essay about mosaic art

Roman Mosaic – An Overview of Ancient Roman Mosaic and Tiles

From Antioch to Africa, ancient Roman mosaic art was a ubiquitous component of private residences and public structures. Roman Mosaic tile art is not only stunning in and of itself, but it also serves as essential documentation of everyday objects such as clothing, foodstuff, tools, weaponry, vegetation, and animals. Roman mosaic floor artworks also disclose a lot about Roman pastimes like gladiator fights, athletics, farming, and hunting, and they occasionally even depict the Roman people themselves in vivid and lifelike portraits.

Table of Contents

1.1 Influences and Origins
1.2 Design Evolution of Roman Patterns and Motifs
1.3 Other Roman Mosaic Floor Designs
1.4 Mosaic’s Other Uses
2.1 Plato’s Academy Mosaic
2.2 The Cave Canem Mosaic
3.1 What Is the Origin of Roman Mosaic Floors?
3.2 How Are Roman Mosaic Tiles Made?

Ancient Roman Mosaic Art

The Roman patterns made of small white and black tiles are known as Roman Mosaic art. Glass, ceramics, stones, and even seashells were used to create these square tiles, with a fresh mortar base being initially constructed.

After, the tiles or tesserae were placed as close together as feasible, with any gaps plugged with liquid mortar in a procedure called grouting. The entire thing was then washed and polished.

Influences and Origins

During the Bronze Age, both the Minoans and the Mycenaeans employed flooring made of tiny pebbles. A similar concept, but with repeating motifs, was utilized in the Near East in the eighth century BCE. The first attempts at pebble paving in Greece date back to the 5th century BCE, including specimens at Olynthus and Corinth. They were often two-toned, with light geometric motifs and basic figures on a black background.

Colors were being utilized by the close of the 4th century BCE, and numerous good instances have been discovered in Pella in Macedonia.

These mosaics were frequently strengthened by inlaying pieces of clay or lead, which were frequently employed to delineate contours. However, it wasn’t until the Hellenistic period in the 3rd century BCE that mosaics truly took off as a form of art, with elaborate panels made of tesserae instead of pebbles being mixed into patterned flooring. Many of these mosaics tried to imitate wall murals.

As mosaics advanced in the second century BCE, finer and more accurately cut tesserae were used, and patterns utilized a broad range of colors with colored grouting to complement adjacent tesserae.

This form of mosaic, which employed intricate coloration and shading to produce a painting-like impression, is known as opus vermiculatum , and one of its best artisans was Sorus of Pergamon, whose work, particularly his Drinking Doves mosaic, was widely replicated for years following.

Aside from Pergamon, notable specimens of Hellenistic opus vermiculatum have been discovered in Delos and Alexandria. Because of the time and effort required to create these pieces, they were placed on a marble tray or bordered tray in a specialized workshop. These items were called emblemata because they were frequently utilized as centerpieces for pavements with simpler motifs. These pieces of art were so precious that they were frequently relocated for re-use somewhere else and passed down through generations within families.

A single mosaic might be made up of several emblemata, and as time passed, the emblemata developed to imitate their environment, and they were known as panels.

Design Evolution of Roman Patterns and Motifs

With a topic like mosaics, it’s impossible to depict a precisely linear growth of the art form since there’s so much variation in artistic excellence, public preference, and regional norms. However, certain significant differences and geographical differences can be identified.

At first, the Romans did not deviate from the Hellenistic attitude to mosaics, and they were strongly swayed in regards to the subject matter – sea themes and depictions from Greek mythology – and the creators themselves, as many signed ancient Roman mosaic art contain Greek names. This demonstrated that even in the Roman period, Greeks controlled mosaic design.

One of the most well-known Roman mosaic tile artworks, The Alexander Mosaic , for example, was a replica of a Hellenistic classic artwork by either Aristeides of Thebes or Philoxenus. It is part of the Pompeii mosaics, located at the House of the Faun.

Although Roman mosaics frequently copied earlier colored ones, the Romans eventually developed their own designs, and manufacturing schools were established throughout the empire to nurture their own specific tastes.

These included large-scale hunting sequences and efforts at perspective in the African regions, painterly vegetation, and a foreground viewer in Antioch mosaics, or the European personal taste for figure panels, for instance.

The main Roman style in Italy itself employed solely white and black tesserae, a taste that lasted far into the third century CE and was most frequently used to portray aquatic motifs, particularly when used for Roman baths ( for instance those that are located on the first floor of the Baths of Caracalla.) There was also a penchant for two-dimensional depictions, with a focus on geometric patterns.

The oldest depiction of a humanoid figure in mosaic artwork is found at the Baths of Buticosus in Ostia around 115 CE, and silhouetted figures were popular in the 2nd century CE.

Over time, the mosaics’ depictions of human beings got more lifelike, and precise portraits became more widespread. Meanwhile, in the eastern half of the empire, particularly Antioch, the 4th century CE saw the emergence of mosaics that employed two-dimensional and repeating patterns to produce a “carpet” impression.

This style would go on to profoundly influence subsequent Jewish synagogues and Christian churches.

Other Roman Mosaic Floor Designs

Floors might also be placed with bigger pieces to create greater-scale patterns. Opus signinum flooring was made of colored mortar-aggregate (typically red) and white tesserae that were set in wide patterns or even randomly.

Crosses with five red tesserae and a center tessera in black were a popular pattern in Italy in the first century BCE and remained until the first century CE, but with only black tiles.

Opus sectile was a form of flooring that employed huge colored marble or stone slabs carved into certain shapes. Opus sectile was another Hellenistic method, although the Romans also used it for wall design. Although it was used in many public structures, it wasn’t until the 4th century CE that it became increasingly widespread in private villas.

Following Egyptian influences , opus sectile started to employ opaque glass as the major material.

Mosaic’s Other Uses

Mosaics were not just used on floors. columns, vaults, and fountains were frequently adorned with mosaics, particularly in baths. The first example of its use may be found in the nymphaeum of the “Villa of Cicero” at Formiae in the mid-1st century BCE, when pumice, marble, and shell fragments were utilized. In other places, bits of glass and marble were placed to create the illusion of a natural grotto.

More intricate mosaic panels were also utilized to adorn Nymphaea and fountains by the 1st century CE. The method was also utilized with the Pompeii mosaics to cover walls and pediments, and these murals often mimicked real paintings.

Later Imperial Roman baths’ walls and vaults were also adorned in mosaic utilizing glass, which worked as a reflector of the sunlight striking the pools and provided a shimmering appearance. The flooring of pools was frequently decorated with mosaic, as were the floors of mausolea, which occasionally included an image of the dead.

The Roman utilization of mosaics to embellish wall space and vaults influenced internal decorators of Christian churches beginning in the fourth century CE.

The Pompeii Mosaics

For more than 2000 years, historians, archeologists, and visitors have been enthralled by Pompeii and its devastation. Pliny the Younger’s manuscripts, which were lost beneath debris until unearthed in 1748, included information on a major volcanic eruption that rocked the Bay of Naples. The conventional date of the Mount Vesuvius eruption in 79 CE, although the current study has been conducted to revise this date, even down to the specific day.

The volcano erupted, burying the Bay of Naples, particularly Pompeii, in a thick layer of ash and detritus, functioning as a protective blanket over the people, structures, and materials of the site.

Because of the chemical composition of the volcanic ash and its unique qualities, archeologists have discovered nothing less than a perfectly intact Roman metropolis during the height of the Roman Empire over the last 250 years.

While much has been written on the incredible preservation and castings of remains, the Pompeii mosaics are equally as beautiful and merit their own in-depth examination.

Plato’s Academy Mosaic

Plato’s Academy mosaic is a near-perfectly maintained mosaic. This mosaic, which dates from the first century BCE or just before the eruption, is housed in the home of T. Siminius Stephanus. A group of seven people is depicted in the tile.

It is supposed that Plato is at the head, yet correctly identifying one of the characters as Plato is very difficult, as no differentiating feature of rank is indicated.

The artist might have been seeking to magnify the wisdom and insight that philosophy provides by combining the philosophy-centered emphasis with the theatrical masks on the border.

The Cave Canem Mosaic

The Cave Canem mosaic, or “Beware of the Dog,” is perhaps one of the most fascinating mosaics to a new audience. The well-preserved mosaic was installed at the entryway of the Tragic Poet’s House. An extremely lifelike dog, displayed in active motion as if about to attack, baring teeth and wearing a leash and chain around its neck, is overlaid over a background of repeated diamonds and carries the words “CAVE CANEM” in Latin.

This is the first thing guests would have seen when they entered the house, and it is similar to any current sign put on a fence or door declaring the same thing. A stunning cast of a dog trapped in the disaster may be found among the ruins of Pompeii. While this dog was not the one represented in the mosaic, it did wear a collar and was most likely a pet.

While these three mosaics are not the only ones that survived at Pompeii, they are among the more intriguing and engaging. Mosaic installations were extremely frequent kinds of decorating, although we seldom find this level of near-perfect preservation.

Looking at these mosaics reveals the aesthetic interests of the residents at the time, as well as the topics that were essential in their everyday lives. Ongoing excavations at the Pompeii mosaics continue to find architectural components such as terraces and allies, as well as corpses, frescoes, texts, and mosaics, revealing even more significant insight into everyday life in the Roman Empire.

Ancient Roman mosaic art was a common feature of private homes and public constructions from Antioch to Africa. Not only is Roman mosaic tile art beautiful in and of itself, but it also provides an important record of everyday goods like clothes, food, tools, armament, greenery, and animals. Roman mosaic floor artworks also reveal a great deal about Roman activities like gladiator battles, sports, farming, and hunting, and they occasionally portray the Roman people themselves in vivid and lifelike images.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the origin of roman mosaic floors.

During the Bronze Age, both the Minoans and the Mycenaeans used pebble floors. In the seventh century BCE, the Near East used a similar design, but with repeated themes. The first attempts at pebble pavement in Greece date back to the 5th century BCE, with examples found at Olynthus and Corinth. They were frequently two-toned, with light geometric designs and simple forms set against a black backdrop. These mosaics were usually reinforced by inlaying clay or lead bits, which were commonly used to outline shapes.

How Are Roman Mosaic Tiles Made?

Roman mosaic art refers to Roman designs consisting of tiny white and black tiles. These square tiles were made from glass, pottery, stones, and even seashells. A new mortar base was first constructed, and then the tiles or tesserae were placed as close as possible together, with any spaces plugged with liquid mortar in a practice called grouting. After that, the entire item was cleaned and polished.

Isabella studied at the University of Cape Town in South Africa and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts majoring in English Literature & Language and Psychology. Throughout her undergraduate years, she took Art History as an additional subject and absolutely loved it. Building on from her art history knowledge that began in high school, art has always been a particular area of fascination for her. From learning about artworks previously unknown to her, or sharpening her existing understanding of specific works, the ability to continue learning within this interesting sphere excites her greatly.

Her focal points of interest in art history encompass profiling specific artists and art movements, as it is these areas where she is able to really dig deep into the rich narrative of the art world. Additionally, she particularly enjoys exploring the different artistic styles of the 20 th century, as well as the important impact that female artists have had on the development of art history.

Learn more about Isabella Meyer and the Art in Context Team .

Cite this Article

Isabella, Meyer, “Roman Mosaic – An Overview of Ancient Roman Mosaic and Tiles.” Art in Context. March 7, 2022. URL: https://artincontext.org/roman-mosaic/

Meyer, I. (2022, 7 March). Roman Mosaic – An Overview of Ancient Roman Mosaic and Tiles. Art in Context. https://artincontext.org/roman-mosaic/

Meyer, Isabella. “Roman Mosaic – An Overview of Ancient Roman Mosaic and Tiles.” Art in Context , March 7, 2022. https://artincontext.org/roman-mosaic/ .

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Greek Mosaics in Later Greek Art and Modern Art Essay

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History of Mosaics in Later Greek Art

Greek mosaics and modern art, how this influence has shaped the world of design.

Bibliography

Greek mosaic is known to have been an old practice. The practice of making floors through the placement of pebbles and cement plaster was common in early Greece. A unique principal characterized this form of art in Greece. For instance, all the decorated floors were usually confined to a unique principle whereby the dining room (the andron ) and the anteroom were considered. A good example is the Pella Palace characterized by hypothetical floors.

Archeologists have indicated conclusively that pebbles were widely used by early Greeks to decorate floors during the Bronze Age. Incidentally, such flooring materials were embraced by other non-Greeks. For example, the use of pebbles as a unique flooring material was embraced in Anatolia from the eighth century BC.

Greek mosaic is a practice that began towards the end of the 5 th century BC. Several centuries later, the design of the Greek mosaics changed drastically to include concentric bands, geometric patterns, and figured decorations. Such decorations focused on a specific figured scene or motif. From the third century BC, the nature of these mosaics changed significantly with the use of pebbles dominating the practice. Analysts have argued strongly that the Greek mosaics were specifically aimed at achieving specific given goals such as honor and aesthetics.

Some scholars have argued that Greek mosaics were similar to fresco painting. This must have been the case because layers of course plasters were covered by a finer one. The pebbles were then set into this finer plaster. During the process, a complex figure could be drawn on the course plaster. This approach has been given the name of the light-on-dark principle. One unique attribute of these mosaics is that the artists never sorted the pebbles into different sizes. However, the stones were packed closely to hide the plaster. Smaller pebbles were used to achieve detailed modeling.

The Greeks went further to embrace a new concept known as red-figure. This concept was achieved through the harmony of the lines and by balancing the light figures on the dark background. This achievement is depicted by the Dionysus on a Panther from Building 2.

Analysts have observed that similar floors were common in North Greece. However, most of the artworks associated with the region emphasized the three-dimensionality. This approach improved the nature of the Greek mosaic thus encouraging more artists to pursue the practice for many years. According to Martin Robertson, pebble floors continued to include figure scenes in order to remain meaningful and spectacular. Heroes and natural sceneries were emphasized by Greek artists. The practice continued to take center-stage in Greece for many years. Historians believe that pebble mosaics had been used widely in public spaces and buildings. The practice was later embraced by private house-owners in an attempt to imitate such prestigious decorations.

Historians have shown conclusively that pebble mosaics were common in Olythos by the fourth century. The andron is where such pebble mosaics were largely concentrated. During the time, the andron was the only room characterized by a wall plaster. The pavements and walls were designed in an attempt to create something called a crescendo.

Private ostentation was achieved towards the end of the 5 th century. The use of mosaics in more houses is something that increased throughout the Hellenistic period. After the conquest of Greece by Alexander the Great, private luxury continued to grow. This was the case because more people became wealthier after Alexander’s conquests. After the Persian Empire was defeated, precious stones and metals from the royal treasures were available to more people.

Experts have gone further to argue that the great houses at Pella were built using the spoils from the famous Alexander’s campaigns. The Greeks were ready to spend this wealth on such decorations and lead lavish lifestyles.

Houses containing more than one dining room were seen to have such decorations. According to past studies, such strategies must have been embraced by the people to impress their visitors. Such rooms could have been used to host more friends and guests. The approach was critical towards expressing power and social differences. The size of decorated dining rooms was a clear distinction between the rich and the poor. A good example is the Vergina Palace that had numerous dining rooms.

From the early fourth century, artists began to use new materials such as glass and terracotta for different mosaics. Tessellated mosaics became common than ever before. The wealth associated with the Hellenistic period encouraged more people to spend money on such conspicuous consumptions. An individualistic ethos replaced the existing classical polis of the time. The social, economic, and political changes experienced during the time led to the proliferation of mosaics in Greece. During the same time, the government was left in the hands of politicians. Mercenaries were hired to protect more citizens.

The concept of individualism after Alexander’s death emerged due to the increasing tension and insecurity. The desire to invest in mosaics was seen as a source of comfort in a country that was faced by uncertainties.

Experts define mosaic as the art whereby beautiful patterns or pictures are creating by setting small materials on a plastered surface. More often than, the practice is decorative in nature and can be achieved through the use of stone pebbles and marbles. This practice is believed to have been developed by the ancient Greeks. During the time, mosaics were employed as useful techniques for interior decorations.

However, the technique would be copied by other societies such as the Romans. After the Renaissance Period, mosaics became common since many Christian painters used the technique to come up with powerful masterpieces. A good example was the mosaic of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian the Great . Although fresco painting might have become the main form of art during the Renaissance Period, historians have observed that mosaic art continued to enjoy a healthy come-back throughout the 19 th and 20 th centuries.

The most outstanding fact is that the mosaics of the ancient Greeks have significantly influenced modern-day art. A revival of the technique occurred towards the end of the 19 th century. During this time, many public houses and buildings were decorated using marbles and mosaics thus giving the art practice a new meaning. A good example is the Westminster Catholic Cathedral (Fig 4) that is decorated using ceramic tiles.

Archeologists and historians have argued that several design styles have played a significant role in influencing modern mosaic art. For instance, the Gothic Revival is believed to have presented new art designs that continue to dominate the world of art even today.

It is undeniable that the mosaic continues to remain one of the popular crafts in different corners of the world. This has been the case because there are a number of organizations that promote this style of art. Some of these organizations include the Society of American Mosaic Artists (SAMA) and the British Association for Modern Mosaic (BAMM). These organizations have managed to come up with three unique types of mosaics. The first one is known as the direct method. This mosaic-building technique is completed when the artist affixes the materials onto the targeted surface. The artist might sketch the lines before decorating the object.

The indirect method, on the other hand, focuses on the use of sticky backings. The next stage is to affix the tiles or pebbles. This technique has been widely embraced because it makes it easier for artists to redesign and rework their masterpieces. The third method is known as the indirect mosaic creation. The pebbles or glass tiles are usually placed face-up unlike in the direct method. The influence of modern mosaics can be seen in great masterpieces such as the Bayeux Tapestry . This is a famous half-size mosaic depicting how the practice is presently embraced in many parts of the world. This masterpiece was created by Michael Linton from 1979 to 1999. The artwork is presently displayed in Geraldine, New Zealand.

Throughout the years, the mosaic is a powerful art that has shaped the world of design. Many aspects of human life are influenced or governed by the world of design. This ranges from different approaches to engineering, programming, art, and building.

The decorative world has benefited significantly from the mosaic. For instance, many designers and artists borrow a lot from Greek mosaics in order to produce masterpieces that can deliver the most desirable goals. Architects have continued to embrace the art style to design houses and buildings that are aesthetic in nature. Interior designers have not been left behind. With the Greek mosaic transforming the emotions and feelings of many people, modern painters have copied the idea in order to achieve similar results in the modern-day world.

Programmers and computer engineers have gone further to embrace the idea. Such programmers are able to design powerful software programs capable of producing superior artworks. Many firms have copied a lot from the style to produce a wide range of products such as clothes and consumer products. Manufacturing companies are also using robots to produce artistic products. The use of computer-aided designs is also making it easier for painters and artists to produce superior mosaics that capture the attention of many people.

Many buildings, landscapes, public spaces, walls, drawings, and living areas have benefited significantly from the concept of mosaic. The idea has been replicated by many people thus making mosaic a powerful artistic style that has been admired by many generations. That being the case, the mosaic remains a powerful style of art that continues to influence many professionals across the world. This means that the lessons learned from the ancient Greeks will continue to reshape the world of design for the next years.

Byzantine Emperor Justinian the Great. Wall plaster. 3m x 2m. Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna.

Dionysus on a Panther . Pebbles on plaster. 130cm x 130 cm. Archaeological Museum of Pella, Athens.

Dunbabin, Katherine. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Linton, Michael. Bayeux Tapestry. Cloth. 70000cm x 50 cm. Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux, Normandy.

Ludington, Townsend. A modern mosaic. New York: UNC Press, 2000.

Marconi, Clemente. The Oxford handbook of Greek and Roman art and architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Nassar, Mohammed. “The art of decorative mosaics (hunting scenes) from Madaba area during Byzantine Period (5 th – 6 th AD).” Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 13, no. 1 (2013): 67-76.

Robertson, Martin. “Early Greek mosaic.” Studies in the History of Art 10, no. 1 (1982): 240-249.

Westgate, Ruth. “Greek mosaics in their architectural and social context.” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 42, no. 1 (1998): 93-115.

Vergina Palace . Pebbles on plaster. 140m x 80m. The Royal Tombs and the Ancient City, Athens.

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IvyPanda. (2020, August 20). Greek Mosaics in Later Greek Art and Modern Art. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-mosaics-in-later-greek-art-and-modern-art/

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A history of mosaics

Editorial feature.

By Google Arts & Culture

Vessel (?) Fragment (1st century B.C.–1st century A.D.) by Unknown The J. Paul Getty Museum

The art of puzzles

Mosaics have brought art and color to the walls and floors of Europe for thousands of years. Here are seven amazing mosaics that demonstrate how they have evolved from symbols of wealth and power to a way of ‘hacking’ public spaces in the 21st century. Very little has changed in the creation of mosaics since they first arrived in Europe from Mesopotamia around 4,000 or 5,000 years ago. Their hard-wearing nature has earned them the nickname ‘eternal pictures’ and we can still see some of the earliest examples today, like these vibrant Eastern Mediterranean fragments glass tesserae from around the 1st century BCE.

Mosaic fragments (From the collection of The J Paul Getty Museum)

The Roman Empire carried the art form from Greece across the whole of Europe, where it found its way onto walls, ceilings and walkways, depicting everything from simple patterns to stories of daily life and heroic myths. A surviving how-to manual by the Roman architect Vitruvius explains how particularly complex designs were made off-site in panels known as emblemata, using trays which were then turned directly into position before the border designs were laid around them. A vivid example of the technique is this story of the fight between two famous gladiators, which was found in the ruins of baths on the Caelian Hill in Rome. In the bottom frame, the entangled warrior awaits a deadly blow from his opponent’s trident.

Gladiator mosaic (3rd century) Museo Arqueológico Nacional

Gladiator Mosaic (From the collection of Museo Arqueològico Nacional)

The birth of Islam in the 7th century AD brought a new meaning to mosaic art in Europe, particularly in Spain. There, almost 800 years of Moorish rule gave rise to the awe-inspiring mosaics of the Grand Mosque at Cordoba, painted here by the Spanish artist Ricardo Arredondo Calmache.

Planta de la bóveda y cúpula del mihrab (Mezquita de Córdoba). (1875/1879) by Ricardo Arredondo Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando

Planta de la bóveda y cúpula del mihrab (Mezquita de Códoba) (From the collection of Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando)

The Quran forbids pictures of God as sacrilegious. Mosaic artists rose to the challenge with intricate geometric and abstract designs of breathtaking beauty and perfection, which they created as expressions of their faith. Mosaics declined in popularity across Europe during the Renaissance, when frescoes were preferred for walls and ceilings, before the art of mosaic making blazed back into life during the Enlightenment. Some of the fabulous works from this era were so detailed they looked like paintings, such as this depiction of an archangel from Chapel of Saint John the Baptist in Lisbon created in 1750 by the painter Agostino Masucci and mosaicist Mattia Moretti.

Detail of the archangel at the Baptism of Christ mosaic panel, Chapel of Saint John the Baptist (1746/1750) by Agostino Masucci (painter) and Mattia Moretti (mosaicist) Museu de São Roque

Detail of the archangel at the Baptism of Christ mosaic panel by Agostino Masucci and Mattia Moretti (From the collection of Museu de São Roque)

During the Art Nouveau movement, from the late Victorian period to early 20th century, artists explored new forms and new technologies to create mosaics inspired by the elegant curved lines of plants and flowers. This is one of eight Art Nouveau ‘cartoons’ created by the great artist Gustav Klimt in 1910 that were turned into mosaics for the dining room of Stoclet House in Brussels. The image supposedly depicts Klimt himself in an embrace with his lover, Emilie Flöge.

Nine Cartoons for the Execution of a Frieze for the Dining Room of Stoclet House in Brussels: Part 8, Fulfillment (Lovers) (1910–1911) by Gustav Klimt MAK – Museum of Applied Arts

Lovers part of Nine Cartoons for the Execution of a Frieze for the Dining Room of Stoclet House in Brussels by Gustav Klimt (From the collection of MAK – Austrian Museum of Applied Arts)

The archive picture below, dating back to 1914, depicts the dining room where the mosaic appeared.

View of the Dining Room at Palais Stoclet (1914) MAK – Museum of Applied Arts

View of the Dining Room at Palais Stoclet (From the collection of MAK – Austrian Museum of Applied Arts)

Meanwhile, in Catalonia, artist Antonio Gaudí dismissed the painstaking perfectionism of earlier artists for a new style. In his radical new trencadís technique, traditional tesserae were laid alongside pieces of broken ceramics to cover structures of all shapes and sizes in brightly colored jumbles of ceramic and glass, often recycled from local factories. His vibrant, abstract work still inspires artists today, as with this bench created by students at the Universidade Santa Ursula in Brazil.

Gaudi Bench (2014) by Moema Branquinho Rio de Janeiro Department of Conservation

Gaudi Bench by Moema Branquinho (From the collection Rio de Janeiro Department of Conservation)

Today, the French street artist Invader is exploring yet another new direction by using them to ‘hack’ public spaces, spreading what he calls a “virus of mosaic”. His art is inspired by the space invaders of 1980’s video games, their mosaic tiles lending themselves perfectly to recreating old school 8-bit graphics.

Octopus (2011 - 2012) by Invader Rainlab

Octopus by Invader (From the collection of Rainlab)

Like the Romans, Invader carries his mosaics ready-made and puts them up on public walls under the cover of darkness, incognito behind a mask. Unlike the Romans however, his mosaics aren’t meant for the homes of the wealthy and powerful, but for everyone. They are part of the constant evolution and reinvention of mosaic across Europe that is destined to last as long as the art itself.

The Carioca’s Perceivings: from pavements to fashion

Rio de janeiro department of conservation, l'uomo che rubo' la gioconda, play and games in ancient greece, the j. paul getty museum, the hamzanama, mak – museum of applied arts, the painted ceiling of the church of são roque, museu de são roque, the marvelous city, art invasion, paris then and now: through the lens of eugène atget, gustav klimt at the "schweindl-fest“, saint roch: the plague, the cult and the image.

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The grandeur of roman mosaics.

R oman mosaics decorated luxurious domestic and public buildings across the empire. Intricate patterns and figural compositions were created by setting tesserae — small pieces of stone or glass — into floors and walls. Scenes from mythology, daily life, nature, and spectacles in the arena enlivened interior spaces and reflected the cultural ambitions of wealthy patrons. Introduced by itinerant craftsmen, mosaic techniques and designs spread widely throughout Rome’s provinces, leading to the establishment of local workshops and a variety of regional styles.

Drawn primarily from the Getty Museum’s collection, Roman Mosaics across the Empire at the Getty Villa in Los Angeles, California, presents the artistry of mosaics as well as the contexts of their discovery across Rome’s ever growing empire — from its center in Italy to provinces in North Africa, southern France, and ancient Syria. In this exclusive interview, James Blake Wiener of Ancient History Encyclopedia speaks to Dr. Alexis Belis , assistant curator in the Department of Antiquities at the J. Paul Getty Museum, about the various kinds of mosaics found within the former Roman Empire.

Floor Panel, A.D. 4th century. Roman mosaic, Stone tesserae. H: 129.5 to 174 × W: 148 to 87.6 × D: 9.5 cm (51 to 68 1/2 × 58 1/4 to 34 1/2 × 3 3/4 in.). The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California. Image courtesy of the J. Paul Getty Museum.

JW: Why do mosaics so captivate and enthrall us, Dr. Alexis Belis? Additionally, why did the Getty Villa decide to undertake an exhibition devoted to Roman mosaics ?

AB: Above all, mosaics are visually impressive in their size and appearance. They offer a vivid picture of ancient Roman life, revealing how Romans lived in surroundings filled with art and imagery. Their subjects — frequently dramatic narrative scenes that range from mythological and literary subjects to images of athletic contests and daily life — provide insight into Roman cultural values and artistic preferences. Since many are preserved in their original architectural contexts, usually decorating floors, mosaics also give us an idea of how the Romans experienced interior spaces.

The Getty Villa decided to organize an exhibition not just on Roman mosaics, but specifically on the Getty’s collection of Roman mosaics. Most have been in storage for decades, and some have never been displayed at all. The collection is significant because many of the mosaics were excavated during the early twentieth century and have known findspots. We also had the opportunity to present new research on the mosaics in an online publication — Roman Mosaics in the J. Paul Getty Museum.

Lion Attacking an Onager . Roman mosaic, from Hadrumetum (present-day Sousse, Tunisia), A.D. 150-200. Stone and glass. 38 ¾ x 63 in. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California. Image courtesy of the J. Paul Getty Museum.

JW: Mosaics made their initial appearance during the Hellenistic Period thanks to the Greeks, but it was under the Romans that they became omnipresent across the Mediterranean world and beyond.

In what ways did the Romans differ from their Greek predecessors in their creation and appreciation of mosaics as an art form?

AB: While the Greeks refined the art of figural mosaics using pebbles embedded in mortar, the Romans took the art of mosaics to a completely new level, using tesserae of brightly colored stone and glass to create intricate patterns and figural scenes.

Mosaics are closely aligned with Roman culture, and the use of mosaic floors in this technique followed the spread of Roman power throughout the empire. We find a combination of Italian styles and local traditions in mosaic designs in many of the provinces, especially in what is present-day France and North Africa.

Bear Hunt. Roman mosaic, from Baiae. Italy, A.D. 300-400. Stone. 260 ¼ x 342 1/8 in. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California. Image courtesy of the The J. Paul Getty Museum.

JW: In your own words, what else do mosaics tell us about ancient Rome and daily life across the empire? Mosaics were certainly a means through which wealthy Roman delineated their wealth and cultural pursuits, but what else did they convey and what secrets do they conceal?

AB: Mosaics tell us a great deal about ancient architecture . Because of their durability and the fact that they were built into the foundations of buildings, mosaics are among the best-preserved forms of Roman art. The locations and architectural settings of many mosaics have been recorded, and their placement sometimes relates to the function of the spaces they decorated.

For example, the Getty’s mosaic from Antioch , once decorated the entryway of a small public bath building. Other mosaic floors of the building depict busts of Soteria and Apolausis, the Greek personifications of Salvation and Enjoyment, respectively. Such themes would have been appropriate for spaces where Romans gathered for social interactions, entertainment, and to experience the revitalizing waters of the baths.

Some mosaics encourage the viewer to experience a space or room from different perspectives. A mosaic in the exhibition from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art has a central narrative scene bordered on all four sides by a hunting frieze. As the viewer follows the hunters and animals they walk around the mosaic and look at the images from different angles.

Combat between Dares and Entellus . Gallo-Roman mosaic, from Villelaure, France, A.D. 175-200. Stone and glass. 81 7/8 x 81 7/8 in. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California. Image courtesy of the J. Paul Getty Museum.

JW: Which scenes or subject matter did the Romans favor most when creating mosaics, Dr. Belis?

AB: Scenes from Greek and Roman mythology as well as literature were especially prevalent. Two mosaics from the same villa in Gaul , found near the modern town of Villelaure, France, depict highly original scenes from Roman literature: a scene of Diana and Callisto from Ovid’s Metamorphoses (on loan from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art), and a boxing match between Dares and Entellus from Virgil’s Aeneid . At the same time, a mosaic in the Getty’s collection found at Saint-Romain-en-Gal, also in France, represents the popular Greek myth of Orpheus charming the animals.

Scenes of hunting and capturing animals for the arena were also widespread, as shown in an enormous mosaic of a bear hunt from Baiae on the Bay of Naples. Wealthy Romans often financed the capture of wild animals for spectacles in the arena, which were therefore fitting subjects for mosaic floors in luxurious private villas.

Mosaics with these themes frequently decorated dining rooms and reception areas — spaces in which the owner could entertain and impress guests with his wealth, prestige, and social status.

Peacock Facing Left . Roman mosaic, from Syria, possibly Emesa (present- day Homs), A.D. 400 – 600. Stone 77 ½ x 45 ½ in. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California, Gift of William Wahler. Image courtesy of the J. Paul Getty Museum.

JW: You mentioned that Roman Mosaics across the Empire consists of mosaics drawn largely from the Getty Museum’s own collection. Among these, which do you find remarkable and worthy of further discussion in particular? Is there a pièce de résistance?

AB: Since most of the objects in the exhibition are from the Getty Museum’s own collection, they also give us a sense of J. Paul Getty’s own interest in mosaics. Getty acquired his first Roman mosaic (the one depicting a bust of Orpheus surrounded by animals) in 1949, and had it installed over the floor of one of the rooms in his new museum — a Spanish Colonial style ranch house where his collection was displayed until the Getty Villa opened in 1974.

The two mosaics from Villelaure, France, which are on view together for the first time in over a century, are especially interesting. They are remarkable in part because they decorated adjacent rooms of the same villa, revealing the diversity of the owner’s preferences. However, the Getty’s mosaic of Dares and Entellus also suggests a regional connection, as this uncommon scene occurs in at least four other mosaics in southern France.

Another significant mosaic is the one from the small bath complex at Antioch, which depicts a hare eating grapes and small birds surrounded by elaborate geometric designs. Since it was discovered during a series of campaigns in the 1930s, we have excavation photos that document the appearance of the mosaic in situ before it was removed from the building.

JW: Dr. Belis, I thank you so much for speaking with me about this lovely exhibition. I wish you many happy adventures in research!

AB: Thank you, James — I have really enjoyed talking with you about the exhibition!

Roman Mosaics across the Empire is on show at the Getty Villa in Los Angeles, California until September 12, 2016. Click here to read and download the gallery text that accompanies the exhibition in PDF.

All images featured in this interview have been attributed to their respective owners. Images lent to AHE by the J. Paul Getty Museum have been done so as a courtesy. Interview edited by James Blake Wiener for AHE. Special thanks is extended to Ms. Desiree Zenowich, Senior Communications Specialist at J. Paul Getty Museum, for facilitating this interview. Unauthorized reproduction is strictly prohibited. All rights reserved. © AHE 2016. Please contact us for rights to republication.

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Roman Mosaics

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Roman mosaics were a common feature of private homes and public buildings across the empire from Africa to Antioch . Not only are mosaics beautiful works of art in themselves but they are also an invaluable record of such everyday items as clothes, food, tools, weapons, flora and fauna. They also reveal much about Roman activities like gladiator contests, sports, agriculture , hunting and sometimes they even capture the Romans themselves in detailed and realistic portraits.

Mosaics, otherwise known as opus tesellatum , were made with small black, white and coloured squares typically measuring between 0.5 and 1.5 cm but fine details were often rendered using even smaller pieces as little as 1mm in size. These squares ( tesserae or tessellae ) were cut from materials such as marble, tile, glass, smalto (glass paste), pottery , stone and even shells. A base was first prepared with fresh mortar and the tesserae positioned as close together as possible with any gaps then filled with liquid mortar in a process known as grouting. The whole was then cleaned and polished.

Origins & Influences

Flooring set with small pebbles was used in the Bronze Age in both the Minoan civilization based on Crete and the Mycenaean civilization on mainland Greece . The same idea but reproducing patterns was used in the Near East in the 8th century BCE. In Greece the first pebble flooring which attempted designs dates to the 5th century BCE with examples at Corinth and Olynthus. These were usually in two shades with light geometric designs and simple figures on a dark background. By the end of the 4th century BCE colours were being used and many fine examples have been found at Pella in Macedonia. These mosaics were often reinforced by inlaying strips of terracotta or lead, often used to mark outlines. Indeed, it was not until Hellenistic times in the 3rd century BCE that mosaics really took off as an art form and detailed panels using tesserae rather than pebbles began to be incorporated into patterned floors. Many of these mosaics attempted to copy contemporary wall paintings.

As mosaics evolved in the 2nd century BCE smaller and more precisely cut tesserae were used, sometimes as small as 4 mm or less, and designs employed a wide spectrum of colours with coloured grouting to match surrounding tesserae . This particular type of mosaic which used sophisticated colouring and shading to create an effect similar to a painting is know as opus vermiculatum and one of its greatest craftsmen was Sorus of Pergamon (150-100 BCE) whose work, especially his Drinking Doves mosaic, was much copied for centuries after. Besides Pergamon, outstanding examples of Hellenistic opus vermiculatum have been found at Alexandria and Delos in the Cyclades . Because of the labour involved in producing these pieces they were often small mosaics 40 x 40 cm laid on a marble tray or rimmed tray in a specialist workshop. These pieces were known as emblemata as they were often used as centre-pieces for pavements with more simple designs. So valuable were these works of art that they were often removed for re-use elsewhere and handed down form generation to generation within families. Several emblemata could make up a single mosaic and gradually, emblemata began to resemble more their surroundings when they are then known as panels.

Evolution in Design

With a subject such as mosaics where there are difficulties of dating, tremendous variance in artistic quality, public taste and regional conventions, it is problematic to describe a strictly linear evolution of the art form. However, some major points of change and regional difference can be noted.

Initially, the Romans did not diverge from the fundamentals of the Hellenistic approach to mosaics and indeed they were heavily influenced in terms of subject matter - sea motifs and scenes from Greek mythology - and the artists themselves, as the many signed Roman mosaics often bear Greek names, evidencing that even in the Roman world mosaic design was still dominated by Greeks. One of the most famous is the Alexander mosaic which was a copy of a Hellenistic original painting by either Philoxenus or Aristeides of Thebes . The mosaic is from the House of the Faun, Pompeii and depicts Alexander the Great riding Bucephalus and facing Darius III on his war chariot at the Battle of Issus (333 BCE).

Roman mosaics often copied earlier coloured ones, however, the Romans did develop their own styles and production schools were developed across the empire which cultivated their own particular preferences - large scale hunting scenes and attempts at perspective in the African provinces, impressionistic vegetation and a foreground observer in the mosaics of Antioch or the European preference for figure panels, for example.

The dominant (but not exclusive) Roman style in Italy itself used only black and white tesserae , a taste which survived well into the 3rd century CE and was most often used to represent marine motifs, especially when used for Roman baths (those from the first floor of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome are an excellent example). There was also a preference for more two-dimensional representations and an emphasis on geometric designs. In c. 115 CE at the Baths of Buticosus in Ostia there is the earliest example of a human figure in mosaic and in the 2nd century CE silhouetted figures became common. Over time the mosaics became ever more realistic in their portrayal of human figures and accurate and detailed portraits become more common. Meanwhile, in the Eastern part of the empire and especially at Antioch, the 4th century CE saw the spread of mosaics which used two-dimensional and repeated motifs to create a 'carpet' effect, a style which would heavily influence later Christian churches and Jewish synagogues.

Other Floor Designs

Floors could also be laid using larger pieces to create designs on a grander scale. Opus signinum flooring used coloured mortar-aggregate (usually red) with white tesserae placed to create broad patterns or even scattered randomly. Crosses using five red tesserae and a central tesserae in black were a very common motif in Italy in the 1st century BCE and continued into the 1st century CE but more typically using only black tiles.

Opus sectile was a second type of flooring which used large coloured stone or marble slabs cut into particular shapes. Opus sectile was another technique of Hellenistic origin but the Romans also expanded the technique to wall decoration. Used in many public buildings, it was not until the 4th century CE that it became more common in private villas and, under Egyptian influence, began to use opaque glass as the primary material.

Other Uses of Mosaic

Mosaics were by no means limited to flooring. Vaults, columns and fountains were often decorated with mosaic ( opus musivum ), again, especially in baths. The earliest example of this use dates to the mid-1st century BCE in the nymphaeum of the 'Villa of Cicero ' at Formiae where chips of marble, pumice and shells were used. In other locations pieces of marble and glass were also added the whole giving the effect of a natural grotto. By the 1st century CE more detailed mosaic panels were also used to embellish Nymphaea and fountains. In Pompeii and Herculanum the technique was also used to cover niches, walls and pediments and once again these murals often imitated original paintings. The walls and vaults of later Imperial Roman baths were also decorated in mosaic using glass which acted as a reflective of the sunlight hitting the pools and created a shimmering effect. The floors of the pools themselves were often set with mosaic as were the floors of mausolea, sometimes even incorporating a portrait of the deceased. Once again, the Roman use of mosaics to decorate wall space and vaults would go on to influence the interior decorators of Christian churches from the 4th century CE.

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Bibliography

Amanda Claridge. Rome. Oxford University Press, USA, 2010.
Martin Henig. A Handbook of Roman Art. Cornell Univ Pr, 1983.
Mortimer Wheeler. Roman Art and Architecture. Thames & Hudson, 1985.
Simon Hornblower. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.

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The History of Mosaic Art: An Ancient Art of Function and Design

Pictures and designs created with various types and colors of tessera (tile) and other materials form mosaic art with more than just a decorative purpose.

In its modern form, mosaic means a mixture or montage—a design created by a composite of shapes or photographs; but its ancient beginnings are of function and design. Around 3000 B.C., mosaic designs were created with clay cones imbedded, point first, into columns of the Stone Cone Temple in Urak, in Mesopotamia. This ancient cone mosaic art was a predecessor to the glass mosaic art of Egypt, the black and white pebble mosaics in eighth century B.C. Gordium (Gordion, Turkey), and the multi-textured Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Italian mosaics that followed.

Mosaic Art with a Purpose

The primitive patterned designs of the early cone mosaics added a decorative element to the pillars of ancient buildings, but the cones served another purpose. In Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), P. Roger S. Moorey—British archeologist and historian, specializing in the Ancient Near East—wrote, “At Urak, the decorative cone mosaics were particularly applied to free-standing columns and to walls with buttresses and recesses.”

In citing other resources, Moorey presents evidence that the mosaics were “patterned after rugs and mats hung as decoration on walls,” and that the decorations protected the walls from “wind and water erosion.” Moorey concludes that the cone mosaics, also found at other settlements in Mesopotamia, show that “the intimate relationship of protection and decoration is evident in most uses.”

Egyptian Glass

Small pieces of glass in mosaics were first used by the Egyptians during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 to 1069 B.C.). Very small pieces of dull-colored glass were used to make mosaic jewelry and mosaic stones. The stones were added to wall pieces and inlays, usually in funerary art. It wasn’t until the Roman Empire took control of Egypt in 31 B.C. that glass production would advance to a higher art form in Egypt. With an abundance of sand and soda, and with years of mastering the art, Egypt created much of the glass for the Roman nobles.

Pebble Mosaics and Tesserae

By the eighth century B.C., mosaics of random patterns were being assembled from black and white pebbles in Gordium (Gordion, Turkey). The pebble mosaics added art and design to an area and provided some protection during inclement weather. Six centuries later, mosaic floors—a precursor to the tile floors of today—were widespread among the Greek nobles. Smooth river rocks, with smaller pebbles used to fill in the gaps and create more detailed designs, were used to form floors and pathways. Mosaic art was further defined with the introduction of tesserae, pieces of stone and glass cut into small squares. These mosaic tiles of small uniform pieces made it much easier to create intricate designs.

Mosaic Art of the Roman Empire

As the Roman Empire expanded, mosaic art grew with it. The mosaics at Pompeii are an excellent example of the styles and types of designs the Romans preferred. Marble tiles became a popular choice for floor mosaics and styles ranged from geometric patterns to bucolic scenes. An excavation in Antioch (Antakya, Turkey) revealed one of the largest collections of mosaic floors from the second century A.D. Many are on display at the Hatay Archaeological Museum in Antakya.

Byzantine and Italian Mosaics

By the late fifth century, with the fall of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire came into power. With a surge in Christianity, mosaic art turned to religious subjects and the walls of churches, temples, and palaces displayed colorful intricate designs made with smalti, deeply colored glass tiles with uneven surfaces. Smalti were also made with gold and silver leaf, layered between two pieces of glass. While other tesserae were also used, with smalti, the variety of colors and the luster of gold or silver added another dimension to mosaic art.

During the sixth century, under Emperor Justinian’s rule, the Basilica di San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, was built with most of its walls and ceiling covered with mosaic art. The town has many other exceptional examples of Byzantine mosaic art and is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Rome and Venice are other towns in Italy with excellent examples of mosaic art. The art was popular throughout Italy during the late middle ages.

Historic Multicultural Mosaic Art

Mosaic art has a long and varied history, and although it was widely popular in Europe and the Near East, examples of ancient mosaics have been uncovered in China and South America. Mosaics served a purpose of protecting walls and floors from wind and water, as well as adding a decorative element With each advancing civilization, mosaic art advanced with it—from clay stones to colored glass, from smooth river rocks to tesserae and smalti. Today, mosaic art has become even more specialized with varied materials combined in a blending of artistic interpretation.

Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence by P.R.S. Moorey
Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative: Urak
Report on the Manufacture of Glass by U.S.Census Office, 10th census, 1880, Joseph Dame Weeks
A Short History of Ancient Egypt (website by André Dollinger)
Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece by Nigel Guy Wilson

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Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mosaics

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Among the cultures of the ancient Middle East there is one remarkable occurrence of a mosaic-like technique: the exteriors of some large architectural structures dating from the 3rd millennium bce , at Uruk ( Erech ) in Mesopotamia , are decorated with long terra-cotta cones imbedded in the wall surface. The blunt, outer ends of the cones, coloured in red, black, and white, form patterns consisting of zigzag lines, lozenges, and other geometrical motifs. This revetment was decorative as well as functional, for the cones shielded the core of sun-dried bricks from rain and wind. The technique, however, died out and seems to have had no influence on the later development of mosaic.

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In western Asia Minor are preserved the earliest examples of the surface-covering technique that lead to mosaic in the present sense of the word. In the town of Gordium near modern Ankara in Turkey , houses have been uncovered with floors made of pebbles set in a primitive mortar . In some of these floors (dated to the 8th century bce ), rows of light pebbles form awkward geometrical figures against a background of darker stones. These rudimentary elements of decoration introduced into a crude form of pavement laying spurred artistic imagination and set in motion a process that was to bring spectacular results.

Three main phases can be determined in the development of mosaic art in antiquity. The first, chiefly a Greek matter, involved the gradual perfecting of the pebble medium. The second, which saw the invention and spreading of the tessera technique, took place partly in the Hellenistic Greek world and partly on Roman soil. The third, largely a Roman phenomenon, was characterized by the popularization of mosaic and the application of the medium to new functions. By a process of diffusion , the taste in floor decoration documented at Gordion spread through the Greek-speaking world of the Mediterranean. Its first full flourishing seems to have occurred in late Classical times. Pebble mosaics are found as far west as Sicily (Motya, Morgantina) and, in the east, in the Greek colonies on the Crimean Peninsula (Cherson). They are preserved in large number at only two sites, Olinthos and Pella, in Macedonian northern Greece.

In the town of Olinthos there are floor mosaics, with elaborate figures and complicated patterns, which were part of the new city culture that developed in the 5th century bce . The Olinthos mosaics also reveal that picture making with light and dark pebbles had by then evolved into an intricate art. Against a ground set with black or blue-black stones stand figures or patterns set with white or slightly tinted ones. Pebble size had become fairly uniform, with diameters from one to two centimetres, but particularly intricate areas, like faces, are set with smaller stones. Very small black pebbles serve as outlines. Although the mortar between them is visible, the pebbles are set close enough so that the pictures appear with regular, not too broken outlines and with some emphasis on detail.

Floors in houses at Pella , dating from the 4th century bce , demonstrate a significant later development of the pebble technique. Floor mosaics then openly vied with wall painting in the rendering of space and realistic detail. This was made possible by the introduction of new materials that eliminated the shortcomings of the ordinary pebble medium. Among the basic changes was an increase in the range of colours. When the demand for particular tints could not be met with pebbles of natural colours, “artificial pebbles” were made and are found in several of the floors at Pella. These “pebbles” have been painted in the required tones—mostly strong green and red—and, to protect the film of paint, have a depression sunk in the middle. The new trend also called for smaller pebbles to permit pictures to be set more closely. To obtain precise delineation of limbs and features, outlines made not with pebbles but with long strips of terra-cotta or lead wire were employed. Pictures made in this technique reflect a taste for heroic hunt scenes and fights with wild animals, themes inspired from court art glorifying the ruler.

The next innovation came at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century bce , when the introduction of new principles led to the abandonment of the pebble technique. Cut mosaic pieces permitted the nearly complete elimination of the disturbing effects of visible mortar patches, and new materials, above all glass , offered a vast new range of colours. The acceptance of the new methods and materials seems, however, to have come about slowly. In Alexandria (Greco-Roman Museum) there is a mosaic (depicting Erotes fighting a stag and, in the outer border, a frieze of animals) in which cut, triangular tesserae are used together with both pebbles and lead wire. In somewhat later Alexandrian mosaics made with tesserae (late 3rd or early 2nd century bce ), lead threads are still in use—for example, in a panel, signed by the artist Sophilos and depicting a personification of Alexandria, that is the earliest known example of miniature mosaic work (called opus vermiculatum , meaning “wormlike work” because of the close-set, undulating rows of small tesserae).

Pergamum , another centre of the Hellenistic world, was particularly famous for its school of mosaics. According to the ancient Roman historian Pliny the Younger , Sosos, one of the most renowned mosaic artists of antiquity , worked in this city. None of his works survives but, thanks to Roman copies, the intentions that underlay his art can be judged. Pliny listed as his most celebrated works a representation of drinking doves and a clever imitation of the “unswept floor” of a banquet room ( asarōtos oikos ). The copies tell of Sosos’s phenomenal ability to create trompe l’oeil (“fool-the-eye”) effects through a shading and colouring that seems to bring the objects out in full plasticity on the ground on which they are depicted. To call the work merely an imitation of painting may be incorrect. The intense colours and the smooth texture permitted by the new setting technique paved the way for illusionistic effects that went beyond those achieved by painting.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Glass from islamic lands.

Goblet with Incised Designs

Ewer with Molded Inscription

Glass Bowl in Millefiori Technique

Bottle with Blue Trails

Mosque Lamp of Amir Qawsun

'Ali ibn Muhammad al-Barmaki ?

Stefano Carboni Department of Islamic Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Qamar Adamjee Department of Islamic Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

At the time of the Arab conquest in the seventh century A.D. , glassmaking had flourished in Egypt and western Asia for more than two millennia and glassmakers in those regions went about their business despite the momentous political, social, and religious changes taking place around them. Glassmakers inherited many of the techniques of their forebears in the Byzantine and Sasanian empires , including glassblowing, the use of molds, the manipulation of molten glass with tools, and the decorative application of molten glass. Islamic glass production from the seventh through the fourteenth century was also greatly innovative and witnessed glorious phases—such as those of superb relief-cut glass and spectacular gilded and enameled objects —that established its supremacy in glassmaking manufacture throughout the world.

While many of the objects may not have been made under a ruler’s patronage, they certainly are “fit for a sultan.” Islamic glass can be better studied according to the techniques of its manipulation—from undecorated blown vessels to mosaic glass to mold-blown , hot-worked , cut and engraved , and painted objects , though vessels produced after the seventeenth century and greatly influenced by the European trade may be studied in a proper historical context.

In the field of Islamic art, glass is a craft that often rose to excellence but has been largely overlooked by art historians. Thousands of anonymous glassmakers, from Cairo to Delhi, proudly transmitted their knowledge from one generation to the next, experimenting with the colors, shapes, techniques, and surface decoration of this extraordinarily versatile material. Their most outstanding results, from public and private collections worldwide, encourage a widespread appreciation of the artistic forms of Islamic glass—a fitting legacy for this ancient craft.

Tools of the Glassmakers Since the invention of glassblowing in the first century B.C. , glassmakers have been using the same tools to model, manipulate, and decorate molten glass. Two molds from the medieval Islamic world are the only ones to survive, but the basic technology of nonindustrial glassmaking and the tools employed have not changed.

The blowpipe is an iron or steel tube, usually about five feet long, for blowing a parison, or gather, of molten glass. Molds are used to impress decorative patterns on the parison. Dip molds have the typical form of a conical beaker, but two- or three-part hinged molds were also used in the Islamic world. The pontil, a solid metal rod that is applied to the base of a vessel to hold it after it is cut off from the blowpipe, became a common tool in the early Islamic period (seventh–eighth century). The pontil leaves an irregular ring-shaped mark on the base that is commonly known as a “pontil mark.” Wooden blocks, jacks, and shears are used to shape an object. Blocks are used to form the gather into a sphere prior to inflation; jacks, to shape the mouth of an open vessel; and shears, to trim excess hot glass during production. A marver—a smooth flat stone or metal surface over which softened glass is rolled—is also an essential tool of the glassmaker. Of course, no tool would be of much use without a glassmaker’s dexterity and talent.

Archaeological Excavations Scientific excavations are extremely valuable for a better understanding of the history, art, architecture, urban planning, and everyday life of a specific site. In terms of material culture, glass objects and fragments are second in quantity only to pottery at most Islamic sites, offering a wide variety of shapes, colors, and decoration for analysis.

There are, however, a number of problems related to the study of excavated Islamic glass. Only in exceptional cases do glass objects bear informative inscriptions providing names and dates. Both as luxury goods that were traded and exchanged and as simple containers for oils, perfumes, and liquids of all kinds, Islamic glass circulated throughout the Islamic world and as far as southeastern Asia, northern China, and Europe . Glass was also shipped in large quantities as cullet (glass lumps and discarded broken vessels), suitable for remelting and making new glass inexpensively. Thus, the glass of a bottle created in Egypt, for example, may have been recycled as far as Central Asia; a new object may have been made that had a chemical composition usually attributed to Egyptian vessels but a shape and decoration that suggested a different origin. While it clearly is problematic for scholars to determine their place or date of production, excavated objects may be of great help in better understanding the chronology and origin of Islamic glass. The three most prolific excavated sites that have yielded glass in the Islamic world are Fustat (Old Cairo) in Egypt, Samarra in Iraq, and Nishapur in northeastern Iran.

Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee. “Glass from Islamic Lands.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igls/hd_igls.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Stefano Carboni

Carboni, Stefano. “ Venice and the Islamic World: Commercial Exchange, Diplomacy, and Religious Difference .” (March 2007)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Islamic Art and Culture: The Venetian Perspective .” (March 2007)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797 .” (March 2007)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Venice’s Principal Muslim Trading Partners: The Mamluks, the Ottomans, and the Safavids .” (March 2007)
Carboni, Stefano. “ A New Visual Language Transmitted Across Asia .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Courtly Art of the Ilkhanids .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Folios from the Great Mongol Shahnama (Book of Kings) .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Folios from the Jami‘ al-tavarikh (Compendium of Chronicles) .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Takht-i Sulaiman and Tilework in the Ilkhanid Period .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ The Art of the Book in the Ilkhanid Period .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Blown Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Cut and Engraved Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Carboni, Stefano. “ The Legacy of Genghis Khan .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ The Mongolian Tent in the Ilkhanid Period .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ The Religious Arts under the Ilkhanids .” (October 2003)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Enameled and Gilded Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Glass with Mold-Blown Decoration from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Hot-worked Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Mosaic Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Carboni, Stefano. “ Stained (Luster-Painted) Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Qamar Adamjee

Adamjee, Qamar. “ A New Visual Language Transmitted Across Asia .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Courtly Art of the Ilkhanids .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Folios from the Great Mongol Shahnama (Book of Kings) .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Folios from the Jami‘ al-tavarikh (Compendium of Chronicles) .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Takht-i Sulaiman and Tilework in the Ilkhanid Period .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ The Art of the Book in the Ilkhanid Period .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Blown Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Cut and Engraved Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ The Legacy of Genghis Khan .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ The Mongolian Tent in the Ilkhanid Period .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Enameled and Gilded Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ The Religious Arts under the Ilkhanids .” (October 2003)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Glass with Mold-Blown Decoration from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Hot-worked Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Mosaic Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)
Adamjee, Qamar. “ Stained (Luster-Painted) Glass from Islamic Lands .” (October 2002)

Related Essays

Blown Glass from Islamic Lands
Cut and Engraved Glass from Islamic Lands
Glass with Mold-Blown Decoration from Islamic Lands
Hot-worked Glass from Islamic Lands
Stained (Luster-Painted) Glass from Islamic Lands
The Art of the Fatimid Period (909–1171)
Byzantine Art under Islam
Constantinople after 1261
The Damascus Room
Glass Ornaments in Late Antiquity and Early Islam (ca. 500–1000)
Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933)
The Metropolitan Museum’s Excavations at Nishapur
Mosaic Glass from Islamic Lands
The Nature of Islamic Art
Roman Glass
Silk Textiles from Safavid Iran, 1501–1722
Silks from Ottoman Turkey
Stained Glass in Medieval Europe
Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797
Venice’s Principal Muslim Trading Partners: The Mamluks, the Ottomans, and the Safavids
West Asia: Between Tradition and Modernity

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List of Rulers of the Islamic World
List of Rulers of the Sasanian Empire
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Artist or Maker

'Ali ibn Muhammad al-Barmaki

Roman Mosaic: The Timeless and Mysterious Testament of an Empire

Roman mosaics emerge as intricate tapestries of historical narratives. They are not merely inanimate artifacts. They are silent storytellers, whispering tales of Roman might, life, and imagination from the once bustling core of civilization.

In this article, we go on a journey, a rendezvous with history, through the lens of these intricate art forms. We will journey across centuries, from the birth of this art form in the cradle of Rome right up to its enduring influence on today’s art world.

Roman Mosaic: The Timeless and Mysterious Testament of an Empire

Key Takeaways

Roman mosaics are intricate works of art that played a significant role in Roman culture, serving both functional and symbolic purposes.
Mosaics were widely used in Roman architecture and were seen as a symbol of wealth and status.
Beyond their aesthetic appeal, Roman mosaics offer a visual documentation of Roman life, beliefs, and cultural narratives.
The influence of Roman mosaics spread far beyond the Empire’s borders, notably affecting art forms around the Mediterranean and in Byzantium .
Roman mosaics have left a lasting imprint on the world of art, influencing modern art movements and continuing to inspire contemporary artists and designers.

Roman Mosaic: A Brief Overview

A Roman mosaic is a piece of art made from the assembling of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials, known as tesserae. These tesserae are meticulously arranged to form patterns or pictures, creating intricate designs that often depict scenes from daily life, mythology , or historical events.

Roman mosaics, a vital art form in ancient Rome, played multiple roles – from serving as decorative elements in public and private buildings to communicating wealth, status, and cultural narratives.

The History of Roman Mosaics

Let’s delve into the fascinating journey of Roman mosaics across different historical periods, tracing their evolution and transformation over time.

Hellenistic Influences and Early Roman Republic (3rd-2nd Century BCE)

The origin of mosaics as an art form predates Rome, with early examples found in Ancient Greece . During the early Roman Republic, mosaics, influenced by Hellenistic patterns, primarily used pebbles and bits of seashells arranged into simple, geometric designs.

Late Republic and Early Empire (1st Century BCE to 1st Century CE)

As the Republic grew wealthier and more powerful, so did the sophistication of mosaics. Roman artisans began to employ tesserae, smaller and consistently shaped pieces made from glass, marble, or other stones. The introduction of tesserae allowed for more detailed and intricate designs and a wider range of color palettes.

High Roman Empire (2nd-3rd Century CE)

This period, also known as the ‘Golden Age of Mosaics,’ was characterized by complex, narrative-driven mosaics. These would typically depict scenes from mythology, battles, hunts, and aspects of daily life, gracing not just floors but also the walls and ceilings of public buildings and private houses.

Late Antiquity and Byzantine Period (4th-6th Century CE)

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the use of mosaics continued well into the Byzantine period. During this time, mosaics often reflected religious themes, corresponding with the growing influence of Christianity.

Uses and Significance of Roman Mosaic

Roman mosaics were more than mere expressions of artistic creativity. They were also a vital component of Roman life, carrying both symbolic and functional significance that went beyond their aesthetic appeal.

Architectural Enhancements: Roman mosaics were integrated into the architecture of public and private buildings, serving as aesthetic enhancements that added to the grandeur of Roman architecture.
Wealth and Status: The complexity and craftsmanship involved in creating mosaics made them a symbol of wealth and status; affluent Romans often commissioned elaborate mosaics to showcase their wealth and cultural sophistication.
Society and Culture: Roman mosaics often depicted scenes from daily life, mythology, and historical events, serving as visual records of societal norms and cultural practices of the time.
Symbolic and Religious Significance: With the advent of Christianity, mosaics began showcasing religious scenes and symbols. In pagan times, they depicted gods and goddesses, serving both religious and protective functions.

The Spread of Roman Mosaics Beyond Empire

Roman mosaics, an integral part of the cultural fabric of the Empire, were not confined to the city of Rome. They found their way into various provinces, leaving a lasting imprint on local art traditions and fostering a fascinating fusion of styles.

Roman Expansion

The conquests and expansive trade networks of the Roman Empire provided an avenue for the dissemination of Roman mosaics. As new territories came under Roman control, local artists and craftsmen were exposed to Roman artistic styles, including mosaics.

Mediterranean Cultures

The influence of Roman mosaics was particularly profound around the Mediterranean. In Spain, the Villa Romana del Casale , located on the island of Sicily, boasts an extensive and well-preserved collection of Roman mosaics, including the famous “ Bikini Girls ” mosaic.

The Hagia Sophia in Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul), the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, houses some of the world’s most exquisite examples of mosaics from late antiquity and the Byzantine period. These mosaics, while rooted in Roman techniques, often had a more symbolic and less realistic style, reflecting the changing aesthetics of the time.

Roman Mosaics and Modern Art

The influence of Roman mosaics extends far beyond the fall of the Roman Empire, impacting the world of art in profound and enduring ways.

Influences on Modern Art Movements

The detailed craftsmanship of Roman mosaics has influenced numerous modern art movements. Some art enthusiasts would say that Claude Monet , in his famous ‘ Water Lilies ,’ borrowed concepts such as the placing of colors side by side to achieve optical blending, quite similar to how tesserae were used in Roman mosaics.

Continuation in Contemporary Architecture and Design

The technique of mosaic-making continues to be used in contemporary architecture and design. Antoni Gaudi ‘s Park Güell in Barcelona is a fantastic modern-day example, with its serpentine benches covered in vibrant mosaic work.

In Chicago, Marc Chagall’s Four Seasons mosaic, a 70-foot-long, 14-foot-high ceramic mural in Chase Tower Plaza, showcases a vast range of styles, from traditional to abstract.

As our journey through the world of Roman mosaics comes to a close, we are left with an appreciation of their historical importance and an understanding of their enduring influence.

Today, we continue to draw inspiration from Roman mosaics, their age-old techniques finding new life in contemporary creations. They serve as a reminder that art is timeless, transcending boundaries of time and space and that creativity, once born, continues to inspire for generations to come.

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THE ART OF MOSAIC IN THE ROMAN PERIOD AND THE USE OF MOSAIC AND THE EXAMINATION OF MOSAICS

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The phrase 'Byzantine art' usually evokes images of icons first and, secondly, mosaics. The mosaics conjured by 'Byzantine art' are those ethereal, glittering surfaces of the walls, vaults and ceilings that, when taken together, create a heavenly, other-worldly atmosphere on the interiors of churches. The brilliant mosaic programs of the early churches and baptisteries in Ravenna (fifth-sixth centuries), for example, are well-known as are the surviving mosaics in the churches of similar date in Rome. The sixth-century apse mosaic depicting the Transfiguration of Christ in the katholikon of the Monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai is a magnificent example of the art—and what could be found in churches located in remote areas of the empire when imperial funds were provided. Yet, only a small number of these mosaic programs survive. Moreover, it is important to bear in mind that they were comparatively few in number in the early Byzantine period itself. Far more abundant were churches decorated with fresco and stucco decoration. And yet, in some ways this is an academic point, because the superstructures of many Late Roman and early Byzantine buildings are non-extant. While there are exceptions—important exceptions that provide a glimpse of the splendid environment created by mosaics—such as the fifth century Mausoleum of Galla Placidia and the Orthodox and Arian baptisteries in Ravenna, the sixth century Basilica Euphrasiana in Poreč, and the seventh century Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Instead, what survive in large number are the floor mosaics that decorated churches, synagogues, civic buildings, bath houses and wealthy private homes. The floors vary from monochromatic to polychromatic, and their decoration ranges from geometric to elaborate figural scenes that include animals and humans. The perennial discovery of the archaeological remains of mosaic floors in the eastern Mediterranean has long made them a subject of investigation by archaeologists, art historians, and historians. From the beginning of the study of Byzantine art as a discrete area within art history in the late nineteenth century, the means employed for the investigation of 1 I am grateful to Jodi Magness, John Fischer, and Sam Wolff, all of whom read and commented on earlier drafts of this article. I am indebted to Glen Bowersock for his close reading of and valuable suggestions for strengthening this essay. Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to Richard Woodfield both for accepting an article of such length and his commitment to the value of the transparent peer-review process which I have found very beneficial.

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Late Byzantine naturalism: Hagia Sophia’s Deësis mosaic

This mosaic shows how the arts—and an interest in naturalism—flourished in the final centuries of the Byzantine Empire.

Deësis (Christ with the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist) , c. 1261, mosaic, imperial enclosure, south gallery, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. Speakers: Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker

Video transcript

[0:00] [music]

Dr. Steven Zucker: [0:12] We’re looking at a mosaic that dates from the late Byzantine period, from the 1200s, but it’s in a church, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, that dates to the 500s, the very beginning of the Byzantine period.

Dr. Beth Harris: [0:20] We normally think about a building and its decoration dating from the same period, but we also know that we decorate our own homes. We’re familiar with that idea.

Dr. Zucker: [0:34] Now, it’s important to know that this mosaic, which is just glorious, was actually covered up for a very long time because this church became a mosque. When it became a mosque, all of its images, all of its crosses, were either removed or were covered.

Dr. Harris: [0:44] It’s wonderful to see it, but it hasn’t survived very well.

Dr. Zucker: [0:47] We only have about one-third left of this mosaic.

Dr. Harris: [0:00] Luckily, we have the faces of the three figures.

Dr. Zucker: [0:53] This is called the Deësis. It shows Christ in the center with his right hand blessing, his left hand holding the gospels. He’s flanked by the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist.

Dr. Harris: [1:04] That’s what Deësis means. This is a subject that we see often in Byzantine art.

Dr. Zucker: [1:08] It’s an intercession. That is, both of these figures are coming to Christ on behalf of mankind.

Dr. Harris: [1:13] It’s really easy to see the appeal of this medium. Small pieces of glass, some with gold in them, some colored.

Dr. Zucker: [1:21] These are tesserae. What’s fabulous about them is they’re set in the wall at slightly different angles. They all catch the light in different ways.

Dr. Harris: [1:29] The artist has created a pattern in the background of that gold that also catches the light.

Dr. Zucker: [1:35] Now, this is a massive mosaic. These figures are much larger than life. It’s also fairly high off the ground. They really do stand above us. That gold ground reminds us that this is a heavenly space. This is not an earthly space. They are distant from us but they’re also proximate. We feel as if there is an emotional connection.

Dr. Harris: [1:54] There’s an abstraction to the background. We see no landscape. We see no architectural setting. The face is carefully modeled, especially of Christ. The artist has used light and dark to create a sense of three-dimensionality in the face and in the neck and the hands of the figures.

[0:00] That’s also true of Mary and John, though perhaps to a lesser extent.

Dr. Zucker: [2:19] There are still these striations, that is, the use of line and the drapery to define the folds. It is still a kind of drawing as opposed to a modeling.

Dr. Harris: [2:24] Christ seems to look directly out at us and seems to be in the middle of raising his hand for that blessing.

Dr. Zucker: [2:34] It’s interesting because he does look up, but the other two figures are bowed. There is a solemnity, a kind of quiet.

Dr. Harris: [2:37] Both of those figures would have had their hands forward in gestures of prayer. Now, we’re in the 1260s here, and this is just after a very tumultuous period, to say the least, in Byzantine history.

Dr. Zucker: [2:55] This church, which was the heart of the Eastern Orthodox tradition, had been controlled briefly by the Latins, that is, by the Roman Catholics, the Western Church.

Dr. Harris: [3:00] In 1204, during the Fourth Crusade, as the crusaders were heading toward Jerusalem, they stopped and instead sacked the very wealthy city of Constantinople.

Dr. Zucker: [3:11] It was a terrible event and there was tremendous violence and really long-term scarring. Some historians look at that moment, the Fourth Crusade, as the moment of the long downward spiral of Constantinople.

[3:22] Nevertheless, after the Byzantines reclaimed their city, there were a couple of hundred years of a real flowering, and this mosaic is one of the great expressions of that period, which some even call a renaissance.

Dr. Harris: [3:39] This is a great example of late Byzantine work. It might even remind us of what’s going on in Italy at the same time with artists like Duccio.

Dr. Zucker: [3:46] Look at the elongation of the bodies. It’s not naturalism, for all of its emotional engagement. These are tremendously elegant figures. Look at the lengthening of the faces, of the nose, of the fingers.

Dr. Harris: [3:55] Elegant, but also emotional. Look at St. John. There is an awareness of the terribleness of Christ’s suffering on behalf of mankind.

Dr. Zucker: [4:04] I think this is a gorgeous mosaic, but in some ways, it feels out of place. It’s important to remember that, when this church was first consecrated, its extensive mosaics were not figurative. They didn’t show the Virgin Mary, and Christ, and St. John.

[4:19] They showed abstract symbols of the cross or patterns. In some ways, they really emphasized the structural forms, the volumes of the building as opposed to pictures on its walls.

Dr. Harris: [4:32] We know that there was tension around the use of images from the very beginning of Christianity. Do you picture Christ? Do you picture Mary? We know that in the Judaic tradition that was disallowed.

[4:44] On the other hand, looking at this image, I can see the incredibly profound value of images in aiding prayer, in helping one to engage with the divine and the transcendent.

The route and results of the Fourth Crusade ( Kandi , CC BY-SA 4.0)

Constantinople, lost and reclaimed

In 1204, a momentous event forever changed the history of the Eastern Roman “ Byzantine ” Empire. Western Europeans embarking on the Fourth Crusade diverged from their path to Jerusalem and sacked and occupied the Byzantine capital of Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The crusaders established a “Latin Empire” in Byzantine territory and subjected Byzantine Christians to the religious authority of the Pope in Rome. The crusaders also converted Hagia Sophia —Constantinople’s great cathedral, built in the sixth century by emperor Justinian—into a Latin (Catholic) church.

Isidore of Miletus & Anthemius of Tralles for Emperor Justinian, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), 532–37 (photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

In 1261, the Byzantines recaptured their capital and crowned Michael VIII Palaiologos as emperor, inaugurating what historians refer to as the Late Byzantine —or Palaiologan—period. A new Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople was enthroned in Hagia Sophia in September 1261, and Justinian’s great church was used for the Byzantine rite once again.

Location of the Deësis mosaic on the western wall of the central bay of the south gallery of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul)

The Deësis mosaic in Hagia Sophia

Under Latin occupation, the capital and many of its churches fell into disrepair, and so the Byzantines began restoring Constantinople and its churches. Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, responsible for reclaiming the Byzantine capital, is likely responsible for installing a monumental new mosaic of the Deësis in the south gallery of Hagia Sophia—a part of the church traditionally reserved for imperial use—not long after reclaiming Constantinople in 1261. The mosaic was probably part of a larger restoration project in the church of Hagia Sophia.

Deësis mosaic, c. 1261, 5.2 x 6 m, south gallery, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The monumental Deësis mosaic depicts Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist approximately two and a half times larger than life. The looming stature of these three figures reflects their importance in Byzantine culture. Christ, the Son of God, appears at the center of the composition and is labeled, IC XC, the Greek abbreviation for “Jesus Christ.” The Byzantines viewed the Virgin Mary—Christ’s mother—as a powerful protector. She appears at Christ’s right hand and is labeled, MP ΘY, “Mother of God.” John was a prophet and relative of Christ, whose preaching and baptizing prepared the way for Christ’s ministry in the Gospels. He appears on Christ’s left with the label, “Saint John the Forerunner.”

Deësis mosaic, c. 1261, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

In the mosaic, Christ sits upon a jeweled throne like an emperor or judge (although most of the throne and bottom half of the mosaic have been lost). The Virgin and John turn inward toward Christ in a three-quarter view, and would have originally extended their hands toward Christ in a pleading gesture. This type of image is referred to as a deësis (δέησις), which means “entreaty,” suggesting an act of asking, pleading, begging. However, this title does not actually appear in the mosaic, and scholars debate whether the Byzantines actually used this term much to describe such images. This type of image reflects the Byzantine belief that the hierarchical order of their empire on earth mirrored heaven above. In the Deësis, the Virgin and John appear like courtiers in the heavenly court, asking God to have mercy on humanity. It is not hard to imagine why such an image of intercession and divine mercy might appeal to the new ruler of an empire still on precarious footing on the world stage.

The Deësis appears in medallions on this fragment of a Byzantine processional cross, c. 1050, silver gilt, niello, 32.3 x 44.8 x 5.7 cm (photo: The Cleveland Museum of Art , CC0) (view annotated image)

The subject of the Deësis is common in art in a variety of media from the Middle Byzantine period onward, often employing a similar composition to that found in Hagia Sophia. But the Deësis was also highly flexible: its figures could be rearranged, replaced by others, or expanded to include additional saints. This is the case with the mid-10th century, ivory Harbaville Triptych , in which Christ, the Virgin, and John—who appear in the top center with angels—are surrounded by a variety of saints.

Harbaville Triptych, mid-10th century, Constantinople, ivory with traces of polychromy, 28.2 x 24.2 x 1.2 cm (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Additionally, the Deësis was often incorporated into larger compositions, such as templon beams and images of the Last Judgment. Scholars have debated possible meanings of the Deësis, sometimes understanding the Virgin and John as witnesses to Christ’s divinity and at other times emphasizing their role as intercessors on behalf of humankind.

Mosaics and light

The Hagia Sophia Deësis is responsive to the lighting conditions where it is located. Within the image, light appears to shine on the figures from the left, casting shadows to the right. This pictorial light source corresponds with the actual light source of the window on the southern wall beside the mosaic. As a result, light and shadow seem to behave the same within the image and in the physical space the image inhabits, a feature that heightens the naturalism in the mosaic.

This pictorial light source corresponds with the actual light source of the adjacent window (left photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0; right photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The artists who created this mosaic also considered how individual tesserae would reflect light. The gold tesserae that compose the background are arranged in a shell-like pattern and those in Christ’s halo seem to swirl. The tesserae within the cross in Christ’s halo are angled so they will reflect the light differently from the rest of the gold ground, highlighting the cross.

Late Byzantine naturalism

The Deësis at Hagia Sophia illustrates a broader tendency toward naturalism (imitation of the visible world) in Late Byzantine art. Let us compare the image of Christ in the Hagia Sophia Deësis with a Middle Byzantine mosaic of Christ at Hosios Loukas Monastery in Boeotia, Greece, which dates to the eleventh century. The two images both follow the same Byzantine conventions for depicting Christ, who holds a Gospel book in his left hand, blesses the viewer with his right hand, and wears a blue mantle and a tunic with gold highlights in both images. But in the Middle Byzantine mosaic at Hosios Loukas, Christ’s features are simplified. The artist relies heavily on lines to articulate form. As a result, Christ’s body may appear somewhat flat and even cartoon-like to our eyes.

Left: mosaic of Christ, 11th century (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0), right: detail of Deësis mosaic, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Certain aspects of the Deësis at Hagia Sophia—such as highlights and drapery folds—are similarly linear. But other elements of the Deësis demonstrate a new tendency toward naturalism. At Hagia Sophia, Christ is more anatomically accurate. The artist has also used modeling—carefully arranging light and dark tesserae—to create a sense of three-dimensional form. And a greater modulation of hues has produced more convincing skin tones.

Dormition fresco, 1260s, church of the Holy Trinity, Sopoćani Monastery, Serbia (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Neither the origins of the artist(s) who created the Deësis mosaic, nor the reasons for the mosaic’s naturalism, are easy to explain. But it should be noted that this tendency toward naturalism is part of a larger trend in Late Byzantine art, which may also be observed, for example, in the wall painting of the Dormition of the Virgin at Sopoćani Monastery in Serbia, also dated to the 1260s.

Left: Detail of Deësis mosaic with the Virgin, c. 1261, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0); right: Duccio, Madonna and Child, c. 1290–1300 (photo: The Metropolitan Museum of Art , CC0)

This attention to naturalism in the Late Byzantine art also corresponds with a similar interest in naturalism among some Italian artists like Duccio , Cimabue , and Giotto who are associated with the beginnings of the Italian Renaissance. Active in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries—not long after the creation of the Deësis in Hagia Sophia—their paintings reveal similar attention to human anatomy and the modeling of form.

Today, the Deësis mosaic in Hagia Sophia still stands as a reminder of the moment when the Byzantines reclaimed their capital from the Latins and when the arts—and an interest in naturalism—flourished.

Bibliography

Painted copy of Deesis Mosaic at The Met

Smarthistory’s free Guide to Byzantine Art e-book

Annemarie Weyl Carr, “Deesis,” The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, edited by Alexander P. Kazhdan, et al., volume 1 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 559–600.

Cecily J. Hilsdale, Byzantine Art and Diplomacy in an Age of Decline (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 96–99.

Robin Cormack, “The Mother of God in the Mosaics of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople,” Mother of God: Representations of the Virgin in Byzantine Art , edited by Maria Vassilaki (Milan: Skira, 2000), pp. 118–23.

Anthony Cutler, “Under the Sign of the Deēsis: On the Question of Representativeness in Medieval Art and Literature,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers , volume 41 (1987), pp. 145–54.

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How to Make a Paper Mosaic

Last Updated: March 9, 2024

This article was co-authored by Amy Guerrero . Amy Guerrero is an Arts and Crafts Specialist and the Owner of Sunshine Craft Co., a crafting studio based in Phoenix, Arizona. Amy specializes in macrame, DIY crafting, and teaching fiber arts. She offers monthly in-person and online workshops along with having developed a range of DIY craft kits for at-home projects. Amy holds a BS in Industrial Design from Philadelphia University. She worked as a graphic designer before starting her own business. Sunshine Craft Co. is a creative hub that offers a wide range of workshops, tools, and resources for any craft project to inspire creativity and community engagement. This article has been viewed 333,056 times.

Mosaics were traditionally made with bits of tile or glass, but it is possible to make simple ones using paper. They are a great project for school children to do while learning about different cultures throughout history. They are also a great project to do on a rainy day or over summer vacation. You can make paper mosaic masterpieces to frame and hang. You can also make paper mosaic masks to wear!

Making a Simple Paper Mosaic

Step 1 Get some sheets of paper in different colors.

Sort your shapes by color and put them into small piles or cups. This will make it easier to find the color you need.
You can apply the glue directly to the sheet of paper, or you can apply it to the back of your tile instead.
If you are using irregular shapes, including triangles, make sure that the straightest edge is on the outside of the outline—otherwise, your shape will look jagged.
If you are using white school glue, apply it with a paintbrush. This will keep things less messy.
If you are applying the glue directly to the paper, work only in small sections at a time, or the glue will dry too fast. [1] X Research source
Don't be afraid to cut some pieces down to help them fit!
For a more professional touch, continue aligning the pieces along the outline, going smaller and smaller with each row until you reach the center.
You can also leave the background blank.

Making a Paper Mosaic Mask

Step 1 Draw a large oval or rectangle on a sheet of black paper.

Use poster paper, construction paper, or cardstock for this.
You will need at least two different colors for this: one color for the mask and a contrasting color for the nose and mouth.
For a different look, paint your own paper, let it dry, then cut it out. [4] X Research source
Sort your shapes by color. This will make it easier to find the color you need.
Use your contrasting color(s) for this. It will help them stand out better.
Use your contrasting color for the nose and mouth.

Step 10 Punch some holes to either side of the mask, and thread some ribbon or elastic through them.

Expert Q&A

If you are preparing the project for a child, you should cut the paper tiles for them. The younger the child is, the larger the tiles should be. [5] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
Look at tile floors and tile mosaics for inspiration. Thanks Helpful 34 Not Helpful 21
Sort your tiles by color in small piles, cups, or bowls. Thanks Helpful 6 Not Helpful 2

Be careful when using scissors. Thanks Helpful 15 Not Helpful 12

Things You'll Need

Simple paper mosaic.

Black or white poster paper, construction paper, or cardstock
Colorful paper
Glue stick or white school glue
Decoupage glue or Mod Podge (optional)

Paper Mosaic Mask

Black poster paper, construction paper, or cardstock
Pencil or white colored pencil
Colorful paper, at least 2 different colors
Hole puncher
Ribbon, string, or elastic

↑ http://meaningfulmama.com/mosaic-cross-craft-for-easter.html
↑ http://www.thatartistwoman.org/2011/11/how-to-make-teotihuacan-inspired-mask.html
↑ http://chippewavalleyfamily.org/news/2016/01/06/12172_2_colorful_creations_i_to_brighten_winter_days__

About This Article

To make a paper mosaic, start by cutting different colors of construction paper or card into small shapes of your choice to create tiles. Then, draw your chosen shape on a piece of paper and begin gluing your tiles to the outline of the object. When your outline is finished, start laying your tiles from the outside and work towards the center of your shape. Finally, fill in the background with a contrasting color to make your shape stand out, and cover your shape with an acrylic sealer to make it last longer. For tips on how to make a mosaic mask, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Mural magic: Montrose artists dream up large scale mosaic

Artists Elaine Helvig, left, Terry Purdy-Arena and Laura McCarey stand at the top of scaffolding surrounding a large-scale mosaic mural they helped create in Montrose. A dedication ceremony is set for 1 p.m. Saturday behind the Church Street Marketplace.

Each time Elaine Helvig saw a blank wall, she would say to her fellow artists: “I could mosaic that.”

"That was just always one of my dreams, to create a large mosaic," she said.

Two years ago Helvig and the artists from the Slanted Art Co-op and Gallery in Montrose started to dream up a large mosaic mural. She asked Chaz and Susan Zellner, owners of the Church Street Marketplace, the local Community Cultural Arts Centre in Montrose, if they could create the mural on their building. They said "yes, please use our building."

On Saturday the artists and community will gather at the base of the 14-by-28-foot mural, named “Dare to Dream," and dedicate it to Montrose, Susquehanna County, and Northeast Pennsylvania. Zellner believes its the first large-scale mosaic mural in the region.

In mid-August Helvig stood on scaffolding lining the back wall of the gallery on Church Street. Behind the metal beams is her dream come true. Helvig has created smaller-scale mosaics for almost 20 years. She said it's surreal to see the large project come to life.

The scaffolding is down now.

The mural’s name represents a hope they have for children.

"They're told to stop daydreaming. And I hope they never stop daydreaming, because look what you can do," she said.

First the co-op artists were asked to think about their art form and how they would represent it on the wall. They came up with different icons.

"There's a coffee cup for the coffee shop that was up there. There's leather-making tools, there's glass blower, there's woodworking — as much as we could come up with to represent art and wellness stuff that brings the community together," said artist Laura McCarey.

Helvig taught many of the members how to mosaic. They sat on the basement floor of the co-op and drew out the mural. They created 200 sections and used mosaic mesh to put the artwork together inside. Some artists took the work home.

The icons are made out of ceramic, stained glass and porcelain tiles, which were all donated. The mirrored tiles glisten when they catch the sun.

"We would cut them down to make them smaller, and then we hand-nip them into shape,” said Helvig.

On July 20 the artists and volunteers from the community began to mortar the icons to the wall. They finished in under a month. Behind the icons is a blue background. It represents the flow of the sky, a nod to Amanda Edwards, a mosaic artist from Maine, said Helvig.

The bottom of the mural is lined with tiles community members purchased to help the mural come to life.

The dreamer sits in the lower left corner, with the icons flowing from them.

"I just can't believe how many people had such huge hearts to come in and help," Helvig said.

The mural dedication will be held Saturday at 1 p.m. behind the Church Street Marketplace, 158 Church St., Montrose .

A mosaic dreamer sits in the corner of the mural as different icons representing the arts and wellness community in Montrose flow skyward.

The Art Institute of Chicago campus in an aerial view

A $75 million gift to the Art Institute of Chicago will be used for a new building for modern art galleries. The museum’s current campus is pictured in an aerial view.

Courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago

Art Institute of Chicago receives $75 million gift to fund new modern art building

The money, a donation from art collectors aaron i. fleischman and lin lougheed, is the single largest naming gift the downtown museum has ever received..

The Art Institute of Chicago has received a $75 million donation for a new building to showcase modern art from the 19th and 20th centuries.

The funds — which amount to the single largest naming gift the museum has ever received — come from longtime art collectors Aaron I. Fleischman and Lin Lougheed. The new building, which will bear their names, will be constructed within the museum’s existing downtown campus, although the exact location and project timeline have not been announced.

“We have a hard stop on five sides: Columbus, Monroe, Michigan and Jackson, as well as a height restriction. So we really are a profoundly finite site,” Art Institute President James Rondeau said. “There are, I think, some opportunities to repurpose underused spaces and then also relocate certain aspects of the collections to create the potential for this construction.”

Fleischman and Lougheed live in Miami but both have Midwest roots, according to the museum. Fleischman is a native of suburban Highland Park and has been an Art Institute trustee for about 15 years. He has made other major contributions to art museums, including endowing a curatorship at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

“Lin and I are excited about naming a new building that will create additional space for visitors to see more of the collection than they have ever been able to see before, and for the museum to tell a more complete story of modern and contemporary art,” Fleischman said in a statement. “Touring the collections on view and in storage, I came to believe that more of the museum‘s extraordinary collection needed to be available to visitors and presented in world-class architecture.”

Dozens line up at the Art Institute of Chicago to visit The Obama Portraits, featuring Kehinde Wiley's painting of former President Barack Obama and Amy Sherald's portrayal of former First Lady Michelle Obama, on the first day the official portraits go on display in 2021.

The iconic main entrance to the Art Institute on Michigan Avenue is photographed in 2021.

Ashlee Rezin Garcia/Chicago Sun-Times, file

The current Modern Wing of the Art Institute, designed by the architect Renzo Piano, opened in 2009 to house modern and contemporary art and sculpture, photography and architecture and design. That was the largest expansion of the museum in history.

Rondeau said 19th and 20th century modern art is a key part of the museum’s DNA.

“And there are really significant swaths of the modern collection not on view,” Rondeau said. “So we aim to create both more space for modern, and then there’ll be a kind of collateral lift to create more space for contemporary, we hope, in the existing buildings.”

In recent years, the museum has been working with the Barcelona architecture firm Barozzi Veiga to reimagine its downtown campus, improve facilities and provide more access to its collection, Rondeau said.

“I know the word ‘transformative’ is overused, but we’ve been working for many years on this vision, and thanks to Aaron and Lin, I think we can say that we’ll be in a position where that vision will become a reality.”

The Art Institute’s Modern Wing opened in 2009.

Richard A. Chapman/Sun-Times, file

The new building’s design will incorporate views of Millennium Park, downtown and the lake, the museum said in a release.

“It’s exciting to be part of Barozzi Veiga’s long-term plan for the Art Institute,” Lougheed said in a statement. “The future building plans will add to Chicago’s reputation as the center of innovative architecture.”

Earlier this year, the Art Institute announced two $25 million donations from Chicago-area based groups to support campus improvements. The John D. and Alexandra C. Nichols Family Foundation gave in support of the Nichols Family Skyline Garden and other visitor-centered spaces. The Bucksbaum family gifted funds for a namesake photography center.

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