Proportion
3.3.1. gender difference analysis.
A structural equation model was used to investigate gender differences in the mediating effect of DPA between VVGE and PB, and the model included grade as a control variable. First, a model test was conducted on male and female students, and the results showed that the model fit was good in the two samples, which could be compared across groups ( Table 5 ). Next, the unconstrained Model M 0 was constructed on this basis (the male and female students had the same shape, and the path coefficient was freely estimated). The measurement weights Model M 1 was constructed based on model M 0 (the factor loading of latent variables in the two groups of models was restricted to remain unchanged across the groups). The two models fit well. The model comparison showed a significant difference between M 0 and M 1 [Δχ 2 = 20.55, p < 0.001], indicating that the model measurement coefficients of the male and female groups had cross-group inequalities. Further tests found cross-group differences in the loading coefficients of factors 1 and 2 on VVGE and the loading coefficients of peer barriers on IP. Therefore, the above coefficients were freely estimated to establish Model M 2 with equal measurement weights across groups. Finally, the structural weights Model M 3 is constructed based on M 2 (the path coefficients in the two groups of models are restricted to remain unchanged across groups). The results showed that both M 2 and M 3 models fit well, and the model comparison revealed a significant difference between M 2 and M 3 [Δχ 2 = 57.14, p < 0.001]. Further tests revealed that the path coefficients of DPA on IP and EP differed across the groups ( Table 5 , Figure 2 ). The predictive effect of DPA on IP in boys ( β = 0.31, p < 0.001) was significantly higher than that in girls ( β = 0.28, p < 0.001). However, the predictive effect of DPA on EP was significantly lower in boys ( β = 0.37, p < 0.001) than in girls ( β = 0.41, p < 0.001).
Gender differences in mediating role of deviant peer affiliation. Note: The path coefficient is male outside the brackets and female inside the brackets; the load coefficient between each latent variable and its index, the residual error and error of all variables, and the control variable coefficient are omitted to simplify the model. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
Fitting index of multi-cohort model for multi-cohort analysis of gender difference.
Model | χ /df | CFI | GFI | IFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | 4.52 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.94 | 0.06 | 0.05 |
M | 7.15 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.92 | 0.08 | 0.06 |
M | 5.97 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
M | 5.81 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
M | 5.79 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
M | 5.77 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.93 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
Note: M male and M female were male and female models.
This study investigated the grade difference of the mediating role of DPA in VVGE and PB used for the cross-group comparison of the structural equation model and considered gender as a control variable in the model. The participants were divided into elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school according to their grades, and the grade differences in the intermediary model were investigated. First, the samples were divided into school sections for the model test. The results showed that the models of the three samples fit well and could be compared across groups ( Table 6 ). Next, the unconstrained model M 4 (three groups of models have the same shape, and the path coefficient can be estimated freely) was built. Further, the measurement coefficient Model M 5 (limiting the factor load of latent variables in three groups of models to be constant across groups) was built. Both models fit well, and the comparison of the models showed a significant difference between Models M 4 and M 5 [Δχ 2 = 45.66, p < 0.001], indicating that the measurement coefficients of the three groups of models were unequal across groups. Further tests showed cross-group differences in the load coefficient of factor 1 and factor 2 on VVGE, the load coefficient of factor 2 on DPA, and the load coefficient of peer obstacles on IP. Therefore, the above coefficients were estimated freely, and Model M 6 with equal measurement weights s across groups was established. Finally, a structural weights Model M 7 was built based on M 6 (the path coefficient among the three models is limited to be unchanged across groups). The results showed that the M 6 and M 7 models fit well, and the comparison indicated that M 6 and M 7 had significant differences [Δχ 2 = 110.07, p < 0.001]. Further examination showed that cross-group differences existed between the path coefficients of DPA on IP and EP and VVGE on EP ( Table 6 , Figure 3 ). For instance, the predictive effect of DPA on IP was significantly higher at the elementary school level ( β = 0.39, p < 0.001) than at the senior high school level ( β = 0.31, p < 0.001), and significantly higher at the senior high school level than at the junior high school level ( β = 0.22, p < 0.001). Further, the predictive effect of DPA on EP was significantly higher at the elementary level ( β = 0.41, p < 0.001) than at the junior high school level ( β = 0.33, p < 0.001), but considerably lower than that at the senior high school level ( β = 0.47, p < 0.001). The direct effect of VVGE on EP was significantly lower at the senior high school level ( β = 0.06, p = 0.217) than at the elementary school level ( β = 0.21, p < 0.001) and junior high school ( β = 0.24, p < 0.001).
Grade differences in mediating role of deviant peer affiliation. Note: Path coefficients outside parentheses are for elementary school, inside parentheses are for junior high school, and inside square brackets are for senior high school. The load coefficient between each latent variable and its index, the residual error and error of all variables, and the control variable coefficient are omitted to simplify the model. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Fitting index of multi-cohort model for multi-cohort analysis of grade difference.
Model | χ /df | CFI | GFI | IFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | 1.10 | 1.00 | 0.99 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
M | 2.04 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
M | 2.89 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 0.05 | 0.03 |
M | 2.01 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
M | 2.29 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.03 | 0.04 |
M | 1.99 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.02 | 0.03 |
M | 2.66 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.03 | 0.08 |
Note: M elementary school , M junior high school , and M senior high school are models with different school sections.
Childhood and adolescence are crucial periods of rapid individual development and tremendous change. This study was conducted with elementary, junior high, and senior high school students, focusing on the mechanisms of VVGE and DPA on PBs of children and adolescents and examining the differences by gender and grade.
First, the findings showed that VVGE positively and significantly predicted PB in children and adolescents, validating Research Hypothesis 1, which is consistent with previous research [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Regarding IPs, Kuss and Griffiths (2012) argue that the emergence of IPs may result from escapism and that players are attracted to games to escape from real-world problems [ 64 ]. Nonetheless, too much exposure is unhelpful and may exacerbate players’ emotional problems, such as anxiety and depression. Concerning EPs, violent video games are often fast-paced and offer frequent rewards or novel and enjoyable stimuli, which may contribute to the attention problems of child/adolescent players. According to the social learning theory, individuals can acquire undesirable behaviors in two ways: first, through observational learning, in which individuals receive unwanted behaviors by observing or imitating others’ undesirable behaviors. The other way is direct learning, in which individuals acquire undesirable behaviors through personal participation. During the game, child and adolescent players can develop unwanted behaviors by observing and imitating game non-player characters or directly manipulating game characters, which may lead to more EPs being exhibited by children and adolescents in real life.
Second, DPA mediated the relationship between VVGE and IP and EP, validating research Hypothesis 2 that VVGE affects PB by increasing children’s adolescents’ DPA. Games have a significant impact on children’s and adolescents’ peer interaction as a way of maintaining friendship. According to social network theory [ 65 ], individuals who are chronically exposed to violent games may be increasingly exposed to undesirable peers through a process of “selection”. The “selection” process refers to children and adolescents actively choosing peers with similar behaviors as their peers. Children and adolescents chronically exposed to violent video games tend to have more IPs or EPs. They may voluntarily join peers identical to them through a selection process based on similarity. The influence of undesirable peers on children and adolescents’ PB results from the interaction between children and adolescents and undesirable peers. This interaction is two-way, including the “socialization” process and the “selection” process. The process of “socialization” refers to children and adolescents making friends with peers who exhibit PB; they may develop similar behaviors under the influence of peer pressure and other factors. These two processes interact; children and adolescents who play games select peers with behavioral problems, and interactions with undesirable peers increase their own problem behaviors [ 66 ]. Simultaneously, friendships with undesirable peers tend to be unstable, and interactions with them tend to increase traditional peer rejection, which also increases the risk of IPs and EPs in children and adolescents.
Finally, the study’s results found that the effects of DPA on IP and EP showed significant gender and grade differences, partially validating research Hypothesis 3. Regarding gender, boys’ IPs were more likely to be influenced by DPA. Generally, boys are less flexible and lack cognitive and emotional coping skills and regulation when dealing with interpersonal relationships than girls [ 34 ], which may lead to more psychological distress in boys when dealing with DPA. Girls’ EPs are more likely to be influenced by DPA. On the one hand, girls are typically more precocious than boys. They are more likely to be exposed to older mixed-sex groups. Further, adolescent girls are more sensitive to social appraisal concerns and more dependent on intimate relationships as a source of self-evaluation and self-worth [ 67 ]. A qualitative study found that college girls’ drinking behavior is more often driven by pressure to impress their male peers [ 68 ], suggesting that girls are more likely to engage in more EPs out of the need for approval and influence from undesirable peers. On the other hand, boys have a greater tendency toward EPs than girls, and their EPs are more likely to be influenced by a combination of other factors, such as hormones and personality [ 69 ]. Concerning grade differences, elementary school students’ IPs were affected more by DPA. Early adolescence is a critical transition period for individual development, during which essential changes in the individual are often accompanied by changes in the social environment. Simultaneously, individuals become more independent in the face of their parents, where dependence on parents is replaced by reliance on peers, and they are more susceptible to peer influence [ 70 , 71 ]. Additionally, children in elementary school tend to show a one-off imbalance in their psychological development due to their young age. Simultaneously, they have low self-centeredness and self-control; they are more susceptible to peer pressure and more likely to develop IPs. The EPs of senior high school students are affected more by DPA. It has been found that undesirable peer influences play an important role in developing PB in middle and late adolescence [ 27 ]. In senior high school, peer interaction has become an important way for senior high school students to meet their social needs and plays an important role in learning and life. Simultaneously, the character and hobbies of peers are gradually becoming essential criteria for choosing friends, and individuals who interact with undesirable peers often tend to misbehave. Aggression and popularity are often intertwined during interactions with undesirable peers [ 72 ]. Therefore, senior high school students in unwanted peer groups may adopt destructive behaviors to maintain friendships.
This study is an effort to explore the role of DPA between VVGE and PB, as well as gender and grade differences in a large sample (more than 2000 people), covering children and adolescents from different grades in elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school. In the term of theoretical aspect, this study explores the role of social factors in the relationship between VVGE and children and adolescents’ PBs and made clear the differences in both gender and grade, which deepens our understanding of the impact of VVGE on children and adolescents’ PBs and helps to explain its potential impact mechanism. In practice, this can also bring some thinking for the education of children and adolescents. As one of the common entertainment tools for children and adolescents, violent video games have a certain negative impact on children and adolescents’ social interaction and PBs. At the same time, the DPA of children and adolescents significantly affects their IPs and EPs. Therefore, in terms of family, parents should supervise children’s network use, cultivate children’s healthy network use habits, and avoid excessive addiction to video games. At the same time, they should also pay attention to children’s social interaction, guide children to establish healthy and positive peer groups, and reduce communication with bad peers. In school, first of all, teachers and mental health experts should pay attention to network security, to educate and guide children and adolescents to correctly understand the violent factors in video games. Secondly, we should pay attention to the harm of students’ bad companions and help students to establish a healthy and positive circle of friends. In addition, parents and schools should pay attention to the differences among primary, middle, and high school students in educating and guiding children and adolescents. In the social aspect, we can create a healthy network environment for children and adolescents by improving the game classification system and combating the illegal dissemination of harmful information.
Although the current study yielded important and practical findings on the targeted intervention and guidance, several limitations should be noted. First, this study is a cross-sectional study, which is not plausible to make a causal inference. In the future, longitudinal studies can be applied to clarify the causal relationship between variables. Second, all variables in the study are self-reported and may be affected by common method bias. Therefore, a more comprehensive data collection method should be adopted. Thirdly, video games are one of the common entertainment tools for children and adolescents and are regarded as an important factor affecting the psychosocial development of children and adolescents. This study only focuses on the impact of VVGE on children and adolescents’ PBs. Future research can further discuss the differences between different video game content. Finally, future researchers should consider more potential impact factors. In this study, we found that there are significant gender and age differences in the mediating role of DPA between violent video game exposure and problem behaviors, and the development of peer relationships in children and adolescents is affected by the individual growth environment (such as parent–child relationship, school atmosphere) [ 12 , 73 ]. Therefore, examining environmental factors such as family and school helps us understand the role of deviant peer affiliation.
In sum, this study found that VVGE can affect the social interaction of children and adolescents, thereby increasing their PBs, and this effect has gender and age differences. In terms of gender, although boys generally show more EPs in their daily lives, their IPs are more susceptible to peer influence, while girls are the opposite. In terms of age, the influence of peers presents different characteristics in different age groups. The IP of primary school students is more susceptible to DPA, while the EP of high school students is more susceptible to DPA.
The authors would like to thank all the students who participated in this study. The authors would like to thank all the researchers who helped with data collection.
This work was supported by the Chongqing Federation of Social Science [grant numbers 2020SZ29].
Conceptualization M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; data curation, M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; formal analysis, M.W. and S.C.; funding acquisition, Y.L.; investigation, M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; methodology, M.W., Y.L. and S.C.; project administration, Y.L.; resources, Y.L.; supervision, Y.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.W.; writing—review and editing, M.W. and Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved Research Project Ethical Review Application Form, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University of China (H22074, 4 July 2022).
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects and their parents involved in the study.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Troubling social phenomena—such as a spike in mass shootings —stem from a multitude of interrelated factors. Reality is complicated; humans are complicated. But in an effort to condense findings for a general audience, make headlines, or both, the scientific community sometimes issues authoritative-sounding statements that muddle, rather than clarify, public understanding. This is the case with potential links between video games and violence.
In 2020, the American Psychological Association (APA) released a statement declaring, “There is insufficient scientific evidence to support a causal link between violent video games and violent behavior.” The statement is reasonable when read carefully, with particular attention to the phrase “insufficient scientific evidence.” But mainstream news outlets and even some researchers and medical professionals have interpreted the statement as saying that there is no causal relationship between video games and violence. This is an incorrect interpretation because it adds certainty to the statement that is not actually there. Instead, the takeaway should be that it is unclear based on experimental research whether, or to what extent, violent games facilitate offline violence. As then-APA President Sandra L. Shullman highlighted in 2020, “Violence is a complex social problem that likely stems from many factors that warrant attention from researchers, policymakers and the public.” Still, one of these many factors could be participation in violent-themed video games, especially those in which racist and other hate-based rhetoric is endemic.
Research on multiplayer online games indicates that extremist statements and hate-based harassment are prevalent in many gaming communities. In a representative survey commissioned by our Center, 51% of multiplayer gamers reported that they had come across extremist narratives—statements like, “violence against women is justified” and “a particular ethnicity should be eliminated”—while playing multiplayer games during the previous year. Other researchers have suggested that the sustained prevalence of extremism in games has led to its normalization . Moreover, a pattern of real-world incidents involving mass shootings by young men who were also devoted gamers—and who used gaming aesthetics in their “ gamified ” acts of violence—suggests that, in some cases, participation in gaming communities contributes to radicalization. These findings and real-world observations ought to figure in the conversation about video games and violence.
The point is not to revive a moral panic around video games. The vast majority of the billions of people worldwide who play online games do not engage in mass violence. Moreover, given how widespread gaming is among young people—around 70% of US children under 18 play video games regularly—there is a high probability that the few young people committing violence would also be gamers.
The problem is also not with the medium itself. Video games come in many varieties, and some are designed to increase empathy and positive social behavior. The issue is that certain popular video games—and the communities surrounding them—have helped to normalize racist, misogynist, and other hate-based ideologies among gamers. Participation in such toxic online environments, when combined with preexisting vulnerabilities and access to firearms, can lead to offline violence. It is not a simple causal story but one that deserves careful examination and nuanced reporting.
The relation of violent video games to adolescent aggression: an examination of moderated mediation effect.
To assess the moderated mediation effect of normative beliefs about aggression and family environment on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, the subjects self-reported their exposure to violent video games, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggressive behavior. The results showed that there was a significant positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression; normative beliefs about aggression had a mediation effect on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, while family environment moderated the first part of the mediation process. For individuals with a good family environment, exposure to violent video games had only a direct effect on aggression; however, for those with poor family environment, it had both direct and indirect effects mediated by normative beliefs about aggression. This moderated mediation model includes some notions of General Aggression Model (GAM) and Catalyst Model (CM), which helps shed light on the complex mechanism of violent video games influencing adolescent aggression.
Violent video games and aggression.
The relationship between violent video games and adolescent aggression has become a hot issue in psychological research ( Wiegman and Schie, 1998 ; Anderson and Bushman, 2001 ; Anderson et al., 2010 ; Ferguson et al., 2012 ; Greitemeyer, 2014 ; Yang et al., 2014 ; Boxer et al., 2015 ). Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM), Anderson et al. suggested that violent video games constitute an antecedent variable of aggressive behavior, i.e., the degree of exposure to violent video games directly leads to an increase of aggression ( Anderson and Bushman, 2001 ; Bushman and Anderson, 2002 ; Anderson, 2004 ; Anderson et al., 2004 ). Related longitudinal studies ( Anderson et al., 2008 ), meta-analyses ( Anderson et al., 2010 ; Greitemeyer and Mugge, 2014 ), event-related potential studies ( Bailey et al., 2011 ; Liu et al., 2015 ), and trials about juvenile delinquents ( DeLisi et al., 2013 ) showed that exposure to violent video games significantly predicts adolescent aggression.
Although Anderson et al. insisted on using the GAM to explain the effect of violent video games on aggression, other researchers have proposed alternative points of view. For example, a meta-analysis by Sherry (2001) suggested that violent video games have minor influence on adolescent aggression. Meanwhile, Ferguson (2007) proposed that publication bias (or file drawer effect) may have implications in the effect of violent video games on adolescent aggression. Publication bias means that compared with articles with negative results, those presenting positive results (such as statistical significance) are more likely to be published ( Rosenthal and Rosnow, 1991 ). A meta-analysis by Ferguson (2007) found that after publication bias adjustment, the related studies cannot support the hypothesis that violent video games are highly correlated with aggression. Then, Ferguson et al. proposed a Catalyst Model (CM), which is opposite to the GAM. According to this model, genetic predisposition can lead to an aggressive child temperament and aggressive adult personality. Individuals who have an aggressive temperament or an aggressive personality are more likely to produce violent behavior during times of environmental strain. Environmental factors act as catalysts for violent acts for an individual who have a violence-prone personality. This means that although the environment does not cause violent behavior, but it can moderate the causal influence of biology on violence. The CM model suggested that exposure to violent video games is not an antecedent variable of aggressive behavior, but only acts as a catalyst influencing its form ( Ferguson et al., 2008 ). Much of studies ( Ferguson et al., 2009 , 2012 ; Ferguson, 2013 , 2015 ; Furuya-Kanamori and Doi, 2016 ; Huesmann et al., 2017 ) found that adolescent aggression cannot be predicted by the exposure to violent video games, but it is closely related to antisocial personality traits, peer influence, and family violence.
Anderson and his collaborators ( Groves et al., 2014 ; Kepes et al., 2017 ) suggested there were major methodological shortcomings in the studies of Ferguson et al. and redeclared the validity of their own researches. Some researchers supported Anderson et al. and criticized Ferguson’s view ( Gentile, 2015 ; Rothstein and Bushman, 2015 ). However, Markey (2015) held a neutral position that extreme views should not be taken in the relationship between violent video games and aggression.
In fact, the relation of violent video games to aggression is complicated. Besides the controversy between the above two models about whether there is an influence, other studies explored the role of internal factors such as normative belief about aggression and external factors such as family environment in the relationship between violent video games and aggression.
Normative beliefs about aggression are one of the most important cognitive factors influencing adolescent aggression; they refer to an assessment of aggression acceptability by an individual ( Huesmann and Guerra, 1997 ). They can be divided into two types: general beliefs and retaliatory beliefs. The former means a general view about aggression, while the latter reflects aggressive beliefs in provocative situations. Normative beliefs about aggression reflect the degree acceptance of aggression, which affects the choice of aggressive behavior.
Studies found that normative beliefs about aggression are directly related to aggression. First, self-reported aggression is significantly correlated to normative beliefs about aggression ( Bailey and Ostrov, 2008 ; Li et al., 2015 ). General normative beliefs about aggression can predict young people’s physical, verbal, and indirect aggression ( Lim and Ang, 2009 ); retaliatory normative beliefs about aggression can anticipate adolescent retaliation behavior after 1 year ( Werner and Hill, 2010 ; Krahe and Busching, 2014 ). There is a longitudinal temporal association of normative beliefs about aggression with aggression ( Krahe and Busching, 2014 ). Normative beliefs about aggression are significantly positively related to online aggressive behavior ( Wright and Li, 2013 ), which is the most important determining factor of adolescent cyberbullying ( Kowalski et al., 2014 ). Teenagers with high normative beliefs about aggression are more likely to become bullies and victims of traditional bullying and cyberbullying ( Burton et al., 2013 ). Finally, normative beliefs about aggression can significantly predict the support and reinforcement of bystanders in offline bullying and cyberbullying ( Machackova and Pfetsch, 2016 ).
According to Bandura’s social cognitive theory ( Bandura, 1989 ), violent video games can initiate adolescents’ observational learning. In this situation, not only can they imitate the aggressive behavior of the model but also their understanding and acceptability about aggression may change. Therefore, normative beliefs about aggression can also be a mediator between violent video games and adolescent aggression ( Duan et al., 2014 ; Anderson et al., 2017 ; Huesmann et al., 2017 ). Studies have shown that the mediating role of normative beliefs about aggression is not influenced by factors such as gender, prior aggression, and parental monitoring ( Gentile et al., 2014 ).
Family violence, parenting style, and other family factors have major effects on adolescent aggression. On the one hand, family environment can influence directly on aggression by shaping adolescents’ cognition and setting up behavioral models. Many studies have found that family violence and other negative factors are positively related to adolescent aggression ( Ferguson et al., 2009 , 2012 ; Ferguson, 2013 ), while active family environment can reduce the aggressive behavior ( Batanova and Loukas, 2014 ).
On the other hand, family environment can act on adolescent aggression together with other factors, such as exposure to violent video games. Analysis of the interaction between family conflict and media violence (including violence on TV and in video games) to adolescent aggression showed that teenagers living in higher conflict families with more media violence exposure show more aggressive behavior ( Fikkers et al., 2013 ). Parental monitoring is significantly correlated with reduced media violence exposure and a reduction in aggressive behavior 6 months later ( Gentile et al., 2014 ). Parental mediation can moderate the relationship between media violence exposure and normative beliefs about aggression, i.e., for children with less parental mediation, predictability of violent media exposure on normative beliefs about aggression is stronger ( Linder and Werner, 2012 ). Parental mediation is closely linked to decreased aggression caused by violent media ( Nathanson, 1999 ; Rasmussen, 2014 ; Padilla-Walker et al., 2016 ). Further studies have shown that the autonomy-supportive restrictive mediation of parents is related to a reduction in current aggressive behavior by decreasing media violence exposure; conversely, inconsistent restrictive mediation is associated with an increase of current aggressive behavior by enhancing media violence exposure ( Fikkers et al., 2017 ).
Despite GAM and CM hold opposite views on the relationship between violent video games and aggression, both of the two models imply the same idea that aggression cannot be separated from internal and external factors. While emphasizing on negative effects of violent video games on adolescents’ behavior, the GAM uses internal factors to explain the influencing mechanism, including aggressive beliefs, aggressive behavior scripts, and aggressive personality ( Bushman and Anderson, 2002 ; Anderson and Carnagey, 2014 ). Although the CM considers that there is no significant relation between violent video games and aggression, it also acknowledges the role of external factors such as violent video games and family violence. Thus, these two models seem to be contradictory, but in fact, they reveal the mechanism of aggression from different points of view. It will be more helpful to explore the effect of violent video games on aggression from the perspective of combination of internal and external factors.
Although previous studies have investigated the roles of normative beliefs about aggression and family factors in the relationship between violent video games and adolescent aggression separately, the combined effect of these two factors remains unstudied. The purpose of this study was to analyze the combined effect of normative beliefs about aggression and family environment. This can not only confirm the effects of violent video games on adolescent aggression further but also can clarify the influencing mechanism from the integration of GAM and CM to a certain extent. Based on the above, the following three hypotheses were proposed:
Hypothesis 1: There is a significant positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression.
Hypothesis 2: Normative beliefs about aggression are the mediator of exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression.
Hypothesis 3: The family environment can moderate the mediation effects of normative beliefs about aggression in exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression; exposure to violent video games, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggression constitute a moderated mediation model.
Participants.
All subjects gave informed written consent for participation in this investigation, and their parents signed parental written informed consent. The study was reviewed and approved by the Professor Committee of School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, which is the committee responsible for providing ethics approvals. A total of 648 Chinese middle school students participated in this study, including 339 boys and 309 girls; 419 students were from cities and towns, and 229 from the countryside. There were 277 and 371 junior and high school students, respectively. Ages ranged from 12 to 19 years, averaging 14.73 ( SD = 1.60).
The Video Game Questionnaire ( Anderson and Dill, 2000) required participants to list their favorite five video games and assess their use frequencies, the degree of violent content, and the degree of violent images on a 7-point scale (1, participants seldom play video games, with no violent content or image; 7, participants often play video games with many violent contents and images). Methods for calculating the score of exposure to violent video games: (score of violent content in the game + score of violent images in the game) × use frequency/5. Chen et al. (2012) found that the Chinese version of this questionnaire had high internal consistency reliability and good content validity. The Chinese version was used in this study, and the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.88.
There were 29 items in AQ ( Buss and Perry, 1992 ), including four dimensions: physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. The scale used 5-point scoring criteria (1, very incongruent with my features; 5, very congruent with my features). Scores for each item were added to obtain the dimension score, and dimension scores were summed to obtain the total score. The Chinese version of AQ had good internal consistency reliability and construct validity ( Ying and Dai, 2008 ). In this study, the Chinese version was used and its Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.83.
The FES ( Moos, 1990 ) includes 90 true-false questions and is divided into 10 subscales, including cohesion, expressiveness, conflict, independence, achievement-orientation, intellectual-cultural orientation, active-recreational orientation, moral-religious emphasis, organization, and control. The Chinese version of FES was revised by Fei et al. (1991) and used in this study. Three subscales closely related to aggression were selected, including cohesion, conflict, and moral-religious emphasis, with 27 items in total. The family environment score was the sum of scores of these three subscales (the conflict subscale was first inverted). The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.75.
There are 20 items in the NOBAGS ( Huesmann and Guerra, 1997 ), which includes retaliation (12 items) and general (8 items) aggression belief. A 4-point Likert scale is used (1, absolutely wrong; 4, absolutely right). The subjects were asked to assess the accuracy of the behavior described in each item. High score means high level of normative beliefs about aggression. The revised Chinese version of NOBAGS consists of two factors: retaliation (nine items) and general (six items) aggression belief. Its internal consistency coefficient and test-retest reliability are 0.81 and 0.79. Confirmative factor analysis showed that this version has good construct validity: χ 2 = 280.09, df = 89, χ 2 / df = 3.15, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.04, NFI = 0.95, NNFI = 0.96, and CFI = 0.96 ( Shao and Wang, 2017 ). In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the Chinese version was 0.88.
Group testing was performed in randomly selected classes of six middle schools. All subjects completed the above four questionnaires.
IBM SPSS Statistics 22 was used to analysis the correlations among study variables, the mediating effect of normative beliefs about aggression on the relationship between exposure to violent video games and aggression, and the moderating role of family environment in the relationship between exposure to violent video games and normative beliefs about aggression. In order to validate the moderated mediation model, Mplus 7 was also used.
In this study, self-reported questionnaires were used to collect data, and results might be influenced by common method bias. Therefore, the Harman’s single-factor test was used to assess common method bias before data analysis. The results showed that eigenvalues of 34 unrotated factors were greater than 1, and the amount of variation explained by the first factor was 10.01%, which is much less than 40% of the critical value. Accordingly, common method bias was not significant in this study.
As described in Table 1 , the degree of exposure to violent video games showed significant positive correlations to normative beliefs about aggression and aggression; family environment was negatively correlated to normative beliefs about aggression and aggression; normative beliefs about aggression were significantly and positively related to aggression. The gender difference of exposure to violent video games ( t = 7.93, p < 0.001) and normative beliefs about aggression ( t = 2.74, p < 0.01) were significant, which boys scored significantly higher than girls.
Table 1 . Means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlations among study variables.
To examine the mediation effect of normative beliefs about aggression on the relationship between exposure to violent video games and aggression, gender factor was controlled firstly. Stepwise regression analysis showed that the regression of aggression to violent video games ( c = 0.28, t = 6.96, p < 0.001), the regression of normative beliefs about aggression to violent video games ( a = 0.19, t = 4.69, p < 0.001), and the regression of aggression to violent video games ( c ′ = 0.22, t = 5.69, p < 0.001) and normative beliefs about aggression ( b = 0.31, t = 8.25, p < 0.001) were all significant. Thus, normative beliefs about aggression played a partial mediating role in exposure to violent video games and aggression. The mediation effect value was 0.06, accounting for 21.43% (0.06/0.28) of the total effect.
After standardizing scores of exposure to violent videogames, normative beliefs about aggression, family environment, and aggression, two interaction terms were calculated, including family environment × exposure to violent video games and family environment × normative beliefs about aggression. Regression analysis was carried out after controlling gender factor ( Table 2 ).
Table 2 . Moderated mediation effect analysis of the relationship between violent video exposure and aggression.
In the first step, a simple moderated model (Model 1) between exposure to violent video games and aggression was established. The result showed that exposure to violent video games had a significant effect on aggression ( c 1 = 0.24, t = 6.13, p < 0.001), while the effect of family environment × exposure to violent video games on aggression was not significant ( c 3 = 0.05, t = −1.31, p = 0.19), indicating that the relationship between exposure to violent video games and aggression was not moderated by family environment.
Next, a moderated model (Model 2) between exposure to violent video games and normative beliefs about aggression was established. The results showed that exposure to violent video games had a significant effect on normative beliefs about aggression ( a 1 = 0.13, t = 3.42, p < 0.001), and the effect of family environment × exposure to violent video games on normative beliefs about aggression was significant ( a 3 = −0.13, t = −3.63, p < 0.01).
In the third step, a moderated mediation model (Model 3) between exposure to violent video games and aggression was established. As shown in Table 2 , the effect of normative beliefs about aggression on aggression was significant ( b 1 = 0.24, t = 6.15, p < 0.001), and the effect of family environment × exposure to violent video games on normative beliefs about aggression was not significant ( b 2 = 0.02, t = 0.40, p = 0.69). Because both a 3 and b 1 were significant, exposure to violent video games, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggression constituted a moderated mediation model. Normative beliefs about aggression played a mediating role between exposure to violent video games and aggression, while family environment was a moderator between exposure to violent video games and normative beliefs about aggression. Mplus analysis proved that the moderated mediation model had good model fitting (χ 2 / df = 1.54, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.03, and SRMR = 0.01).
To further analyze the moderating effect of the family environment and exposure to violent video games on normative beliefs about aggression, the family environment was divided into the high and low groups, according to the principle of standard deviation, and a simple slope test was performed ( Figure 1 ). The results found that for individuals with high score of family environment, prediction of exposure to violent video games to normative beliefs about aggression was not significant ( b = 0.08, SE = 0.08, p = 0.37). For individuals with low score of family environment, exposure to violent video games could significantly predict normative beliefs about aggression ( b = 0.34, SE = 0.09, p < 0.001). Based on the overall findings, individuals with high scores of family environment showed a nonsignificant mediating effect of normative beliefs about aggression on the relation of exposure to violent video games and aggression; however, for individuals with low scores of family environment, normative beliefs about aggression played a partial mediating role in the effect of exposure to violent video games on aggression.
Figure 1 . The moderating effect of the family environment on the relationship between violent video game exposure and normative beliefs about aggression.
This study found a significantly positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, corroborating existing studies ( Anderson, 2004 ; Anderson et al., 2010 ; DeLisi et al., 2013 ; Greitemeyer and Mugge, 2014 ). Anderson et al. (2017) assessed teenagers in Australia, China, Germany, the United States, and other three countries and found that exposure to violent media, including television, movies, and video games, is positively related to adolescent aggression, demonstrating cross-cultural consistency; 8% of variance in aggression could be independently explained by exposure to violent media. In this study, after controlling for gender and family environment, R 2 for exposure to violent video games in predicting adolescent aggression was 0.05, indicating that 5% of variation in adolescent aggression could be explained by exposure to violent media. These consistent findings confirm the effect of exposure to violent video games on adolescent aggression and can be explained by the GAM. According to the GAM ( Bushman and Anderson, 2002 ; Anderson and Carnagey, 2014 ), violent video games can make teenagers acquire, repeat, and reinforce aggression-related knowledge structures, including aggressive beliefs and attitude, aggressive perceptual schemata, aggressive expectation schemata, aggressive behavior scripts, and aggression desensitization. Therefore, aggressive personality is promoted, increasing the possibility of aggressive behavior. The Hypothesis 1 of this study was validated and provided evidence for the GAM.
As shown above, normative beliefs about aggression had a partial mediation effect on the relationship between exposure to violent video games and aggression. Exposure to violent video games, on the one hand, can predict adolescent aggression directly; on the other hand, it had an indirect effect on adolescent aggression via normative beliefs about aggression. According to the above results, when exposure to violent video games changes by 1 standard deviation, adolescent aggression varies by 0.28 standard deviation, with 0.22 standard deviation being a direct effect of exposure to violent video games on adolescent aggression and 0.06 standard deviation representing the effect through normative beliefs about aggression. Too much violence in video games makes it easy for individuals to become accustomed to violence and emotionally apathetic towards the harmful consequences of violence. Moreover, it can make individuals accept the idea that violence is a good way of problem solving, leading to an increase in normative beliefs about aggression; under certain situational cues, it is more likely to become violent or aggressive. This conclusion is supported by other studies ( Gentile et al., 2014 ; Anderson et al., 2017 ; Huesmann et al., 2017 ). Like Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2 was validated the GAM.
One of the main findings of this study was the validation of Hypothesis 3: a moderated mediation model was constructed involving exposure to violent video games, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggression. Family environment moderated the first half of the mediation process of violent video games, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggression. In this study, family environment encompassed three factors, including (1) cohesion reflecting the degree of mutual commitment, assistance, and support among family members; (2) conflict reflecting the extent of anger, aggression, and conflict among family members; and (3) moral-religious emphasis reflecting the degree of emphasis on ethics, religion, and values. Individuals with high scores of family environment often help each other; seldom show anger, attack, and contradiction openly; and pay more attention to morality and values. These positive aspects would help them understand violence in video games from the right perspective, reduce recognition and acceptance of violence or aggression, and diminish the effect of violent video games on normative beliefs about aggression. Hence, exposure to violent video games could not predict normative beliefs about aggression of these individuals. By contrast, individuals with low scores of family environment are less likely to help each other; they often openly show anger, attack, and contradiction and do not pay much attention to morality and values. These negative aspects would not decrease but increase their acceptance of violence and aggression. For these individuals, because of the lack of mitigation mechanisms, exposure to violent video games could predict normative beliefs about aggression significantly.
The moderated mediation model of the relationship between exposure to violent video games and aggression could not only help reveal that exposure to violent video games can affect aggression but also provide an elaboration of the influencing mechanism. According to this model, for individuals with high scores of family environment, exposure to violent video games had only direct effect on aggression. However, for those with low scores of family environment, there was not only a direct effect of exposure to violent video games on aggression but also an indirect effect mediated by normative beliefs about aggression. In short, exposure to violence video games affecting aggression through normative beliefs about aggression is more likely to happen to adolescents with poor family environment than those with good family environment. That is, generation of adolescent aggression is not only related to internal cognitive factors but also to external situations. As Piotrowski and Valkenburg ( Piotrowski and Valkenburg, 2015 ; Valkenburg, 2015 ) pointed out, the effect of violent video games/media on adolescents is a complex interaction of dispositional, developmental, and social factors, and individual differences in susceptibility to these three factors determine the nature and the extent of this influence. The proposed model incorporated some perspectives of GAM and CM: while confirming the effect of exposure to violent video games on aggression occurrence, the combined effect of individual and environmental factors was verified.
Compared with the simple mediation or moderation model, the present moderated mediation model provided deeper insights into the internal mechanism of the effect of violent video games on aggression, providing inspirations for preventing adolescent aggression. First, in view of the close relationship between exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, relevant government departments should continue to improve the grading system of video games; meanwhile, parents should appropriately monitor the types of video games used by teenagers as well as the time spent and reduce the degree of exposure to violent video games. Second, by allowing teenagers to objectively distinguish between violence in games and reality, the mediating role of normative beliefs about aggression could inspire people to identify rational ways to solve violence problems and to experience the hurtful consequences of aggression. This would help adolescents change normative beliefs about aggression, establish a correct view of right and wrong, and reduce the occurrence of aggression. Finally, the moderating effect of family environment on the mediation process suggests that more attention should be paid to the important role of family environment. On the one hand, family education is closely related to adolescent aggression. Then, parents should create a good family atmosphere, publicly show anger and aggression as little as possible, and advocate and practice positive moral values. Parents should adopt authoritative styles, abandoning autocratic and indulgent parenting styles ( Casas et al., 2006 ; Sandstrom, 2007 ; Underwood et al., 2009 ; Kawabata et al., 2011 ) to minimize the negative effect of exposure to violent video games. On the other hand, for teenagers with poor family environment, while reducing exposure to violent video games, it is particularly important to change their normative beliefs about aggression, no longer viewing aggression as an alternative way to solve problems.
Limitations of the current study should be mentioned. First, only Chinese school students were assessed, in a relatively small number, which could affect sample representativeness. A large sample of teenagers from different countries and in different ages, also including juvenile offenders, would be more accurate in revealing the effect of violent video games on adolescent aggression. Second, this study only focused on violent video games, not involving violent media such as internet and television, daily life events, wars, and other major social events. Indeed, these factors also have important effects on adolescent aggression, and their influencing mechanisms and combined effect are worth investigating further. Third, this study mainly adopted the self-report method. Use of peer, parent, or teacher reports to assess exposure to violent video games and aggression would help improve the effectiveness of the study. Fourth, there might be other mediators, moderating variables and relational models. In addition to normative beliefs about aggression and family environment, individual emotions, personality characteristics, school climate, and companions may play mediating or moderating roles in the relationship between violent video games and aggression. This study developed a moderated mediation model between family environment and normative beliefs about aggression, but the possibility of multiple mediation and mediated moderation models cannot be ruled out.
The current study showed that exposure to violent video games is positively related to adolescent aggression; normative beliefs about aggression have a mediating effect on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, while the family environment regulates the first part of the mediation process. For individuals with good family environment, exposure to violent video games only has a direct effect on aggression; however, for those with poor family environment, there is an indirect effect mediated by normative beliefs about aggression alongside a direct effect. This moderated mediation model incorporates some perspectives of GAM and CM, enriching studies of generative mechanism of adolescent aggression.
YW and RS conceived the idea of the study. RS analyzed the data. YW and RS interpreted the results and wrote the paper. YW discussed the results and revised the manuscript.
This study was supported by a grant from the National Social Science Foundation of China (14CSH017) to YW.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. J. Adolesc. 27, 113–122. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.009
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., and Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychol. Sci. 12, 353–359. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00366
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., and Carnagey, N. L. (2014). “The role of theory in the study of media violence: the general aggression model” in Media violence and children. ed. Gentile, D. A. (Westport, CT: Praeger), 103–133.
Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., and Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 36, 199–249. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(04)36004-1
Anderson, C. A., and Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 78, 772–790. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772
Anderson, C. A., Sakamoto, A., Gentile, D. A., Ihori, N., Shibuya, A., Yukawa, S., et al. (2008). Longitudinal effects of violent video games on aggression in Japan and the United States. Pediatrics 122, e1067–e1072. doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-1425
Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., et al. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 136, 151–173. doi: 10.1037/a0018251
Anderson, C. A., Suzuki, K., Swing, E. L., Groves, C. L., Gentile, D. A., Prot, S., et al. (2017). Media violence and other aggression risk factors in seven nations. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 43, 986–998. doi: 10.1177/0146167217703064
Bailey, C. A., and Ostrov, J. M. (2008). Differentiating forms and functions of aggression in emerging adults: associations with hostile attribution biases and normative beliefs. J. Youth Adolesc. 37, 713–722. doi: 10.1007/s10964-007-9211-5
Bailey, K., West, R., and Anderson, C. A. (2011). The association between chronic exposure to video game violence and affective picture processing: an ERP study. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 259–276. doi: 10.3758/s13415-011-0029-y
Bandura, A. (1989). “Social cognitive theory” in Annals of child development: Six theories of child development. ed. Vasta, R. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press), 1–60.
Batanova, M., and Loukas, A. (2014). Unique and interactive effects of empathy, family, and school factors on early adolescents’ aggression. J. Youth Adolesc. 43, 1890–1902. doi: 10.1007/s10964-013-0051-1
Boxer, P., Groves, C. L., and Docherty, M. (2015). Video games do indeed influence children and adolescents’ aggression, prosocial behavior, and academic performance: a clearer reading of Ferguson (2015). Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 671–673. doi: 10.1177/1745691615592239
Burton, K. A., Dan, F., and Wygant, D. B. (2013). The role of peer attachment and normative beliefs about aggression on traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Psychol. Schools 50, 103–115. doi: 10.1002/pits.21663
Bushman, B. J., and Anderson, C. A. (2002). Violent video games and hostile expectations: a test of the general aggression model. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28, 1679–1686. doi: 10.1177/014616702237649
Buss, A. H., and Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 63, 452–459. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452
Casas, J. F., Weigel, S. M., Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J. M., Woods, K. E., Jansen Yeh, E. A., et al. (2006). Early parenting and children’s relational and physical aggression in the preschool and home contexts. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 27, 209–227. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2006.02.003
Chen, H., Liu, Y., and Cui, W. (2012). The relationship between online violent video games and aggressive behavior: the mediating effect of college students’ attitudes towards violence. Chinese J. Special Educ. 8, 79–84.
DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M. G., Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., and Shook, J. (2013). Violent video games, delinquency, and youth violence: new evidence. Youth Violence Juv. J. 11, 132–142. doi: 10.1177/1541204012460874
Duan, D., Zhang, X., Wei, L., Zhou, Y., and Liu, C. (2014). The impact of violent media on aggression: the role of normative belief and empathy. Psychol. Dev. Educ. 30, 185–192.
Fei, L., Shen, Q., Zheng, Y., Zhao, J., Jiang, S., Wang, L., and Wang, X. (1991). Preliminary evaluation of Chinese version of FACES and FES: comparison of normal families and families of schizophrenic patients. Chin. Ment. Health. J. 5, 198–202, 238.
Ferguson, C. J. (2007). Evidence for publication bias in video game violence effects literature: a meta-analytic review. Aggress. Violent Behav. 12, 470–482. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2007.01.001
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Adolescents, crime, and the media: A critical analysis. New York, NY: Springer.
Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do angry birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 646–666. doi: 10.1177/1745691615592234
Ferguson, C. J., Rueda, S., Cruz, A., Ferguson, D., Fritz, S., and Smith, S. (2008). Violent video games and aggression: causal relationship or byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation? Crim. Justice Behav. 31, 2231–2237. doi: 10.1002/chin.200028107
Ferguson, C. J., San Miguel, C., Garza, A., and Jerabeck, J. M. (2012). A longitudinal test of video game violence influences on dating and aggression: a 3-year longitudinal study of adolescents. J. Psychiatr. Res. 46, 141–146. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.10.014
Ferguson, C. J., San Miguel, C., and Hartley, R. D. (2009). A multivariate analysis of youth violence and aggression: the influence of family, peers, depression, and media violence. J. Pediatr. 155, 904–908. e903. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.06.021
Fikkers, K. M., Piotrowski, J. T., and Valkenburg, P. M. (2017). A matter of style? Exploring the effects of parental mediation styles on early adolescents’ media violence exposure and aggression. Comput. Hum. Behav. 70, 407–415. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.029
Fikkers, K. M., Piotrowski, J. T., Weeda, W. D., Vossen, H. G. M., and Valkenburg, P. M. (2013). Double dose: high family conflict enhances the effect of media violence exposure on adolescents’ aggression. Societies 3, 280–292. doi: 10.3390/soc3030280
Furuya-Kanamori, L., and Doi, S. A. (2016). Angry birds, angry children, and angry meta-analysts: a reanalysis. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 11, 408–414. doi: 10.1177/1745691616635599
Gentile, D. A. (2015). What is a good skeptic to do? the case for skepticism in the media violence discussion. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 674–676. doi: 10.1177/1745691615592238
Gentile, D. A., Li, D., Khoo, A., Prot, S., and Anderson, C. A. (2014). Mediators and moderators of long-term effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: practice, thinking, and action. JAMA Pediatr. 168, 450–457. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.63
Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Intense acts of violence during video game play make daily life aggression appear innocuous: a new mechanism why violent video games increase aggression. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 50, 52–56. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.09.004
Greitemeyer, T., and Mugge, D. O. (2014). Video games do affect social outcomes: a meta-analytic review of the effects of violent and prosocial video game play. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 40, 578–589. doi: 10.1177/0146167213520459
Groves, C. L., Anderson, C. A., and DeLisi, M. (2014). A response to Ferguson: more red herring. PsycCRITIQUES 59, 9. doi: 10.1037/a0036266
Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., Landau, S. F., Gvirsman, S. D., and Shikaki, K. (2017). Children’s exposure to violent political conflict stimulates aggression at peers by increasing emotional distress, aggressive script rehearsal, and normative beliefs favoring aggression. Dev. Psychopathol. 29, 39–50. doi: 10.1017/S0954579416001115
Huesmann, L. R., and Guerra, N. G. (1997). Children’s normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 72, 408–419. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.408
Kawabata, Y., Alink, L. R. A., Tseng, W. L., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., and Crick, N. R. (2011). Maternal and paternal parenting styles associated with relational aggression in children and adolescents: a conceptual analysis and meta-analytic review. Dev. Rev. 31, 240–278. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2011.08.001
Kepes, S., Bushman, B. J., and Anderson, C. A. (2017). Violent video game effects remain a societal concern: reply to Hilgard, Engelhardt, and Rouder (2017). Psychol. Bull. 143, 775–782. doi: 10.1037/bul0000112
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., and Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1073–1137. doi: 10.1037/a0035618
Krahe, B., and Busching, R. (2014). Interplay of normative beliefs and behavior in developmental patterns of physical and relational aggression in adolescence: a four-wave longitudinal study. Front. Psychol. 5:1146. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01146
Li, J. B., Nie, Y. G., Boardley, I. D., Dou, K., and Situ, Q. M. (2015). When do normative beliefs about aggression predict aggressive behavior? an application of I3 theory. Aggress. Behav. 41, 544–555. doi: 10.1002/ab.21594
Lim, S. H., and Ang, R. P. (2009). Relationship between boys’ normative beliefs about aggression and their physical, verbal, and indirect aggressive behaviors. Adolescence 44, 635–650.
PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar
Linder, J., and Werner, N. E. (2012). Relationally aggressive media exposure and children’s normative beliefs: does parental mediation matter? Fam. Relat. 61, 488–500. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00707.x
Liu, Y., Teng, Z., Lan, H., Zhang, X., and Yao, D. (2015). Short-term effects of prosocial video games on aggression: an event-related potential study. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 9:193. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00193
Machackova, H., and Pfetsch, J. (2016). Bystanders’ responses to offline bullying and cyberbullying: the role of empathy and normative beliefs about aggression. Scand. J. Psychol. 57, 169–176. doi: 10.1111/sjop.12277
Markey, P. M. (2015). Finding the middle ground in violent video game research lessons from Ferguson (2015). Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 667–670. doi: 10.1177/1745691615592236
Moos, R. H. (1990). Conceptual and empirical approaches to developing family-based assessment procedures: resolving the case of the Family Environment Scale. Fam. Process 29, 199–208; discussion 209-111. doi: 10.1111/j.1545-5300.1990.00199.x
Nathanson, A. I. (1999). Identifying and explaining the relationship between parental mediation and children’s aggression. Commun. Res. 26, 124–143.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Coyne, S. M., and Collier, K. M. (2016). Longitudinal relations between parental media monitoring and adolescent aggression, prosocial behavior, and externalizing problems. J. Adolesc. 46, 86–97. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.11.002
Piotrowski, J. T., and Valkenburg, P. M. (2015). Finding orchids in a field of dandelions: understanding children’s differential susceptibility to media effects. Am. Behav. Sci. 59, 1776–1789. doi: 10.1177/0002764215596552
Rasmussen, E. E. (2014). Proactive vs. retroactive mediation: effects of mediation’s timing on children’s reactions to popular cartoon violence. Hum. Commun. Res. 40, 396–413. doi: 10.1111/hcre.12030
Rosenthal, R., and Rosnow, R. (1991). Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Rothstein, H. R., and Bushman, B. J. (2015). Methodological and reporting errors in meta-analytic reviews make other meta-analysts angry: a commentary on Ferguson (2015). Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 677–679. doi: 10.1177/1745691615592235
Sandstrom, M. J. (2007). A link between mothers’ disciplinary strategies and children’s relational aggression. Brit. J. Dev. Psychol. 25, 399–407. doi: 10.1348/026151006X158753
Shao, R., and Wang, Y. (2017). Reliability and validity of normative beliefs about aggression scale among middle school students. Chin. J. Clin. Psychol. 25, 1035–1038.
Sherry, J. L. (2001). The effects of violent video games on aggression. Hum. Commun. Res. 27, 409–431. doi: 10.1093/hcr/27.3.409
Underwood, M. K., Beron, K. J., and Rosen, L. H. (2009). Continuity and change in social and physical aggression from middle childhood through early adolescence. Aggress. Behav. 35, 357–375. doi: 10.1002/ab.20313
Valkenburg, P. M. (2015). The limited informativeness of meta-analyses of media effects. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 680–682. doi: 10.1177/1745691615592237
Werner, N. E., and Hill, L. G. (2010). Individual and peer group normative beliefs about relational aggression. Child Dev. 81, 826–836. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01436.x
Wiegman, O., and Schie, E. G. (1998). Video game playing and its relations with aggressive and prosocial behaviour. Brit. J. Soc. Psychol. 37, 367–378. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1998.tb01177.x
Wright, M. F., and Li, Y. (2013). Normative beliefs about aggression and cyber aggression among young adults: a longitudinal investigation. Aggress. Behav. 39, 161–170. doi: 10.1002/ab.21470
Yang, G. S., Huesmann, L. R., and Bushman, B. J. (2014). Effects of playing a violent video game as male versus female avatar on subsequent aggression in male and female players. Aggress. Behav. 40, 537–541. doi: 10.1002/ab.21551
Ying, X., and Dai, C. (2008). Empathy and aggressive behavior of middle school students: the mediating effect of the anger-hostility action. Psychol. Dev. Educ. 24, 73–78.
Keywords: violence video games, aggression, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, moderated mediation effect
Citation: Shao R and Wang Y (2019) The Relation of Violent Video Games to Adolescent Aggression: An Examination of Moderated Mediation Effect. Front. Psychol . 10:384. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00384
Received: 25 September 2017; Accepted: 07 February 2019; Published: 21 February 2019.
Reviewed by:
Copyright © 2019 Shao and Wang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Yunqiang Wang, [email protected] ; [email protected]
Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
A 2018 meta-analysis found that there is a small increase in real-world physical aggression among adolescents and pre-teens who play violent video games. Led by Jay Hull, a social psychologist at Dartmouth College, the study team pooled data from 24 previous studies in an attempt to avoid some of the problems that have made the question of a connection between gaming and aggression controversial.
Many previous studies, according to a story in Scientific American, have been criticized by “a small but vocal cadre of researchers [who] have argued much of the work implicating video games has serious flaws in that, among other things, it measures the frequency of aggressive thoughts or language rather than physically aggressive behaviors like hitting or pushing, which have more real-world relevance.”
Hull and team limited their analysis to studies that “measured the relationship between violent video game use and overt physical aggression,” according to the Scientific American article .
The Dartmouth analysis drew on 24 studies involving more than 17,000 participants and found that “playing violent video games is associated with increases in physical aggression over time in children and teens,” according to a Dartmouth press release describing the study , which was published Oct. 1, 2018, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
The studies the Dartmouth team analyzed “tracked physical aggression among users of violent video games for periods ranging from three months to four years. Examples of physical aggression included incidents such as hitting someone or being sent to the school principal’s office for fighting, and were based on reports from children, parents, teachers, and peers,” according to the press release.
The study was almost immediately called in to question. In an editorial in Psychology Today , a pair of professors claim the results of the meta-analysis are not statistically significant. Hull and team wrote in the PNAS paper that, while small, the results are indeed significant. The Psychology Today editorial makes an appeal to a 2017 statement by the American Psychological Association’s media psychology and technology division “cautioning policy makers and news media to stop linking violent games to serious real-world aggression as the data is just not there to support such beliefs.”
It should be noted, however, that the 2017 statement questions the connection between “serious” aggression while the APA Resolution of 2015 , based on a review of its 2005 resolution by its own experts, found that “the link between violent video game exposure and aggressive behavior is one of the most studied and best established. Since the earlier meta-analyses, this link continues to be a reliable finding and shows good multi-method consistency across various representations of both violent video game exposure and aggressive behavior.”
While the effect sizes are small, they’ve been similar across many studies, according to the APA resolution. The problem has been the interpretation of aggression, with some writers claiming an unfounded connection between homicides, mass shootings, and other extremes of violence. The violence the APA resolution documents is more mundane and involves the kind of bullying that, while often having dire long-term consequences, is less immediately dangerous: “insults, threats, hitting, pushing, hair pulling, biting and other forms of verbal and physical aggression.”
Minor and micro-aggressions, though, do have significant health risks, especially for mental health. People of color, LGBTQ people , and women everywhere experience higher levels of depression and anger, as well as stress-related disorders, including heart disease, asthma, obesity, accelerated aging, and premature death. The costs of even minor aggression are laid at the feet of the individuals who suffer, their friends and families, and society at large as the cost of healthcare skyrockets.
Finally, it should be noted that studies looking for a connection between game violence and physical aggression are not looking at the wider context of the way we enculturate children, especially boys. As WSU’s Stacey Hust and Kathleen Rodgers have shown, you don’t have to prove a causative effect to know that immersing kids in games filled with violence and sexist tropes leads to undesirable consequences, particularly the perpetuation of interpersonal violence in intimate relationships.
No wonder, then, that when feminist media critic Anita Saarkesian launched her YouTube series, “ Tropes vs. Women in Video Games ,” she was the target of vitriol and violence. Years later she’d joke about “her first bomb threat,” but that was only after her life had been upended by the boys club that didn’t like “this woman” showing them the “grim evidence of industry-wide sexism.”
Read more about WSU research and study on video games in “ What’s missing in video games .”
Summary: If you are worried about violent video games triggering aggressive behavior in children, new research may help to alleviate your concerns.
The coronavirus pandemic put a damper on many traditional summertime activities for kids, like trips to the pool and youth camps. This gave more opportunity for children to socialize with friends virtually through online gaming. But many hours of extra screen time may have worried parents, especially in light of a highly publicized 2015 report by the American Psychological Association (APA) linking violent video games with aggressive behavior in children.
However, a recent reanalysis of these findings published in the journal Perspectives on Psychological Science came to a very different conclusion, finding no clear link between video game violence and aggression in children. Both the 2015 and the 2020 studies were meta-analyses, statistical methods of finding significant patterns in a large group of independent studies.
“Our new meta-analysis found that the evidence base was not sufficient to make the conclusions outlined in the 2015 report,” said Christopher J. Ferguson, lead author on the new paper and a professor of psychology at Stetson University. “We found that violent video games do not appear to be linked to aggression.”
When Ferguson and his colleagues reexamined the data used in the earlier meta-analysis, they found that it did not include most of the existing studies of video games and violence and failed to take quality issues into consideration.
“Studies that are well designed, such as those using standardized and well-validated aggression measures, almost never find evidence for negative, violent effects,” said Ferguson. “Our new meta-analysis also illustrates the need to focus on well-designed studies when researching the impact of violent media.”
“Games are now more important than ever for socialization, feeling autonomy and control during an uncertain time, and just de-stressing,” said Ferguson.
Additional research on the potential connection between video games and violent behavior is featured in the APS Research Topic Video Games and Violence .
Reference : Ferguson, C. J., Coperhaver, A., & Marley, P. (2020). Reexamining the Findings of the American Psychological Association’s 2015 Task Force on Violent Media: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620927666
Perspectives on Psychological Science is a bimonthly journal publishing an eclectic mix of provocative reports and articles, including broad integrative reviews, overviews of research programs, meta-analyses, theoretical statements, and articles on topics such as the philosophy of science, opinion pieces about major issues in the field, autobiographical reflections of senior members of the field, and even occasional humorous essays and sketches.
APS regularly opens certain online articles for discussion on our website. Effective February 2021, you must be a logged-in APS member to post comments. By posting a comment, you agree to our Community Guidelines and the display of your profile information, including your name and affiliation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations present in article comments are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of APS or the article’s author. For more information, please see our Community Guidelines .
Please login with your APS account to comment.
Online games and nudges aim to curb viral misinformation around vaccines and more.
The very same technologies that make social distancing bearable in the age of COVID-19 have also been cited among leading causes of social isolation and mental health issues. Psychological research suggests a more nuanced reality.
The effects of playing video games on well-being seem to depend largely on why and how an individual chooses to partake.
Cookie | Duration | Description |
---|---|---|
__cf_bm | 30 minutes | This cookie, set by Cloudflare, is used to support Cloudflare Bot Management. |
Cookie | Duration | Description |
---|---|---|
AWSELBCORS | 5 minutes | This cookie is used by Elastic Load Balancing from Amazon Web Services to effectively balance load on the servers. |
Cookie | Duration | Description |
---|---|---|
at-rand | never | AddThis sets this cookie to track page visits, sources of traffic and share counts. |
CONSENT | 2 years | YouTube sets this cookie via embedded youtube-videos and registers anonymous statistical data. |
uvc | 1 year 27 days | Set by addthis.com to determine the usage of addthis.com service. |
_ga | 2 years | The _ga cookie, installed by Google Analytics, calculates visitor, session and campaign data and also keeps track of site usage for the site's analytics report. The cookie stores information anonymously and assigns a randomly generated number to recognize unique visitors. |
_gat_gtag_UA_3507334_1 | 1 minute | Set by Google to distinguish users. |
_gid | 1 day | Installed by Google Analytics, _gid cookie stores information on how visitors use a website, while also creating an analytics report of the website's performance. Some of the data that are collected include the number of visitors, their source, and the pages they visit anonymously. |
Cookie | Duration | Description |
---|---|---|
loc | 1 year 27 days | AddThis sets this geolocation cookie to help understand the location of users who share the information. |
VISITOR_INFO1_LIVE | 5 months 27 days | A cookie set by YouTube to measure bandwidth that determines whether the user gets the new or old player interface. |
YSC | session | YSC cookie is set by Youtube and is used to track the views of embedded videos on Youtube pages. |
yt-remote-connected-devices | never | YouTube sets this cookie to store the video preferences of the user using embedded YouTube video. |
yt-remote-device-id | never | YouTube sets this cookie to store the video preferences of the user using embedded YouTube video. |
yt.innertube::nextId | never | This cookie, set by YouTube, registers a unique ID to store data on what videos from YouTube the user has seen. |
yt.innertube::requests | never | This cookie, set by YouTube, registers a unique ID to store data on what videos from YouTube the user has seen. |
A recent study has reignited the ongoing debate over the effects of violent video games (VVGs) on aggression , challenging longstanding assumptions within psychological research. Conducted by researchers Yashvin Seetahul and Tobias Greitemeyer, the study explores how demand characteristics – subtle cues that may influence participants’ behaviour –can significantly skew the results of studies examining the relationship between violent video games and aggression. The findings were published in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science .
For decades, the question of whether playing violent video games leads to increased aggression has divided psychologists. Despite the fact that numerous studies have suggested a correlation, this new study emphasizes the possibility that the participants’ perceptions of the study’s purpose may have an impact on these findings.
The study involved two experiments, with the first focusing on behavioural aggression and the second on trait aggression. In both experiments, participants were randomly assigned to different conditions where they were informed that the researchers aimed to confirm either that violent video games increase aggression or that they have no effect. A third group in the second experiment was not given any information about the study’s hypothesis.
The results were striking. When participants were led to believe that the researchers wanted to prove a link between video games and aggression, those who regularly played violent games displayed less aggression than in other conditions. This suggests that habitual players of violent video games might adjust their responses to counteract the perceived bias of the researchers, thereby reducing the apparent relationship between game play and aggression.
This phenomenon, known as a demand effect, occurs when participants’ behaviour is influenced by their interpretation of the study’s aims rather than by the variables being measured. In this case, it appears that frequent players of violent video games may have been motivated to downplay aggressive tendencies, possibly as a way to challenge the stereotype that gamers are more aggressive.
The study’s authors argue that these findings call into question the validity of many previous studies that have linked violent video games to aggression. They suggest that if participants are aware or suspicious of the study’s goals, they might consciously or unconsciously alter their responses, thus distorting the data.
This research also highlights the broader issue of demand characteristics in psychological experiments. The study’s authors note that these subtle cues can originate from various sources, including the way a study is advertised, the instructions given to participants, or even the design of the experiment itself. They advocate for greater attention to be paid to these factors in future research to ensure more accurate results.
New study finds no evidence linking social media use to teen mental health issues, content creators are caught between algorithms and authenticity, social media could hold the key to detecting depression, study suggests, cyberchondria linked to heightened health anxiety in pakistan, study reveals, study reveals instagram comparisons are increasing stress for millennial mothers, debunking the myths: ai and robotics are transforming industries, not taking jobs, study finds strong link between phone dependency and catch-up sleep among south korean youth, study finds cash-out features lead to riskier bets on sports apps, new study explores efficacy of ai-enabled mental wellness platform for workplace stress, gamification proves effective in promoting healthy habits among socially deprived adolescents, digital mental health interventions reduce self-injury risk in adolescents, finds study, self-concept found to reduce cyberbullying risk, study shows, new data reveals brits are projected to spend 25 years of their lifetime working on a screen, smartphone zombies pose growing danger in uk cities, new study warns, linkedin usage can heighten imposter syndrome, leading to anxiety, study reveals evolutionary impact of website design on user perception, usability and design are key to success of fitness apps for adolescents, according to new study, how healthcare apps are enhancing children’s well-being, social media influencers affect adolescent health, body image, and nutrition – finds new study, what makes the meta quest 3 charging dock a must-have accessory for gamers, take a break, have a social media detox, fried and frazzled: 5 signs you might need a digital detox, ai in video job interviews effective but shows gender bias, study finds, navigating the digital playground this summer: benefits, risks, and finding balance for kids online.
Psychreg is a digital media company and not a clinical company. Our content does not constitute a medical or psychological consultation. See a certified medical or mental health professional for diagnosis.
© Copyright 2014–2034 Psychreg Ltd
Finds insufficient research to link violent video game play to criminal violence
WASHINGTON — Violent video game play is linked to increased aggression in players but insufficient evidence exists about whether the link extends to criminal violence or delinquency, according to a new American Psychological Association task force report.
“The research demonstrates a consistent relation between violent video game use and increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognitions and aggressive affect, and decreases in prosocial behavior, empathy and sensitivity to aggression,” says the report of the APA Task Force on Violent Media. The task force’s review is the first in this field to examine the breadth of studies included and to undertake multiple approaches to reviewing the literature.
“Scientists have investigated the use of violent video games for more than two decades but to date, there is very limited research addressing whether violent video games cause people to commit acts of criminal violence,” said Mark Appelbaum, PhD, task force chair. “However, the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field.”
“No single risk factor consistently leads a person to act aggressively or violently,” the report states. “Rather, it is the accumulation of risk factors that tends to lead to aggressive or violent behavior. The research reviewed here demonstrates that violent video game use is one such risk factor.”
In light of the task force’s conclusions, APA has called on the industry to design video games that include increased parental control over the amount of violence the games contain. APA’s Council of Representatives adopted a resolution at its meeting Aug. 7 in Toronto encouraging the Entertainment Software Rating Board to refine its video game rating system “to reflect the levels and characteristics of violence in games, in addition to the current global ratings.” In addition, the resolution urges developers to design games that are appropriate to users’ age and psychological development, and voices APA’s support for more research to address gaps in the knowledge about the effects of violent video game use.
The resolution replaces a 2005 resolution on the same topic.
The task force identified a number of limitations in the research that require further study. These include a general failure to look for any differences in outcomes between boys and girls who play violent video games; a dearth of studies that have examined the effects of violent video game play on children younger than 10; and a lack of research that has examined the games’ effects over the course of children’s development.
“We know that there are numerous risk factors for aggressive behavior,” Appelbaum said. “What researchers need to do now is conduct studies that look at the effects of video game play in people at risk for aggression or violence due to a combination of risk factors. For example, how do depression or delinquency interact with violent video game use?”
The task force conducted a comprehensive review of the research literature published between 2005 and 2013 focused on violent video game use. This included four meta-analyses that reviewed more than 150 research reports published before 2009. Task force members then conducted both a systematic evidence review and a quantitative review of the literature published between 2009 and 2013. (A systematic evidence review synthesizes all empirical evidence that meets pre-specified criteria to answer specific research questions — a standard approach to summarizing large bodies of research to explore a field of research.) This resulted in 170 articles, 31 of which met all of the most stringent screening criteria.
“While there is some variation among the individual studies, a strong and consistent general pattern has emerged from many years of research that provides confidence in our general conclusions,” Appelbaum said. “As with most areas of science, the picture presented by this research is more complex than is usually included in news coverage and other information prepared for the general public.”
In addition to Appelbaum, members of the APA Task Force on Violent Media were: Sandra Calvert, PhD; Kenneth Dodge, PhD; Sandra Graham, PhD; Gordon N. Hall, PhD; Sherry Hamby, PhD; and Larry Hedges, PhD.
The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA's membership includes more than 122,500 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives.
Public Affairs
(202) 336-5700
Friday, 06 Sep 2024
Video game performers reach agreement with 80 video games on ai terms, the five biggest-selling gaming consoles.
Unsurprisingly, the study confirms that boys generally play more violent video games than girls. — AFP Relaxnews
Violent video games are often blamed for making young people more aggressive. However, a recent study conducted in the Czech Republic challenges this preconception.
According to this research, published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior , there is no evidence that playing violent video games increases physical aggression in adolescents.
Individuals who play violent video games do not necessarily become more aggressive, according to a study involving 3,010 Czech teenagers and titled "Does violence in video games impact aggression and empathy? A longitudinal study of Czech adolescents to differentiate within- and between-person effects”.
The paper is available via the ScienceDirect platform. "Presented findings contradict the (General Aggression Model), which posits that repeated exposure to violent content results in an increase in aggression and a decrease in empathy," the study reads.
With their findings, the researchers differentiate between two different effects: between-person effects and within-person effects. Between-person effects highlighted by the study reveal that individuals who play more violent games tend to have slightly higher scores on cognitive empathy and verbal aggression.
On the other hand, findings relating to within-person effects, which examine how changes in an individual's gaming habits affect their behaviour over time, show no significant impact of violent video games on aggression or empathy.
The study did, however, reveal some interesting nuances. For example, participants who displayed increased empathy during the third stage of data collection tended to play fewer violent video games by the fourth stage. Those who showed an increase in physical aggression in the third stage, on the other hand, tended to play more violent games in the fourth stage.
This finding could signal a possible harmful effect, but should be treated with caution, the researchers say. "The only effect observed in this context was that an increase in affective empathy is associated with a decrease in (violent video games).
“This is consistent with the selection hypothesis; however, since the effect was observed only from T3 to T4, it is possible that these effects are less stable than assumed and could change under various circumstances that were not captured in this longitudinal study focused on long-term effects (e.g., exposure patterns to other digital media, individual life events, changes in social environment)."
External factors to take into account
For the researchers, the relationship between violent video games and aggression is more complex, influenced by a combination of individual differences and contextual factors.
“In essence, while adolescents with higher general aggression may prefer [violent video games], it is not indicative that increased engagement in [violent video games] leads to heightened aggression. Therefore, much of the prior evidence may have been influenced by the higher variability present at the between-person level.
“This study underscores the imperative need to differentiate between these two levels of analysis to elucidate the genuine causal relationships between [violent video games] and aggression,” the study reads.
External factors, such as the global Covid-19 pandemic, can also influence teenage gamers' general aggressiveness.
“They may be influenced by unmeasured situational variables, such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Therefore, another potential explanation could stem from the Covid-19 situation that arose during our data collection period, particularly in the impact upon the initial waves of data collection.
“This global crisis led to significant changes in behavior, notably among isolated children and adolescents, who reported increased gaming hours, especially in multiplayer games, as a coping mechanism for psychological distress and to mitigate social isolation,” the study explains.
To measure aggression, the researchers used the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire - Short Form, a recognized tool for assessing various forms of aggression, including physical and verbal aggression. Empathy was assessed using the Adolescent Measure of Empathy and Sympathy, which measures both cognitive empathy (the ability to understand the emotions of others) and affective empathy (the ability to share the emotional experiences of others).
While data collection was conducted from June 2020 to December 2022, only 1,052 people completed all four stages of the study, largely younger individuals, which may have influenced the study findings, the researchers point out.
The researchers also qualify the results by pointing out that gamers had been free to name the video games they played the most, with Minecraft topping the list, followed by Roblox , Fortnite , the GTA games and Brawl Stars .
“Despite (violent video games) not being assessed by the criticized self-report of the assessment of violence and instead by expert ratings obtained from Common Sense Media and two independent raters, it still relies on the self-reports of participants for video game names and their order. Thus, it might not be entirely reliable, because participants could omit or forget some played video games.
“Time spent in games was also not assessed. Future research should, therefore, utilize objective measurements for played video games and time spent on them,” the researchers write.
Other, previous studies have demonstrated that playing video games does not necessarily lead to violence or aggression. Some have even found positive effects in terms of mental well-being and humanitarian awareness. – AFP Relaxnews
Report it to us.
Thank you for your report!
Next in tech news.
Air pollutant index, highest api readings, select state and location to view the latest api reading.
Source: Department of Environment, Malaysia
Best viewed on Chrome browsers.
We would love to keep you posted on the latest promotion. Kindly fill the form below
We hope you enjoy this feature!
The NFL star was detained outside of Hard Rock Stadium before his game Sunday.
MIAMI -- The NFL's Miami Dolphins franchise spoke out Monday night about the traffic stop by police officers where wide receiver Tyreek Hill was removed from his vehicle, placed on the ground and handcuffed before Sunday's season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars.
In its statement, the organization said it was "saddened by the overly aggressive and violent conduct directed toward" Hill on Sunday, urging "swift and strong action against the officers" involved in the incident.
Hill was detained and handcuffed on the ground after being pulled over as he was driving up to Hard Rock Stadium on Sunday around 10:20 a.m. ET.
"It is both maddening and heartbreaking to watch the very people we trust to protect our community use such unnecessary force and hostility towards these players," the Dolphins' organization said.
The statement from the team follows the release of officer body camera footage of the incident by Miami-Dade Police on Monday night.
In the footage, which ABC News has reviewed, a motorcycle officer pulls over Hill and approaches the driver's side window. Hill rolls down the window and tells the officer to stop knocking on the window.
Hill then asks for his ticket and tells the officer he's going to be late before rolling the car window back up.
The officer then asks the wide receiver to roll the window down, and Hill cracks it open a little. The officer then tells Hill, "Get out of the car right now. We're not playing this game."
When Hill opens the door, the newly released footage shows the officer grabbing Hill's hand and putting it behind Hill's head. The officer then appears to drag Hill out of the car.
The videos then shows the officer putting Hill's face down on the ground with two other officers assisting. One officer has his knee on Hill's back until Hill is handcuffed, the videos show.
Approximately six minutes into the incident, body camera footage shows an assisting officer looking at Hill's ID. He can be heard saying, "You know who that is, right?"
The first officer said he didn't know and then was told Hill was one of the Dolphins' star players.
RELATED: Miami Dolphins Tyreek Hill playing hours after being detained for driving violation
In a statement from Hill's attorney, Julius B. Collins, describing the incident, Collins said Hill "had his window rolled down and that officer then demanded Mr. Hill out of the vehicle even after Mr. Hill complied with that officer's request to keep his window down."
Collins said in his statement, "Hill rolled down his window each time he was requested to do so by the requesting officers." He went on to call the officers' actions "excessive" and said they were exploring all legal remedies.
"We believe that this matter was escalated due to overzealous officers attempting to impose their authority on Mr. Hill because they were not pleased with how fast he complied with their request and that Mr. Hill did not roll down his window far enough to their liking," he added.
When asked about the incident after the game, Hill told reporters, "I wasn't disrespectful... because my mom didn't raise me that way, didn't curse, none of that."
South Florida Police Benevolent Association president Steadman Stahl released a statement Monday saying Hill's refusal to cooperate with officers led to his detainment.
"He was briefly detained for officer safety, after driving in a manner in which he was putting himself and others in great risk of danger," Stahl said. "Upon being stopped, Mr. Hill was not immediately cooperative with the officers on scene who, pursuant to policy and for their immediate safety, placed Mr. Hill in handcuffs."
Miami-Dade Police Department director Stephanie V. Daniels said in a statement along with the body camera footage Monday that the "department is committed to conducting a thorough, objective investigation into this matter."
"We will continue to update the public on the outcome of that process," Daniels said.
Daniels also said one of the officers involved was placed on "administrative duty."
Top stories.
Jon Bon Jovi helps talk woman off ledge of Nashville bridge: Police
Dirt bike theft, shooting leads school district to cancel class: NJSP
Philadelphia legend, soul singer Frankie Beverly dies at 77
Vice President and Democratic presidential candidate Kamala Harris and former President and Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump speak during a presidential debate. Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images hide caption
Vice President Harris and former President Donald Trump faced off Tuesday in their first — and possibly only — debate of the 2024 campaign, taking questions on key issues like the border, the economy and abortion.
With the candidates virtually tied in the polls, and just 55 days until Election Day, Trump and Harris sought to define their visions for America in front of a national audience and deflect attacks from the other side.
NPR reporters fact-checked the candidates' claims in real time . Here's what they found:
TRUMP: "I had no inflation, virtually no inflation. They had the highest inflation, perhaps in the history of our country, because I've never seen a worse period of time. People can't go out and buy cereal or bacon or eggs or anything else."
Inflation soared to a four-decade high of 9.1% in 2022, according to the consumer price index. While inflation has since fallen to 2.9% (as of July), prices — particularly food prices — are still higher than many Americans would like.
Other countries have also faced high inflation in the wake of the pandemic, as tangled supply chains struggled to keep pace with surging demand. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine also fueled inflation by driving up energy and food prices worldwide.
Government spending in the U.S. under both the Biden-Harris administration and Trump also may have contributed, putting more money in people’s pockets and enabling them to keep spending in the face of high prices.
While high prices are a source of frustration for many Americans, the average worker has more buying power today than she did before the pandemic. Since February 2020 (just before the pandemic took hold in the U.S.), consumer prices have risen 21.6% while average wages have risen 23%.
Many prices were depressed early in the pandemic, however, so the comparison is less flattering if you start the clock when President Biden and Vice President Harris took office. Since early 2021, consumer prices have risen 19.6%, while average wages have risen 16.9%. Wage gains have been outpacing price increases for over a year, so that gap should eventually close.
— NPR economics correspondent Scott Horsley
Taylor swift endorses kamala harris in instagram post after the debate.
HARRIS: "Donald Trump left us the worst unemployment since the Great Depression."
At the height of the Great Depression in 1933, the national unemployment rate was near 25%, according to the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library.
At the start of the COVID pandemic, the unemployment rate peaked at 14.8% in April 2020, a level not seen since 1948, according to the Congressional Research Service.
But by the time Trump left office, unemployment had fallen to a lower, but still elevated, level. The January 2021 unemployment rate was 6.3%.
— NPR producer Lexie Schapitl
TRUMP: "You see what's happening with towns throughout the United States. You look at Springfield, Ohio, you look at Aurora in Colorado. They are taking over the towns. They're taking over buildings. They're going in violently. These are the people that she and Biden let into our country, and they're destroying our country. They're dangerous. They're at the highest level of criminality, and we have to get them out."
Trump attacked Harris and Biden's records on immigration, arguing that they're failing to stem people from other countries from entering the U.S. and causing violence.
In the last two years, more than 40,000 Venezuelan immigrants have arrived in the Denver metro area. And it is true that many now live in Aurora.
A few weeks ago, a video of gang members in an Aurora, Colo., apartment building had right-wing media declaring the city's takeover by Venezuelan gangs. NPR looked into these claims .
Shortly after the video appeared, Colorado's Republican Party sent a fundraising letter claiming the state is under violent attack, and Venezuelan gangs have taken over Aurora.
It's also true Aurora police have recently arrested 10 members of a Venezuelan gang called Tren de Aragua. But Aurora's interim police chief, Heather Morris, says there's no evidence of a gang takeover of apartment buildings in her city.
What's more, violent crime — including murder, robbery and rape — is way down nationwide, according to the most recent data from the FBI . Notably, analysts predict violent crime rates this year will fall back down to where they were before they surged during the pandemic and may even approach a 50-year low.
Trump also claims that migrants are driving up crime rates in the U.S. That is not true. Researchers from Stanford University found that since the 1960s, immigrants have been 60% less likely to be incarcerated than people born in the U.S. The Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, found undocumented immigrants in Texas were 37% less likely to be convicted of a crime.
— NPR immigration correspondent Jasmine Garsd and criminal justice reporter Meg Anderson
TRUMP: "In Springfield, they're eating the dogs. The people that came in, they're eating the cats. They're eating the pets of the people that live there."
This remark refers to a debunked, dehumanizing claim that Haitian migrants living in Springfield, Ohio, are abducting pets and eating them .
Jd vance spreads debunked claims about haitian immigrants eating pets.
The claim, which local police say is baseless, first circulated among far-right activists, local Republicans and neo-Nazis before being picked up by congressional leaders, vice presidential candidate JD Vance and others. A well-known advocate for the Haitian community says she received a wave of racist harassment after Vance shared the theory on social media.
The Springfield News-Sun reported that local police said that incidents of pets being stolen or eaten were "not something that's on our radar right now." The paper said the unsubstantiated claim seems to have started with a post in a Springfield Facebook group that was widely shared across social media.
The claim is the latest example of Trump leaning into anti-immigrant rhetoric. Since entering the political arena in 2015, Trump accused immigrants of being criminals, rapists, or "poisoning the blood of our nation."
— NPR immigration correspondent Jasmine Garsd
TRUMP: "A lot of these illegal immigrants coming in, [Democrats] are trying to get them to vote."
It is illegal for noncitizens to vote in federal elections, and there is no credible evidence that it has happened in significant numbers, or that there is an effort underway to illegally register undocumented immigrants to vote this election.
Voter registration forms require voters to sign an oath — under penalty of perjury — that they are U.S. citizens. If a noncitizen lies about their citizenship on a registration form and votes, they have created a paper trail of a crime that is punishable with jail time and deportation.
“The deterrent is incredibly strong,” David Becker, executive director of the Center for Election Innovation and Research, told NPR.
Election officials routinely verify information on voter registration forms, which ask registrants for either a driver’s license number or the last four digits of Social Security numbers.
In 2016, the Brennan Center for Justice surveyed local election officials in 42 jurisdictions with high immigrant populations and found 30 cases of suspected noncitizens voting out of 23.5 million votes cast, or 0.0001%.
Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger launched an audit in 2022 that found fewer than 1,700 suspected noncitizens had attempted to register to vote over the past 25 years. None were able to vote.
— NPR disinformation reporter Jude Joffe-Block
TRUMP: "[Harris] was the border czar. Remember that she was the border czar."
Republicans have taken to calling Harris the "border czar" as a way to blame her for increased migration to the U.S. and what they see as border security policy failures of the Biden administration.
There is no actual "border czar" position. In 2021, President Biden tasked Harris with addressing the root causes of migration from Central America.
The "root causes strategy ... identifies, prioritizes, and coordinates actions to improve security, governance, human rights, and economic conditions in the region," the White House said in a statement. "It integrates various U.S. government tools, including diplomacy, foreign assistance, public diplomacy, and sanctions."
While Harris has been scrutinized on the right, immigration advocates have also criticized Harris, including for comments in 2021 where she warned prospective migrants, "Do not come."
TRUMP: "You could do abortions in the seventh month, the eighth month, the ninth month, and probably after birth."
As ABC News anchor Linsey Davis mentioned during her real-time fact check, there is no state where it is legal to kill a baby after birth (Trump called it "execution"). A report from KFF earlier this year also noted that abortions “after birth” are illegal in every state.
According to the Pew Research Center, the overwhelming majority of abortions — 93% — take place during the first trimester. Pew says 1% take place after 21 weeks. Most of those take place before 24 weeks, the approximate timeline for fetal viability, according to a report by KFF Health News.
A separate analysis from KFF earlier this year noted that later abortions are expensive to obtain and offered by relatively few providers, and often occur because of medical complications or because patients face barriers earlier in their pregnancies.
“Nowhere in America is a woman carrying a pregnancy to term and asking for an abortion. That isn’t happening; it’s insulting to the women of America,” Harris said.
Harris also invoked religion in her response, arguing that “one does not have to abandon their faith” to agree that the government should not control reproductive health decisions.
As Davis also noted, Trump has offered mixed messages about abortion over the course of the campaign. He has bragged about his instrumental role in overturning Roe v. Wade , while appearing to backpedal on an issue that polling makes clear is a liability for Republicans.
— NPR political correspondent Sarah McCammon
TRUMP: The U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan "was one of the most incompetently handled situations anybody has ever seen."
Trump and Republicans in Congress say President Biden is to blame for the fall of Kabul to the Taliban three years ago, and the chaotic rush at the airport where 13 U.S. troops died in a suicide bomb attack that killed nearly 200 Afghan civilians trying to flee. Of late, Republicans have been emphasizing Harris’ role . But the Afghanistan war spanned four U.S. presidencies , and it's important to note that it was the Trump administration that signed a peace deal that was basically a quick exit plan.
Trump regularly claims there were no casualties in Afghanistan for 18 months under his administration, and it’s not true, according to Pentagon records.
— NPR veterans correspondent Quil Lawrence
HARRIS: “There is not one member of the military who is in active duty in a combat zone in any war zone around the world for the first time this century.”
This is a common administration talking point, and it's technically true. But thousands of troops in Iraq and on the Syrian border are still in very dangerous terrain. U.S. troops died in Jordan in January on a base that keeps watch over the war with ISIS in Syria.
HARRIS: "I will not ban fracking. I have not banned fracking as vice president United States, and in fact, I was the tie-breaking vote on the inflation Reduction Act which opened new leases for fracking."
When she first ran for president in 2019, Harris had said she was firmly in favor of banning fracking — a stance she later abandoned when she joined President Biden’s campaign as his running mate.
In an interview with CNN last month, Harris attempted to explain why her position has changed from being against fracking to being in favor of it.
“What I have seen is that we can grow, and we can increase a clean energy economy without banning fracking,” Harris told CNN’s Dana Bash.
Under the Biden-Harris administration, the U.S. produced a record amount of oil last year — averaging 12.9 million barrels per day. That eclipsed the previous record of 12.3 million barrels per day, set under Trump in 2019. 2023 was also a record year for domestic production of natural gas . Much of the domestic boom in oil and gas production is the result of hydraulic fracturing or “fracking” techniques .
In addition to record oil and gas production, the Biden-Harris administration has also coincided with rapid growth of solar and wind power . Meanwhile, coal has declined as a source of electricity.
TRUMP: "I had a choice to make: Do I save [the Affordable Care Act] and make it as good as it can be, or do I let it rot? And I saved it."
During his presidency, Trump undermined the Affordable Care Act in many ways — for instance, by slashing funding for advertising and free "navigators" who help people sign up for a health insurance plan on HealthCare.gov. And rather than deciding to "save" the ACA, he tried hard to get Congress to repeal it, and failed. When pushed Tuesday on what health policy he would put in its place, he said he has "concepts of a plan."
Amid medicaid's 'unwinding,' many states work to expand health care access.
The Biden administration has reversed course from Trump's management of the Affordable Care Act. Increased subsidies have made premiums more affordable in the marketplaces, and enrollment has surged. The uninsurance rate has dropped to its lowest point ever during the Biden administration.
The Affordable Care Act was passed in 2010 and is entrenched in the health care system. Republicans successfully ran against Obamacare for about a decade, but it has faded as a campaign issue this year.
— NPR health policy correspondent Selena Simmons-Duffin
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
It is a widespread concern that violent video games promote aggression, reduce pro-social behaviour, increase impulsivity and interfere with cognition as well as mood in its players. Previous ...
Based on a review of the current literature, the new task force report (PDF, 285KB) reaffirms that there is a small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing. However, these research findings are difficult to extend to more violent outcomes. These findings mirror those of an APA ...
Abstract. Meta‐analyses have shown that violent video game play increases aggression in the player. The present research suggests that violent video game play also affects individuals with whom the player is connected. A longitudinal study (N = 980) asked participants to report on their amount of violent video game play and level of ...
Violent video games are those that depict intentional attempts by individuals (nonhuman cartoon characters, real persons, or anything in between) to inflict harm on others (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). The effects of violent video games have been a societal concern since the birth of the industry and have attracted much attention from researchers.
The advent of video games raised new questions about the potential impact of media violence, since the video game player is an active participant rather than merely a viewer. 97% of adolescents age 12-17 play video games—on a computer, on consoles such as the Wii, Playstation, and Xbox, or on portable devices such as Gameboys, smartphones, and tablets.
Violent Video Games and Aggression. The relationship between violent video games and adolescent aggression has become a hot issue in psychological research (Wiegman and Schie, 1998; Anderson and Bushman, 2001; Anderson et al., 2010; Ferguson et al., 2012; Greitemeyer, 2014; Yang et al., 2014; Boxer et al., 2015).Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM), Anderson et al. suggested that ...
Compared to the violent video game literature, research on the effects of prosocial video games (where the goal is to support other game characters) has been relatively sparse. In one study [26], participants were randomly assigned to act as helicopter pilots to rescue game characters from burning houses or to play a neutral video game. While ...
This Resolution is based on the Task Force's review and is an update of the 2005 Resolution. Scientists have investigated the effects of violent video game use for more than two decades. Multiple meta-analyses of the research have been conducted. Quantitative reviews since APA's 2005 Resolution that have focused on the effects of violent ...
During the past decade, video games have become the main industrial entertainment sector, although research on the effects of violence in video games on juvenile aggressiveness has raised concerns that they may pose a significant social risk. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship of exposure to violent video games, pathological video-gaming, and justification of violence ...
The Pew Research Center reported in 2008 that 97% of youths ages 12 to 17 played some type of video game, and that two-thirds of them played action and adventure games that tend to contain violent content. (Other research suggests that boys are more likely to use violent video games, and play them more frequently, than girls.)
Determining the relationship between video games and violence "may take 20 or 30 years.". "Video games could be expected to have a larger effect than media violence. The player is ...
However, the actual difference was between 6.81 and 6.65 seconds, a difference of 0.16 seconds. To put that number into context, blinking takes roughly 0.1 to 0.4 seconds. That is, subjects who ...
The other part of the answer lies in the troubled history of violent video game research specifically. An attendee dressed as a Fortnite character poses for a picture in a costume at Comic Con ...
"The research demonstrates a consistent relation between violent video game use and increases in aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognitions and aggressive affect, and decreases in pro-social ...
The American Psychological Association (APA) considers violent video games a risk factor for aggression. [1] In 2017, the APA Task Force on Violent Media concluded that violent video game exposure was linked to increased aggressive behaviors, thoughts, and emotions, as well as decreased empathy. However, it is not clear whether violent video ...
1.1. Violent Video Game Exposure and Problem Behavior. Most studies show that violent video games significantly increase PB in players. Regarding violent content, some meta-analyses have found that violent video games increase players' aggressive cognition, emotion, and behavior and decrease players' empathy, which negatively impacts players' social behavior [17,18].
Instead, the takeaway should be that it is unclear based on experimental research whether, or to what extent, violent games facilitate offline violence. As then-APA President Sandra L. Shullman highlighted in 2020, "Violence is a complex social problem that likely stems from many factors that warrant attention from researchers, policymakers ...
In the first step, a simple moderated model (Model 1) between exposure to violent video games and aggression was established. The result showed that exposure to violent video games had a significant effect on aggression (c 1 = 0.24, t = 6.13, p < 0.001), while the effect of family environment × exposure to violent video games on aggression was not significant (c 3 = 0.05, t = −1.31, p = 0. ...
But some research suggests that, instead of predisposing young people toward violence, video games may in fact reduce real-world aggression, allowing people to channel their feelings into gaming ...
The Dartmouth analysis drew on 24 studies involving more than 17,000 participants and found that "playing violent video games is associated with increases in physical aggression over time in children and teens," according to a Dartmouth press release describing the study, which was published Oct. 1, 2018, in the Proceedings of the National ...
Additional research on the potential connection between video games and violent behavior is featured in the APS Research Topic Video Games and Violence. # # # Reference: Ferguson, C. J., Coperhaver, A., & Marley, P. (2020). Reexamining the Findings of the American Psychological Association's 2015 Task Force on Violent Media: A meta-analysis.
The Cooper-ative Institutional Research Program (1998, 1999) found that in 1998, 13.3% of men entering college played at least 6 hr per week as high school seniors. By 1999, that figure had increased to 14.8%. Furthermore, 2% of the men reported playing video games more than 20 hr per week in 1998.
33 Reading Time: 2 minutes. A recent study has reignited the ongoing debate over the effects of violent video games (VVGs) on aggression, challenging longstanding assumptions within psychological research.Conducted by researchers Yashvin Seetahul and Tobias Greitemeyer, the study explores how demand characteristics - subtle cues that may influence participants' behaviour -can ...
ARI SHAPIRO, HOST: President Trump has held a series of White House meetings on gun violence, and the focus of today's was video games. Lawmakers, parent advocates and people from video game ...
WASHINGTON — Violent video game play is linked to increased aggression in players but insufficient evidence exists about whether the link extends to criminal violence or delinquency, according to a new American Psychological Association task force report. "The research demonstrates a consistent relation between violent video game use and ...
Violent video games are often blamed for making young people more aggressive. However, a recent study conducted in the Czech Republic challenges this preconception. According to this research ...
Background: In recent years, an increasing number of studies documented potential links between gaming disorders (GD; including "digital-gaming" or "video-gaming") and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to summarize current research about problematic video game (PVG) use in people with ASD and identify specific factors associated with ...
A police officer dragged Miami Dolphins star Tyreek Hill out of his car and forced him to the ground before Sunday's game, body camera video shows.
A few weeks ago, a video of gang members in an Aurora, Colo., apartment building had right-wing media declaring the city's takeover by Venezuelan gangs. NPR looked into these claims . National