dragon and robots, and an Eternal Flame at the end of an avenue.

Nearby is one of the city’s war memorials. As different from ours as can be imagined, it shows the faces, absurdly young, of four of the city’s fallen, with “They Could Have Lived” accusing you beside them. Right behind are the cupolas of the village’s Orthodox Church — funded, it seems, heavily by Gorbachev — and the village’s “House of Culture” for knees-ups and fun. Though populated, like most Russian villages, either by children or the elderly (those of working age have left for the city) it’s a place whose pride in itself is clear.

Childhood of terrors

I t was Gorbachev’s house I wanted to find, and the first person I asked pointed me to it. It can be found by turning left down a side-road, then left again by the school — a dull grey building with happy transfers of aeroplanes and tanks stuck to the window, at which Gorbachev himself studied way back when. There’s little fanfare surrounding the Gorbachev home: simply a grey brick building behind fences with a metal roof and those trademark blue shutters which seem to define the village. It looks closed-up and unvisited, except by foreign film crews and Gorb-anoraks such as myself.

When I tell a cashier at the local shop why I’m there, her lip curls: “Oh, so you respect him in England, do you?” In a BBC news extract from 2016, villagers were more balanced. “Of course, Mikhail did a lot for our village, a lot,” one local says, “but as for the USSR, we’re upset about that.” Another echoes him, “Germany’s united now, but our country fell apart. That’s a mistake by our leaders. They could have saved it.”

Privolnoe has endured worse. The village, founded in 1861, has been through as much as any southern Russian village, but 1931, when Gorbachev was born, was one of the low points. Stavropol Krai , Privolnoe’s region, is heavily agricultural, packed with sunflowers and wheat. This made it vulnerable to Stalin’s collectivisation campaign, as he wrenched private land away from reluctant local farmers, to herd them into kolkhozes — collective farms — or send the richer of them to the Gulag.

For those who didn’t comply, a worse fate awaited, and this spelt terror for places like Privolnoe. A terrible famine was inflicted on the South — most notoriously in the Ukraine but here and in Kazakhstan as well — as an already chaotically disrupted workforce saw the grain quotas demanded of them soar, starving the locals to death.

Family memories

I t became a capital crime to steal even an ear of corn, and between 1932 and 1933, two of Gorbachev’s uncles and one of his aunts were to die of starvation. Gorbachev’s earliest childhood memory was of his grandfather boiling up frogs in a desperate attempt to feed his family. He remembered, he said, their white stomachs floating in the bubbling water, though couldn’t remember if he’d choked one down or not.

Such memories are far from uncommon in this region: many families went through the same. Nor was it unique that both Gorbachev’s grandfathers — farmers the pair of them — should be imprisoned under Stalin. One of them, the communist Pantelei, whose zeal didn’t save him from arrest quotas in 1937, was tortured so badly he returned, Gorbachev said, a permanently altered man. The other, Andrei — a pronounced anti-Red — worked so hard in the Gulag he came back from Siberia with four medals for it, thereafter swallowing his politics and getting on with the job.

The terror of Gorbachev’s early childhood gave way to others as the Germans roared into his village in 1941

As his biographer, William Taubman, pointed out, Gorbachev’s life as a child was already ideologically riven. Andrei’s house was stuffed with religious icons, Pantelei’s with portraits of Stalin and Lenin. The grandfather who believed in Christianity was hard as nails, while Pantelei, the Party Man, was warm and kind, and despite his rural background seemed almost an intellectual. Gorbachev seemed to live out these contradictions all his life.

The terror of Gorbachev’s early childhood gave way to others as the Germans roared into his village in 1941. Their four-month occupation left the place in tatters, the community divided, the women reduced to dragging ploughs themselves in a desperate attempt at a harvest. For a period, Gorbachev lived on a single cup of uncooked grain a day.

Later, as men up to the age of 50 were conscripted and the working age dropped to 12, he began to slog regularly as an employee of the Machine Tractor-Station. In 1949, just turned 18, he received “The Order of the Red Banner of Labour”. Along with his candidate membership of the Party, it ushered him into Moscow University, to study law. It was goodbye to the village.

Unstoppable rise

I t is difficult to think of greater contrasts to Privolnoe than Moscow, but Gorbachev never worked as the lawyer he trained to become there. When he emerged with a degree five years later, it was to a different world.

Gorbachev had in 1953 married his Raisa, a philosophy student, but something even more momentous happened that same year. A few months earlier, Stalin had died and the country was changing fast. In Stavropol region — Gorbachev went back there to start his working life — there was a shattering backlog of cases, as prisoners flung into Gulags for poor harvests in the thirties now had their charges re-evaluated and their sentences overturned.

To a newly-wed, one can see why the backbreaking tonnage of legal paperwork might not have appealed. Instead, Komsomol, the Soviet youth organisation (a kind of boy-scouts/girl-guides with political teeth) had vacancies, many of their senior members leaping to fill posts at the newly-created KGB. Within a few years, Gorby had been made Komsomol First Secretary for the region. His unstoppable rise had begun.

By now, he and Raisa were living in Stavropol. A fort-town in the North Caucasus, it was established in 1777 and is now Russia’s “greenist city”. Today Stavropol is stuffed with shopping centres, wine bars, street cafes and a population of 400,000. Back when Gorbachev arrived, it barely scraped a quarter of that, the town almost a big village.

Raisa Gorbacheva, she of the natty dress-sense and catty relationship with US First Lady Nancy Reagan, spoke about the “sea of mud” she had to cross to get to the Teachers’ Institute, the lack of central heating and running water (she and Gorbachev had to fetch theirs from a public fountain).

Not that life started very beautifully for the Gorbachevs in Stavropol. They lived in a single room with (in Raisa’s words) “a bed, a table, two chairs and two huge boxes full of books”. Raisa cooked each night on a paraffin burner in the communal corridor. The house, 49 Kazansky Street, a solid-looking affair, can still be found quite easily, up a slope and a sandy road, though there’s no plaque at all to its previous occupants (in fact Stavropol region, in terms of memorials, seems to have washed its hands of the Gorbachevs altogether).

As Gorbachev worked his way up through Komsomol and then the Party, their circumstances improved, with better properties on Morozov and Dzherzhinski streets. These names (still in place) are bitterly ironic — one referring to a young snitch (Pavel Morozov) who shopped his parents for unorthodoxy, the other to Felix Dzerzhinski, creator of the Soviet secret police. A Russia, in other words, Gorbachev did so much to try and free his people from.

Perestroika , he always said, had started for him in Stavropol. Made General Secretary for the entire region in 1970 — the Stavropol party boss — he brought in numerous reforms to agricultural work, introducing incentives and restructuring the farming system. Colleagues from the time have mixed memories. Some of them speak of his geniality, his openness and energy, the fact he drank so little. Yet historian William Taubman reports others describing him as “vain and easily offended”, “two-faced” in his habit of saying “different things to different people”, and “with a craving for power that led him to fawn on those who would give it to him.”

Such things though were endemic to the USSR and arguably came with the job, and the Gorbachev we know in the West was summed up by another colleague: “He was a great guy: inspiring, loved to joke and laugh, didn’t get drunk, a good, progressive thinker.”

Powerful allies

O nly one criticism was to dog him throughout his career: his failure to thank the people who helped him. Later, in the Kremlin, it bled loyalty away from those who might have been his rescuers.

But nothing helped Gorbachev more in his ambitions than Stavropol itself. At the bicentenary of the city in 1977 (part of his luck), a key visitor from Moscow was Mikhail Suslov — Chief Ideologue of the Party and creepy grey eminence of the Brezhnev years. Gorbachev, ever the genial host, schmoozed him and made an ally. He was boosted too by Stavropol’s geography, and those sanatoria in the Caucasian mountains. Not only Suslov but prime minister Kosygin and KGB head Yuri Andropov had diabetes and kidney problems. When they visited the South for treatment, Gorbachev was on hand to wine and dine them, gaining three patrons in the process.

In November 1978, after some stunning agricultural successes, he received the call to join the Central Committee in Moscow. He and Raisa packed their bags and left Stavropol forever — back to Moscow and the centre of power. Just seven years and three dead General Secretaries later, Gorbachev, aged 54, would be leading the whole empire.

His father Sergei, who from Privolnoe witnessed so many of his son’s successes, wasn’t alive to see these ones, having died in 1976 (his grave is easily locatable in Privolnoe’s tranquil cemetery). But his words from an earlier letter give some sense of what Gorbachev’s family might have felt:

“We congratulate you on your new job. There is no limit to your mother’s and father’s joy and pride. We wish you good health and great strength for your work for your country’s well-being.”

Heartening words, from a father to a son. But whether you nod respectfully at that final phrase or scream with laughter will very much depend, it seems, on a single thing: which side of the Iron Curtain you grew up on. Perhaps the last word, though, should go to Gorbachev himself. Asked by film-maker Werner Herzog in 2019 what his epitaph should be, he had a ready answer: “Mi staralis … We tried.”

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• Celebrity News

Georgy Kavkaz’s Life and Career: Net Worth, Family, and More

Georgy Kavkaz is a Russian chef, food blogger, and YouTuber who has captured millions of hearts and taste buds with his unique dishes and engaging content.

Georgy embraced the rich and diverse Caucasian food culture with passion and dedication. Through his popular YouTube channel, he shares his love for the traditional flavors and culinary techniques of the Caucasus region with his ever-growing audience.

In this article, we delve into the life of Georgy Kavkaz, exploring his rise to fame, personal life, and the secrets behind his culinary success. Below is a tabular summary of facts about him.

Georgy Kavkaz Biography

Georgy Kavkaz was born on February 25, 1980, in Stavropol Krai, Russia. He’s neither Georgian nor Ossetic, as many of his fans speculate.

He is an ethnic Armenian, and his father, Leon Kavkaz, worked for a Russian company while his mother, Warsi Kavkaz, stayed home to care for Georgy and his three siblings.

After completing his public school education, Georgy moved to Moscow to study hotel management at a university.

Georgy Kavkaz Family/Personal Life

Georgy is happily married to Alesia Eremenko, a Russian woman who supports her husband’s culinary pursuits by helping with video creation and recipe development.

The couple has four children – three daughters and one son. A devoted Christian, Georgy is dedicated to his faith and family.

Georgy maintains an active presence on social media, using platforms such as Instagram and Twitter to connect with his fans and promote his culinary creations. His Instagram account, @georgikavkaz, has over 700,000 followers, while his Twitter account, @Georgi_Kavkaz, continues to gain traction.

Georgy Kavkaz Culinary

Initially working in a restaurant after his studies, Georgy decided to share his love for Caucasus cuisine through YouTube in 2016 – teaching his fans the recipe for melon moonshine.

His channel, dedicated to traditional recipes from the Caucasus region, quickly gained popularity, attracting millions of subscribers with its mouthwatering dishes and engaging content.

The Caucasus, a region spanning the borders of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, boasts a diverse culinary heritage that has captured Georgy’s heart. This area is home to various ethnic groups, each with its own distinct culinary traditions.

Georgy’s fascination with the region’s unique gastronomy has led him to immerse himself in exploring and preserving these time-honored dishes.

Georgy’s outdoor cooking style and focus on grilled meat and fish-based dishes set him apart from other content creators, garnering him a loyal fan base.

Beyond his primary YouTube channel,  Georgy Kavkaz Life , Georgy Kavkaz has launched another channel,  Georgy Kavkaz Food .

These channels feature content related to home winemaking from grapes, home brewing, and the natural beauty of the Caucasus region. Collaborating with other businesses, Georgy has successfully marketed his products and expertise to a wider audience, supplementing his income and further solidifying his brand.

In his videos, Georgy showcases the mouthwatering flavors of the Caucasus by expertly preparing a variety of meat-based and fish-based dishes, often using open-flame grilling techniques.

By doing so, he pays homage to the region’s age-old customs and highlights the importance of preserving its culinary heritage. Georgy’s love for the Caucasian food culture is evident in the delicious recipes he shares and how he presents them.

He often cooks outdoors, surrounded by the region’s picturesque landscapes, allowing his viewers to appreciate the beauty and charm of the Caucasus fully. This approach adds a layer of authenticity to his content, making it even more engaging and appealing to his audience.

Georgy Kavkaz Net Worth

Georgy Kavkaz’s estimated net worth is around $2.64 million. His primary source of income is his YouTube channel, which generates approximately $70,000 annually from video views alone.

This figure increases when factoring in brand sponsorships and other partnerships. With a 30-day average viewership of 5 million, Georgy’s content continues to captivate audiences and secure financial success.

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• Stavropol Krai

Circassians in Stavropol Krai

The modern-day Russian region of Stavropol Krai covers parts of the historical Circassian lands in its southern regions bordering Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia and parts of Krasnodar Krai, which was formerly populated by Circassians before the 1860s. Of the historical settlements in the region, today there remain only two Circassian settlements that are home to the small Orthodox Christian Circassian community. The same community is also found in the city of Mozdok in North Ossetia-Alania which was founded in 1763 in Eastern Circassia, Kabarda.

Due to its close proximity and the presence of such cultural, commercial and educational centers as Kislovodsk and Pyatigorsk, which lie only a few miles beyond the borders of the neighbouring Circassian republics, Stavropol does attract Circassian migrants that brings the number of Circassians in the Krai to around 10.000.

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