research paper about employees motivation

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

How does work motivation impact employees’ investment at work and their job engagement a moderated-moderation perspective through an international lens.

$\r\nOr Shkoler*&#x;$

1 Independent Researcher, Netanya, Israel
2 Graduate School of Career Studies, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan

This paper aims at shedding light on the effects that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as predictors, have on heavy work investment of time and effort and on job engagement. Using a questionnaire survey, this study conducted a moderated-moderation analysis, considering two conditional effects—worker’s status (working students vs. non-student employees) and country (Israel vs. Japan)—as potential moderators, since there are clear cultural differences between these countries. Data were gathered from 242 Israeli and 171 Japanese participants. The analyses revealed that worker’s status moderates the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on heavy work investment of time and effort and on job engagement and that the moderating effects were conditioned by country differences. Theoretical and practical implications and future research suggestions are discussed.

Introduction

Our world today has been described by the acronym VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous). In this rapidly changing world, organizations and individuals need to engage in continuous learning. To achieve a competitive advantage, organizations need to develop organizational learning, which can be achieved by acquiring learning individuals. From the latter’s viewpoint, it is getting more necessary for workers to learn continuously to enhance and maintain their employability. As shown in previous research, the number of people engaging in lifelong learning has significantly increased ( Corrales-Herrero and Rodríguez-Prado, 2018 ).

In such an era, an organization needs to acquire and retain learning individuals. However, it is not an easy task because they might have turnover intentions, even when they are motivated to work. Since learning individuals enhance their skills continuously and have a “third place” for new encounters (e.g., school), they are likely to find other attractive job opportunities. Therefore, it is valuable for us to explore how motivation affects learning individuals’ attitudes and behavior. However, to the best of our knowledge, researchers have not addressed this issue.

Recently, researchers and practitioners have paid increasing attention to employees’ job engagement (JE) ( Bailey et al., 2017 ). Previous studies suggested that engaged workers are likely to achieve high performance and have low intention to leave ( Rich et al., 2010 ; Alarcon and Edwards, 2011 ). However, JE does not necessarily represent workers’ favorable attitude ( van Beek et al., 2011 ). In the case of working individuals, their appearance of being “highly engaged” can be caused by time constraints or impression management motive.

Recognizing the ambiguous nature of “engaged workers,” this study also focuses on a relatively new construct called heavy work investment (HWI). People high in HWI are apparently similar to those high in JE. However, as will be discussed later, these two constructs are distinct. By focusing on both engagement and HWI, we can reveal the underlying mechanism of how motivation affects the learning individuals’ engagement.

To address these issues, we analyzed quantitative data which include both learning individuals (hereafter called “working students”) and non-student workers. The choice of employees who are students as opposed to “regular” employees was based on arguments presented in the conservation of resources (COR) theory ( Hobfoll, 1989 , 2011 ). It will be elaborated further in this paper.

Besides, since the contexts of lifelong learning and work in an organization can affect the focal mechanism, we collected data from two countries—Israel and Japan—and conducted a between-country comparative analysis. As we will discuss below, these two countries widely differ in cultural dimensions, as suggested by Hofstede (1980 , 2018) . We limit the scope of the research to Israel and Japan to concentrate on a specific issue which was not investigated in previous studies, especially in a comparison between these two countries (to the best of our knowledge). The sample and analysis of this study can provide insightful implications because these two countries are widely different in their national cultural contexts.

Work Motivation

A general definition of motivation is the psychological force that generates complex processes of goal-directed thoughts and behaviors. These processes revolve around an individual’s internal psychological forces alongside external environmental/contextual forces and determine the direction, intensity, and persistence of personal behavior aimed at a specific goal(s) ( Kanfer, 2009 ; Kanfer et al., 2017 ). In the work domain, work motivation is “a set of energetic forces that originate within individuals, as well as in their environment, to initiate work-related behaviors and to determine their form, direction, intensity and duration” (after Pinder, 2008 , p. 11). As mentioned, work motivation is derived from an interaction between individual differences and their environment (e.g., cultural, societal, and work organizational) ( Latham and Pinder, 2005 ). In addition, motivation is affected by personality traits, needs, and even work fit, while generating various outcomes and attitudes, such as satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), engagement, and more (for further reading, see Tziner et al., 2012 ).

Moreover, work motivation, as an umbrella term under the self-determination theory (SDT), is usually broken down into two main constructs—intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation ( Ryan and Deci, 2000b ). On the one hand, intrinsic motivation is an internal driver. Employees work out of the excitement, feeling of accomplishment, joy, and personal satisfaction they derive both from the processes of work-related activities and from their results ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Bauer et al., 2016 ; Legault, 2016 ). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation maintains that the individual’s drive to work is influenced by the organization, the work itself, and the employee’s environment. These can range from social norms, peer influence, financial needs, promises of reward, and more. As such, being extrinsically motivated is being focused on the utility of the activity rather than the activity itself (see Deci and Ryan, 1985 ; Legault, 2016 ). However, this does not, by any means, point that extrinsic motivation is less effective than intrinsic motivation ( Deci et al., 1999 ).

Furthermore, the SDT ( Ryan and Deci, 2000b ) argues that each type of motivation is on opposite poles of a single continuum. However, we agree with the notion that they are mutually independent, as Rockmann and Ballinger (2017) wrote:

“…there is increasing evidence that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are independent, each with unique antecedents and outcomes … in organizations, because financial incentives exist alongside interesting tasks, individuals can simultaneously experience extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for doing their work.” (p. 11)

Literature-wise, the intrinsic–extrinsic outlook of motivation lacks coherent research, and to the best of our knowledge, most of the past research addressed the intrinsic part (e.g., Rich et al., 2010 ; Bauer et al., 2016 ). As such, we would align with the approach to distinguish the two work motivations as was reviewed in this section and consequently treat it as a predictor in our research.

Job Engagement

Work engagement is typically defined as “a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” ( Schaufeli et al., 2002 , p. 74). As such, engaged employees appear to be hardworking ( vigor ), are more involved in their work ( dedication ), and are more immersed in their work ( absorption ) (see also Bakker et al., 2008 ; Chughtai and Buckley, 2011 ; Taris et al., 2015 ). JE was initially proposed as a positive construct ( Kahn, 1990 ), and empirical studies revealed that a high level of JE leads to positive work outcomes. For example, recent studies exhibited its positive effect on individual job performance and adverse effect on turnover intention ( Breevaart et al., 2016 ; Owens et al., 2016 ; Shahpouri et al., 2016 ; Kumar et al., 2018 ). Therefore, employees’ JE has been regarded as one of the performance indicators of human resource management.

In terms of antecedents and predictors, it is broadly accepted that JE may be affected by both individual differences (e.g., Sharoni et al., 2015 ; Latta and Fait, 2016 ; Basit, 2017 ) and environmental/contextual elements (e.g., Sharoni et al., 2015 ; Basit, 2017 ; Gyu Park et al., 2017 ; Lebron et al., 2018 ) (see also Macey and Schneider, 2008 ) or even an interaction between these two factors (e.g., Sharoni et al., 2015 ; Hernandez and Guarana, 2018 ).

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and JE

To the best of our knowledge, only a few papers examined the association between work motivation and JE. For instance, Rich et al. (2010) tested a model in which both intrinsic motivation and JE were tested “vertically,” meaning they were both mediators (in the model) rather than two factors in a predictor–outcome relationship. This offers a further incentive to examine the association between (intrinsic/extrinsic) work motivation and JE.

Because JE is “…driven by perceptions of psychological meaningfulness, safety, and availability at work” ( Hernandez and Guarana, 2018 , p. 1), a vital notion behind work motivation is the perception of the job as a place for fulfilling different needs: extrinsic needs, such as income and status, and intrinsic needs, such as enjoyment, and personal challenge. This perception, very likely, bolsters the association between the employees’ drive to work and the workplace or the work themselves, increasing the involvement and the amount of work they put into their work (i.e., JE). These assumptions lead us to hypothesize the following:

H1: Intrinsic motivation positively associates with JE.

H2: Extrinsic motivation positively associates with JE.

Heavy Work Investment

Fundamentally different from being immersed or involved at work (e.g., JE), employees usually invest time and energy at their workplace with various manifestations, which ultimately barrel down to the concept of HWI. This umbrella term encompasses two major core aspects: (1) investment of time (i.e., working long hours) and (2) investment of effort and energy (i.e., devoting substantial efforts, both physical and mental, at work) ( Snir and Harpaz, 2012 , Snir and Harpaz, 2015 ). These dimensions are, respectively, called (a) time commitment (HWI-TC) and work intensity (HWI-WI). Notably, many studies deal with the implications of working overtime (e.g., Stimpfel et al., 2012 ; Caruso, 2014 ). However, to the best of our knowledge, empirical studies regarding the investment of efforts at work as an indicator of HWI (e.g., Tziner et al., 2019 ) are scarce. Therefore, the current research addresses both of the core dimensions of HWI (i.e., time [HWI-TC] and effort [HWI-WI]).

In reality, HWI consists of many different constructs (e.g., workaholism and work addiction or passion to work) but conclusively revolves around the devotion of time and effort at work (see Snir and Harpaz, 2015 , p. 6). HWI is apparently similar to JE, but these two constructs are distinct. As shown in previous studies, the correlation between workaholism—one component of HWI—and JE is generally weak, and engaged individuals can be not only high in HWI but also low in HWI ( van Beek et al., 2011 ).

For HWI’s possible predictors, Snir and Harpaz (2012 , 2015) have differentiated between situational and dispositional types of HWI (based on Weiner’s, 1985 , attributional framework). Examples of situational types are financial needs or employer-directed contingencies (external factors), while dispositional types are characterized by individual differences (internal factors), such as work motivation.

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and HWI

As previously mentioned, employees may be driven to work by both intrinsic and extrinsic forces, motivating them to engage in work activities to fulfill different needs (e.g., salary, enjoyment, challenge, and promotion). Ultimately, these two mutually exclusive elements would translate into the same outcome—increased investment at work. At this juncture, however, we cannot say what type of work motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic) would more tightly link to either (1) the heavier devotion of time (HWI-TC) or (2) the heavier investment of effort (HWI-WI) at work. Consequently, we hypothesize further the following:

H3: Intrinsic motivation positively associates with both HWI-TC and HWI-WI.

H4: Extrinsic motivation positively associates with both HWI-TC and HWI-WI.

It is important to emphasize that, again, HWI and JE are mutually independent constructs. Nevertheless, HWI points at two different investment “types”—in time and effort. Theoretically, we see that although both aspects of investment are, probably, linked to JE, we may also conclude that these associations would differ based on the type of investment. For example, while workers may allegedly spend a great deal of time on the job, in actuality, they may not be working (studiously) on their given tasks at all, a situation labeled as “presenteeism” (see Rabenu and Aharoni-Goldenberg, 2017 ). However, exerting more effort at work, by definition, means that one is more engaged, to whatever extent, in work (e.g., investing more effort, basically, means investing time as well, but not vice versa). In other words, while we expect that JE will be positively related to dimensions of HWI (one must devote time and invest more effort to be engaged at work), we also assume that JE will be more strongly correlated with the effort dimension, rather than time . As such, we hypothesize the following:

H5a: JE positively associates with HWI-TC.

H5b: JE positively associates with HWI-WI.

H5c: JE has a stronger association with HWI-WI than with HWI-TC.

The purpose of H5a–H5c is to differentiate JE from HWI-WI and HWI-TC, as they may have some overlaps. However, they are still stand-alone constructs, which is the reason the current research gauge them both and correlate them, though they are both outcome variables (an issue of convergent and discriminant validity).

Worker’s Status—Buffering Effect

An organization or a workplace is usually composed of several types of employees, albeit not all of them exhibit the same attitudes and behaviors at work. For example, temporary workers report greater job insecurity and lower well-being than permanent employees ( Dawson et al., 2017 ). Another example is of students (i.e., working students vs. non-student employees). The motivators and incentives needed to drive corporate/working students differ from others. They are, for instance, more interested in salary, promotion, tangible rewards in their job, and other such benefits ( Palloff and Pratt, 2003 ).

Furthermore, capitalizing upon the COR theory ( Hobfoll, 1989 , 2011 ), the main argument is that employees invest various resources (e.g., time, energy, money, effort, and social credibility) at work. The more resources devoted, the less will remain at the individual’s disposal, and prolonged state of depleted resources without gaining others may result in stress and, ultimately, burnout. As such, a worker who is also a student will, by definition, have fewer resources at either domain (work, social life, or family), as opposed to a worker who does not engage in any form of higher education at all. Working students are under severer time constraints than non-student employees because they face “work–study conflict.” Therefore, compared to non-student workers, working students have difficulty in devoting so much time and physical as well as psychological effort to work. Specifically, working students with a low level of motivation may take an interest in studies and thus not be likely to devote much effort to work. However, motivated working students will maintain their effort through effective time management because they highly value their current work. Thus, JE and HWI of working students will depend on their motivation to a greater degree than non-student workers. Ergo, we posit that the associations between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and HWI and JE are conditioned by the type of worker under investigation.

For the current study, the notion of working students versus non-student employees would be gauged, as not much attention was given to distinguishing both groups in research. Usually, samples were composed of either group distinctively, not in tandem with one another. Hence, we hypothesize the following, based on our previous hypotheses:

H6: Worker’s status moderates the relationship between intrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the relationship will be weaker for working students than for non-student employees.

H7: Worker’s status moderates the relationship between extrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the relationship will be weaker for working students than for non-student employees.

Country Difference—Buffering Effect

Worker’s status’ moderation of the links between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation to HWI and JE, as mentioned above, does not appear in a vacuum. This conditioning may also be dependent on international cultural differences. That is to say, we assume that we would receive different results based on the country under investigation because the social, work, cultural, and national values differ from one country to another. Firstly, culture, in this sense, may be defined as “common patterns of beliefs, assumptions, values, and norms of behavior of human groups (represented by societies, institutions, and organizations)” ( Aycan et al., 2000 , p. 194). As mentioned, countries differ from one another in many aspects. The most prominent example is the cultural/national dimensions devised by Hofstede (1980 , 1991) . Different countries display different cultural codes, norms, and behaviors, which may affect their market and work values and behaviors. As such, it is safe to assume that work-related norms and codes differ from one country to another to the extent that working students may exhibit or express certain attitudes and behaviors in country X, but different ones in country Y. The same goes for non-student (or “regular”) workers, as well.

In this study, we examine the case of Israel’s versus Japan’s different situation and cultural perspectives in the work sense. Japan’s culture is more hierarchical and formal than the Israeli counterpart. Japanese believe efforts and hard work may bring “anything” (e.g., prosperity, health, and happiness), while in Israel, there is much informal communication, and “respect” is earned by (hands-on) experience, not necessarily by a top-down hierarchy. Japanese emphasize loyalty, cohesion, and teamwork ( Deshpandé et al., 1993 ; Deshpandé and Farley, 1999 ). Compared to Israeli, Japanese employees are more strongly required to conform to the organization’s norm and dedicate themselves to the organization’s future. Such cultural characteristics may affect the working attitudes and behavior of working students. Specifically, in Japan, working students try to devote as much time as possible even if they are under severe time constraints caused by the study burden. Moreover, sometimes, they experience guilt because they use their time for themselves (i.e., study) rather than for the firm (e.g., socializing with colleagues). Thus, they engage in much overtime work as a tactic of impression management ( Leary and Kowalski, 1990 ) to make themselves look loyal and hard working.

In addition, in Israel, there is high value to performance, while in Japan, competition (between groups, usually) is rooted in society and drives for excellence and perfection. Also, Israelis respect tradition and normative cognition. They tend to “live the present,” rather than save for the future, while Japanese people tend to invest more (e.g., R&D) for the future. Even in economically difficult periods, Japanese people prioritize steady growth and own capitals rather than short-term revenues such that “companies are not here to make money every quarter for the shareholders, but to serve the stakeholders and society at large for many generations to come” (for further reading, see Hofstede, 2018 ).

In Hofstede’s use of the term, some aspects of these cultural differences can be summarized as Japan being higher in power distance, masculinity, and long-term orientation than Israel ( Hofstede, 2018 ). These cultural differences led us to formulate the following hypotheses:

H8: Country differences condition the moderation of worker’s status on the relationship between intrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the effect of worker’s status suggested in H6 will be weaker for Japanese than for Israelis.

H9: Country differences condition the moderation of worker’s status on the relationship between extrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the effect of worker’s status suggested in H7 will be weaker for Japanese than for Israelis.

It is important to note, however, that H8 and H9 are also developed to increase the external validity of the research and its generalizability beyond a single culture, as Barrett and Bass (1976) noted that “most research in industrial and organizational psychology is done within one cultural context. This context puts constraints upon both our theories and our practical solutions to the organizational problem” (p. 1675).

Figure 1 portrays the overall model.

Figure 1. Research model. Worker’s status: 1 = working students, 2 = non-student employees. Country: 1 = Israel, 2 = Japan. HWI-TC = time commitment dimension of heavy work investment. HWI-WI = work intensity dimension of heavy work investment.

Materials and Methods

For hypothesis testing, this study conducted questionnaire-based research using samples of company employees who also engage in a manner of higher education (i.e., working students) and those who do not (i.e., “regular” or non-student employees). Since working students in both countries do not concentrate in specific age groups, industries, or functional areas, participants were recruited from various fields. Moreover, to reduce the impact of organization-specific culture, we collected data from various companies rather than from a specific company, in both countries.

Participants

The research constitutes 242 Israeli (70.9% response rate) and 171 Japanese (56.6% response rate) participants, from various industries and organizations. The demographical and descriptive statistics for each sample are presented in Table 1 . The table also contains the result of group difference tests, pointing at some demographic differences between Israeli and Japanese samples. Therefore, the following analyses include these demographics as control variables to control their potential influence on the research model and reduce the problem that would arise from said differences between the two countries.

Table 1. Demographical and descriptive statistics for the Israeli ( N = 242) and the Japanese ( N = 171; in parenthesis) samples.

The items of the questionnaire were initially written in English and then translated into Hebrew and Japanese, utilizing the back-translation procedure ( Brislin, 1980 ).

Work motivation was gauged by the Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS; Tremblay et al., 2009 ), consisting of 18 Likert-type items ranging from 1 (“Does not correspond at all”) to 6 (“Corresponds exactly”). Intrinsic motivation had a high reliability (α Israel = 0.92, α Japan = 0.86; e.g., “…Because I derive much pleasure from learning new things”) as did extrinsic motivation (α Israel = 0.73, α Japan = 0.75; e.g., “…For the income it provides me”).

HWI (see Snir and Harpaz, 2012 ) was tapped by 10 Likert-type items ranging from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 6 (“Strongly agree”), five items for each dimension, namely, time commitment (HWI-TC; e.g., “Few of my peers/colleagues put in more weekly hours to work than I do”) and work intensity (HWI-WI; e.g., “When I work, I really exert myself to the fullest”), respectively. HWI-TC had a high reliability (α Israel = 0.85, α Japan = 0.92) as did HWI-WI (α Israel = 0.95, α Japan = 0.91).

JE was gauged by the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-9 (UWES-9; Schaufeli et al., 2006 ) consisting of nine Likert-type items ranging from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 6 (“Strongly agree”). The measure had a very high reliability (α Israel = 0.95, α Japan = 0.94; e.g., “I am immersed in my work”).

For the Israeli sample, a pencil-and-paper research survey was distributed to 341 total potential participants in two universities and one college. One of the authors provided the questionnaire in several courses (MBA and management, human resource management, psychology, and more), at the end of each class session. Those wishing to participate replied affirmatively and were included in the total sample. We assured the anonymity and discretion of the participants and the data derived from the research and included a conscious consent question at the beginning of the survey asking for their agreement to participate. No incentives were given whatsoever to the participants for their cooperation. A total of 341 surveys were distributed, yet only 242 came back filled, and all of them were valid to use as data in the research.

For the Japanese sample, the data were collected by using the online questionnaire system of Google spreadsheet. Invitation messages were sent to the potential respondents via email or SNS messenger with the link of the questionnaire. One of the authors contacted 189 full-time workers who participated in one or more of the following (1) strategic management and organization management classes of a Japanese private university, (2) human resource management course in an educational service company, or (3) one-off lectures conducted by the author. All of them were non-student workers, and ultimately, 97 of them answered the questionnaire in full (51.3% response rate). As for the working students, the same author reached out to three graduate schools through personal networks. Then, he asked the liaison of each school to list up working students and send them the questionnaire link by email or SNS messenger. In total, the link was sent to 113 working students (in said three universities), and 74 completed the questionnaire (65.5% response rate). Thus, the overall response rate was 56.6%.

Data Analyses

The data were analyzed utilizing the SPSS (v. 23) software package and PROCESS macro for SPSS (v. 3.3). PROCESS is an add-on macro for the SPSS and SAS software packages written by Andrew F. Hayes. It is a modeling tool based on ordinary least squares (OLS) and logistic regressions for basic and complex path analyses with strong algorithms and modular capabilities and can handle simultaneous moderation and mediations effects (including moderated-moderation effects).

The choice of PROCESS (over SEM) is based on methodological and mathematical reasons. To elaborate, holistic testing of the entire model (see Figure 1 ) via SEM will result in 15 different observed variables (including the interaction effects) and a two-group comparison, and abundant regression lines would result in a high number of degrees of freedom. It would also require a considerably higher sample size to meet the mathematical conditions for SEM. However, we should note that one of the limitations of PROCESS is the inability to test models with more than one dependent variable ( Y ) or more than one independent variable ( X ), and as such it is required to test the model (see Figure 1 ) separately—one for each predictor–criterion linkage.

Control Variables

As per Table 1 , we can see some differences between the two countries, and as such, we included them as covariates in the moderated-moderation analyses. In other words, in these analyses, we controlled for the effects of job position, age, number of children, tenure, and also gender and marital status. This is relevant for Tables 4 –6 . Evidently, the inclusion of control variables has increased the predictive capacity and goodness of our results. Gender is a dichotomous closed question with options of (1) male or (2) female. Age is an open question: “what is your age (in years)? ______.” Marital status is a closed question with options of (1) single, (2) married, (3) divorced, or (4) widowed. Number of children is an open question: “How many children do you have? ______.” Tenure is an open question: “what is your tenure at work (in years)? ______.” Job position is a dichotomous closed question with options of (1) non-managerial or (2) managerial.

Common Method Bias

Harman’s one-factor test ( Podsakoff et al., 2003 ) was used to assess the degree to which intercorrelations among the variables might be an artifact of common method variance (CMV). The first general factor that emerged from the analysis accounted only for 35.19% of the explained variance in the Israeli sample and 37.27% in the Japanese sample. While this result does not rule out completely the possibility of same-source bias (CMV), according to Podsakoff et al. (2003) , less than 50% of the explained variance accounted for by the first emerging factor indicates that CMV is an unlikely explanation of our investigation findings.

First, we explored descriptive statistics and associations between the variables. These results are displayed in Tables 2 , 3 , for each sample.

Table 2. Pearson correlation matrix for working students ( below the diagonal; n = 77) and non-student employees ( above the diagonal; n = 165), means and standard deviations in the Israeli sample ( N = 242).

Table 3. Pearson correlation matrix for working students ( below the diagonal; n = 97) and non-student employees ( above the diagonal; n = 74), means and standard deviations in the Japanese sample ( N = 171).

As shown in Table 2 , we found the following regarding the Israeli sample:

- JE positively correlates with HWI-TC for working students, r (77) = 0.55, p = 0.000, and for non-student employees r (165) = 0.30, p = 0.000 (supporting H5a, in Israel).

- JE positively correlates with HWI-WI for working students, r (77) = 0.76, p = 0.000, and for non-student employees r (165) = 0.77, p = 0.000 (supporting H5b, in Israel).

These differences in correlation coefficients are in line with our H5c, meaning JE has stronger links to HWI-WI as opposed to HWI-TC. Ergo, in order to gauge whether these differences are statistically significant, we used Fisher’s Z transformation and significance test. For working students, the difference is indeed significant ( Z = 2.31, p = 0.021) and is also for the non-student employees’ group ( Z = 6.41, p = 0.000). This supports H5c, in Israel.

Moreover, as shown in Table 3 , we found the following regarding the Japanese sample:

- JE positively correlates with HWI-TC only for non-student employees, r (74) = 0.30, p = 0.001, but is non-significant for working students, r (94) = 0.15, p = 0.146 (partially supporting H5a, in Japan).

- JE positively correlates with HWI-WI for working students, r (94) = 0.72, p = 0.000, and for non-student employees, r (74) = 0.62, p = 0.000 (supporting H5b, in Japan).

These differences in correlation coefficients are in line with our H5c, meaning JE has stronger links to HWI-WI as opposed to HWI-TC. Ergo, in order to gauge whether these differences are statistically significant, we used Fisher’s Z transformation and significance test. For working students, the difference is indeed significant ( Z = 5.12, p = 0.000) and is also significant for the non-student employees’ group ( Z = 2.48, p = 0.013). This supports H5c, in Japan.

To test the rest of our hypotheses (i.e., H1–H4 and H6–H9), we utilized the PROCESS macro for SPSS using model no. 3 for moderated moderation (95% bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples). The results from the analyses are presented in Tables 4 –6 . However, it is important to note that we also used heteroscedasticity-consistent standard error (SE) estimators, as suggested by Hayes and Cai (2007) , to ensure that the estimator of the covariance matrix of the parameter estimates will not be biased and inconsistent under heteroscedasticity violation.

Table 4. Moderficients and confidence intervals (CIs) for predicting HWI-TC.

Table 5. Moderated-moderation regression coefficients and confidence intervals (CIs) for predicting HWI-WI.

Table 6. Moderated-moderation regression coefficients and confidence intervals (CIs) for predicting job engagement (JE).

Firstly, the findings that are shown in Tables 4 –6 support H1 – H4 , meaning both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation relate positively to HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, in all samples (Israel and Japan). Additionally, the interaction effects (most of them) are significant, which is the most important part of any moderation analysis (see Appendix in Shkoler et al., 2017 ). Figures 2 –7 portray moderation effects.

Figure 2. Interaction effects of Intrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-TC. HWI-TC, time commitment dimension of heavy work investment.

Figure 3. Interaction effects of Extrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-TC. HWI-TC, time commitment dimension of heavy work investment.

Figure 4. Interaction effects of Intrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-WI. HWI-WI, work intensity dimension of heavy work investment.

Figure 5. Interaction effects of Extrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-WI. Notes . HWI-WI = work intensity dimension of heavy work investment.

Figure 6. Interaction effects of Intrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting job engagement.

Figure 7. Interaction effects of Extrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting job engagement.

Figures 2 –7 display surprising findings:

(1) The behaviors of the correlations (for instance, between intrinsic motivation and JE or HWI-TC) are different between the two countries, in general, such that means and correlations are both higher in the Israeli sample as opposed to the Japanese one.

(2) The behaviors of the correlations (for instance, between intrinsic motivation and JE or HWI-TC) are different between the two groups of worker status, in each country on its own , such that (a) working students, in Israel, exhibit stronger links to the outcome variables (i.e., HWI-TC, HWI-TC, and JE) as opposed to non-student employees; (b) however, in most cases, these associations were not so different between said groups, in the Japanese sample.

(3) The behaviors of the correlations (for instance, between intrinsic motivation and JE or HWI-TC) are different between the two groups of worker status when comparing each country, such that (a) working students, in Israel, exhibit stronger links to the outcome variables as opposed their Japanese counterparts; (b) however, in most cases, these associations were not so different between non-student employees (in Israel vs. Japan).

(4) The only analysis in which points 1–3 above do not apply is when using intrinsic motivation to predict HWI-WI (again, in a moderated-moderation model). It suggests that intrinsic motivation’s impact on the increased effort at work changes based on neither worker status nor the country/culture.

These findings support our hypotheses H6–H9: (1) worker status does moderate the links between work motivation and the outcome variables (HWI-TC, HWI-TC, and JE), and (2) county/cultural differences can moderate said relationships as well. Still, more importantly, they work as a conditioning moderator on the previous moderation (i.e., moderated moderation) in all of the analyses done.

The aims of the current paper were (1) to shed light on the relationship between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and HWI of time (HWI-TC) and effort (HWI-WI) and JE, (3) to assess convergent and discriminant properties of JE in relation to HWI-TC and HWI-WI, and (4) to gauge the moderation effects of both worker status (working students vs. non-student employees) and country/culture (Israel vs. Japan) on said relationships (point 1) in a moderated-moderation analysis type. Our research hypotheses were supported to a great extent. The findings are summarized in Table 7 .

Table 7. Results of hypothesis testing.

Theoretical Implications

Our research adheres to the very few studies that have tested and validated Snir and Harpaz’s (2015) HWI conceptual model between its various predictors (i.e., intrinsic/extrinsic motivation) with regards to specific moderators (e.g., worker’s status and country/culture). Our findings supported the model (see Snir and Harpaz, 2015 , p. 6) and contributed to its incremental validity. Apart from realizing parts of the model’s structure and processes, we have also shown that the moderation effects suggested in the model may be conditioned by other moderators as well (in our study, country/culture differences), leading to more need for further research.

Although it is not the main focus of the current research, we have established some convergent and discriminant validity relationship between JE and HWI. Specifically, JE has a high convergent validity with HWI-WI, yet low convergent-borderline-discriminant validity with HWI-TC, increasing the need for exploring these issues further.

We have provided more evidence as to the critical role of culture in differentiating model and relationship behaviors. Our findings regarding the between-country differences found in the moderating effects of workers’ status supported our hypotheses, suggesting that compared to Israeli workplaces, those in Japan, indeed, put much emphasis in loyalty and cohesion. Japanese working students show similar work behavior (i.e., JE and HWI) as non-student workers. Attitudes, norms, and behavioral codes accepted in a country X may be quite different in country Y, not only in the general society but at the workplace as well. Concerning the workers’ status, it seems plausible that employees’ differing perceptions of the work context may affect their “readiness” to translate a drive to work to an actual HWI of JE, alone or in conjunction with cultural perceptions as well.

Furthermore, our findings on between-country differences have important insights for research in organizational learning. Employees’ continuous learning is essential for organizations to be competitive in the current and future VUCA world. Therefore, an organization needs to provide employees with opportunities to learn and support, which enables them to manage their work–study conflict effectively. However, as suggested in the results of the Japanese sample, it may be possible that cultural norms restrain workers from dedicating their time to learning. In addition to the effects of organization-level human resource development climate ( Chaudhary et al., 2012 ), we also need to consider the effects of national-level culture in the examination of organizational learning practices and their consequences.

Practical Implications

If JE is an organizational goal toward which many workplaces strive, their respective managers may very well need to enhance employees’ work motivation (such as offering more rewards or challenge), thus increasing the employees’ propensity for translating that motivation into actual HWI or JE.

The moderation effects emphasize the need for smart and careful management in workplaces with international employees, as we notice how different Israel is from Japan, for example. Managers and even service-givers must pay attention to these cultural differences when doing work with or for an entity (e.g., country, organization, or group) from outside the providing side’s national boundaries.

Besides, the stronger associations between work motivation and JE or HWI in Israeli sample (see Figures 2 –7 ) suggest that working students virtually actuate more of their working drives into the behavioral expressions of their drives to work, thus investing heavier in them. That may be so because working students are keener on proving themselves to the organization toward the end goal of being recruited as permanent employees (supported by the results in Israel, as opposed to Japan). Hence, those who have less occupational security are more likely to translate their drive to work into actual HWI and JE. Nevertheless, in today’s economy, in which “occupational sense of security” appears to be declining, it seems plausible that in the future the moderated association between motivation and HWI, found in our paper, will diminish in strength or even dissipate entirely. This argumentation finds support in recent publications (e.g., Neuner, 2013 ; Koene et al., 2014 ; Weil, 2014 ). Perhaps working students are also more susceptible to organizational incentives (i.e., intrinsic or extrinsic), as opposed to their non-student counterparts (i.e., “regular” employees).

On the other hand, Japanese workers showed relatively weak relationships between work motivation and JE or HWI. These findings suggest that the Japanese workplace norm restrains working students from putting much effort to study, and thus, they work long hours for managing impression or making up for their “violation” of the workplace norm. Such workplace derives from traditional Japanese culture which emphasizes loyalty and dedication to the employer ( Blomberg, 1994 ), and even modern companies in Japan expect employees to dedicate most of their life to the organization, resulting in much overtime work of Japanese workers ( Franklin, 2017 ; Pilla and Kuriansky, 2018 ; Mason, 2019 ). Therefore, to encourage employees’ continuous learning and associating organizational learning, managers in Japanese firms need to reconstruct the workplace norm such that working students will not feel guilty by studying outside of their organization.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

While our study has strength in the newness of findings and the use of an international sample, we should mention its limitations. First, our data are cross-sectional and single sourced. It limits the generalizability of the research and does not let us see if the findings are stable across time. Although it may not be a major limitation, our research was not focused on a specific industry, sector, or type of workers (e.g., high-tech, low-tech, services, or marketing and sales). While this bolsters the external validity of the research, it limits the construct validity of the results.

In our model, we included only individual differences as predictors and only contextual elements as moderators. As such, we recommend using a mix of said variables, such as “place” in the model, as predictors and moderators, so as not to be limited to one direction of explanations. For Snir and Harpaz’s (2015) model of HWI (p. 6), we only validated a part of it but did not include HWI as a mediator, but only as an outcome. Thus, we recommend using the full model to shed light on its possible processes, beyond predictor–outcome relationships. In addition, we urge researchers to investigate and identify more potentially interesting and relevant moderators, as we showed in our model (i.e., country/culture differences).

To expand our understanding of cultural difference, we recommend replicating our study in other countries with cultural similarities or differences to the ones used in the research, to broaden the generalizability and validity of our findings. As we noted previously, In Hofstede’s use of the term, Japan is higher in power distance, masculinity, and long-term orientation than Israel. Thus, this study might reveal the moderating effects of both these cultural dimensions and the worker’s status. However, this study only includes two countries, which might limit the generalizability of the results. Therefore, we suggest scholars worldwide to not only replicate our research in other countries but to also consider other cultural dimensions to generalize and expand our findings. Furthermore, in future international comparative studies, researchers can explore why and how each country’s cultural and institutional components influence the differences that would exist between countries.

Concerning our findings regarding convergent and discriminant validity between JE and HWI, we also encourage more research to be done in order to provide a clearer picture regarding these validity issues we raised in the current study.

We suggest conducting longitudinal studies incorporating other potential moderator variables (such as work ethic and gender) or mediators (as previously mentioned) and further investigating processes—which we enumerated in the discussion section—as likely to connect work motivation to JE, HWI, and potential outcomes.

It is also safe to assume that the associations we discovered in the research would be dependent on which industry we focus on (e.g., high-tech, low-tech, marketing, or service), and as such, we would also suggest incorporating this element in future research.

Finally, we suggest that future research compare the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on various kinds of behavior using the same sample. Although this study is one of few studies that investigate the effect of both types of motivation in one study, it assumed that they result in similar attitude and behavior. As Ryan and Deci (2000a) argued, these two types of behavior can lead different kinds of behavior since their sources are different—that is, intrinsic motivation derives from one’s free choice, but extrinsic motivation is promoted by external controls. Therefore, future research can include various kinds of behavior in a model and explore whether these two types of motivation lead to a different behavior and why.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

The procedure of this study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Hosei University Graduate School of Career Studies. The committee approved that this study does not contain ethical flaws like leaking of private information and inhumane questions in the questionnaire. All subjects gave written informed consent regarding the purpose of research, that of data collection, and the privacy protection method. The current study was correlational, based on a survey, and not a manipulation on subjects. At the beginning of each questionnaire, we explained the general goal of the research. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. We ensured anonymity and discretion of the results and also ensured that the subjects know they could leave the participation at any time they choose.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Alarcon, G. M., and Edwards, J. M. (2011). The relationship of engagement, job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Stress Health 27, e294–e298. doi: 10.1002/smi.1365

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R., Mendonca, M., Yu, K., Deller, J., Stahl, G., et al. (2000). Impact of culture on human resource management practices: a 10-country comparison. Appl. Psychol. 49, 192–221. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00010

Bailey, C., Madden, A., Alfes, K., and Fletcher, L. (2017). The meaning, antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement: a narrative synthesis. Int. J. Manag. Rev 19, 31–53. doi: 10.1111/ijmr.12077

Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., and Taris, T. W. (2008). Work engagement: an emerging concept in occupational health psychology. Work Stress 22, 187–200. doi: 10.1080/02678370802393649

Barrett, G. V., and Bass, B. M. (1976). “Cross-cultural issues in industrial and organizational psychology,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology , ed. M. Dunnette, (Chicago, IL: Rand McNally), 1639–1686.

Google Scholar

Basit, A. A. (2017). Trust in supervisor and job engagement: mediating effects of psychological safety and felt obligation. J. Psychol. 151, 701–721. doi: 10.1080/00223980.2017.1372350

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bauer, K. N., Orvis, K. A., Ely, K., and Surface, E. A. (2016). Re-examination of motivation in learning contexts: meta-analytically investigating the role type of motivation plays in the prediction of key training outcomes. J. Bus. Psychol. 31, 33–50. doi: 10.1007/s10869-015-9401-1

Blomberg, C. (1994). The Heart of the Warrior: Origins and Religious Background of the Samurai System in Feudal Japan. New York, NY: Routledge.

Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., and Derks, D. (2016). Who takes the lead? A multi-source diary study on leadership, work engagement, and job performance. J. Organ. Behav. 37, 309–325. doi: 10.1002/job.2041

Brislin, R. W. (1980). “Translation and content analysis of oral and written material,” in Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology , eds H. C. Triandis and J. W. Berry, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon), 389–444.

Caruso, C. C. (2014). Negative impacts of shiftwork and long work hours. Rehabil. Nurs. 39, 16–25. doi: 10.1002/rnj.107

Chaudhary, R., Rangnekar, S., and Barua, M. K. (2012). Relationships between occupational self efficacy, human resource development climate, and work engagement. Team Perform. Manag. 18, 370–383. doi: 10.1108/13527591211281110

Chughtai, A. A., and Buckley, F. (2011). Work engagement: antecedents, the mediating role of learning goal orientation and job performance. Career Dev. Int. 16, 684–705. doi: 10.1108/13620431111187290

Corrales-Herrero, H., and Rodríguez-Prado, B. (2018). The role of non-formal lifelong learning at different points in the business cycle. Int. J. Manpow. 39, 334–352. doi: 10.1108/IJM-08-2016-0164

Dawson, C., Veliziotis, M., and Hopkins, B. (2017). Temporary employment, job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Econ. Indust. Democracy 38, 69–98. doi: 10.1177/0143831X14559781

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., and Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychol. Bull. 125, 627–668. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627

Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Deshpandé, R., and Farley, J. U. (1999). Corporate culture and market orientation: comparing Indian and Japanese firms. J. Int. Mark. 7, 111–127. doi: 10.1177/1069031x9900700407

Deshpandé, R., Farley, J. U., and Webster, F. E. Jr. (1993). Corporate culture, customer orientation, and innovativeness in Japanese firms: a quadrad analysis. J. Mark. 57, 23–37. doi: 10.2307/1252055

Franklin, S. (2017). Japanese Business Culture: A Study on Foreigner Integration and Social Inclusion. Honors thesis, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY.

Gyu Park, J., Sik Kim, J., Yoon, S. W., and Joo, B. K. (2017). The effects of empowering leadership on psychological well-being and job engagement: the mediating role of psychological capital. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 38, 350–367. doi: 10.1108/LODJ-08-2015-0182

Hayes, A. F., and Cai, L. (2007). Using heteroskedasticity-consistent standard error estimators in OLS regression: an introduction and software implementation. Behav. Res. Methods 39, 709–722. doi: 10.3758/BF03192961

Hernandez, M., and Guarana, C. L. (2018). An examination of the temporal intricacies of job engagement. J. Manag. 44, 1711–1735. doi: 10.1177/0149206315622573

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. Am. Psychol. 44, 513–524. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513

Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 84, 116–122. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02016.x

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organization: Software of the Mind. London, UK: McGraw-Hill.

Hofstede, G. (2018). The 6-D Model – Countries Comparison. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/israel,japan/ (accessed January 19, 2019).

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Acad. Manag. J. 33, 692–724. doi: 10.5465/256287

Kanfer, R. (2009). Work motivation: identifying use-inspired research directions. Indust. Organ. Psychol. 2, 77–93. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2008.01112.x

Kanfer, R., Frese, M., and Johnson, R. E. (2017). Motivation related to work: a century of progress. J. Appl. Psychol. 102, 338–355. doi: 10.1037/apl0000133

Koene, B. A., Galais, N., and Garsten, C. (eds) (2014). Management and Organization of Temporary Agency Work. New York, NY: Routledge.

Kumar, M., Jauhari, H., Rastogi, A., and Sivakumar, S. (2018). Managerial support for development and turnover intention: roles of organizational support, work engagement and job satisfaction. J. Organ. Chang. Manag. 31, 135–153. doi: 10.1108/JOCM-06-2017-0232

Latham, G. P., and Pinder, C. C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56, 485–516. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142105

Latta, G. F., and Fait, J. I. (2016). Sources of motivation and work engagement: a cross-industry analysis of differentiated profiles. J. Organ. Psychol. 16, 29–44.

Leary, M. R., and Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: a literature review and two-component model. Psychol. Bull. 107, 34–47. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34

Lebron, M., Tabak, F., Shkoler, O., and Rabenu, E. (2018). Counterproductive work behaviors toward organization and leader-member exchange: the mediating roles of emotional exhaustion and work engagement. Organ. Manag. J. 15, 159–173. doi: 10.1080/15416518.2018.1528857

Legault, L. (2016). “Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,” in Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences , eds Z. H. Virgil and T. K. Shackelford, (New York, NY: Springer), 1–3.

Macey, W. H., and Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Indust. Organ. Psychol. 1, 3–30.

Mason, S. (2019). Teachers, Twitter and tackling overwork in Japan. Issues Educ. Res. 29, 881–898.

Neuner, J. (2013). 40% of America’s Workforce Will be Freelancers by 2020. Available at: https://qz.com/65279/40-of-americas-workforce-will-be-freelancers-by-2020/ (accessed January 19, 2019).

Owens, B. P., Baker, W. E., Sumpter, D. M., and Cameron, K. S. (2016). Relational energy at work: implications for job engagement and job performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 101, 35–49. doi: 10.1037/apl0000032

Palloff, R. M., and Pratt, K. (2003). The Virtual Student: A Profile and Guide to Working with Online Learners. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

Pilla, D., and Kuriansky, J. (2018). Mental health in Japan: intersecting risks in the workplace. J. Stud. Res. 7, 38–41.

Pinder, C. C. (2008). Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior , 2nd edn, New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88, 879–903. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Rabenu, E., and Aharoni-Goldenberg, S. (2017). Understanding the relationship between overtime and burnout. Int. Stud. Manag. Organ. 47, 324–335. doi: 10.1080/00208825.2017.1382269

Rich, B. L., LePine, J. A., and Crawford, E. R. (2010). Job engagement: antecedents and effects on job performance. Acad. Manag. J. 53, 617–635. doi: 10.5465/amj.2010.51468988

Rockmann, K. W., and Ballinger, G. A. (2017). Intrinsic motivation and organizational identification among on-demand workers. J. Appl. Psychol. 102, 1305–1316. doi: 10.1037/apl0000224

Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 25, 54–67. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am. Psychol. 55, 68–78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., and Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire. Educ. Psychol. Measur. 66, 701–716. doi: 10.1177/0013164405282471

Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., and Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: a two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. J. Happ. Stud. 3, 71–92. doi: 10.1023/A:1015630930326

Shahpouri, S., Namdari, K., and Abedi, A. (2016). Mediating role of work engagement in the relationship between job resources and personal resources with turnover intention among female nurses. Appl. Nurs. Res. 30, 216–221. doi: 10.1016/j.apnr.2015.10.008

Sharoni, G., Shkoler, O., and Tziner, A. (2015). Job engagement: antecedents and outcomes. J. Organ. Psychol. 15, 34–48.

Shkoler, O., Rabenu, E., and Tziner, A. (2017). The dimensionality of workaholism and its relations with internal and external factors. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 33, 193–203. doi: 10.1016/j.rpto.2017.09.002

Snir, R., and Harpaz, I. (2012). Beyond workaholism: towards a general model of heavy work investment. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 22, 232–243. doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2011.11.011

Snir, R., and Harpaz, I. (2015). “A general model of heavy work investment,” in Heavy Work Investment: Its Nature, Sources, Outcomes, and Future Directions , eds I. Harpaz and R. Snir, (New York, NY: Routledge), 3–30.

Stimpfel, A. W., Sloane, D. M., and Aiken, L. H. (2012). The longer the shifts for hospital nurses, the higher the levels of burnout and patient dissatisfaction. Health Aff. 31, 2501–2509. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2011.1377

Taris, T., van Beek, I., and Schaufeli, W. B. (2015). “The beauty versus the beast: on the motives of engaged and workaholic employees,” in Heavy work Investment: Its Nature, Sources, Outcomes, and Future Directions , eds I. Harpaz and R. Snir, (New York, NY: Routledge), 121–138.

Tremblay, M. A., Blanchard, C. M., Taylor, S., Pelletier, L. G., and Villeneuve, M. (2009). Work extrinsic and intrinsic motivation scale: its value for organizational psychology research. Can. J. Behav. Sci. 41, 213–226. doi: 10.1037/a0018176

Tziner, A., Buzea, C., Rabenu, E., Truta, C., and Shkoler, O. (2019). Understanding the relationship between antecedents of heavy work investment (HWI) and burnout. Econ. Amphith. 21:153

Tziner, A., Fein, E., and Oren, L. (2012). “Human motivation and performance outcomes in the context of downsizing,” in Downsizing: Is Less Still More? eds C. L. Cooper, A. Pandey, and J. C. Quick, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 103–133. doi: 10.1017/cbo9780511791574.008

Weil, D. (2014). The Fissured Workplace: Why Work Became so Bad for so Many and What Can be Done to Improve it ?. Master’s thesis, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

van Beek, I., Taris, T. W., and Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). Workaholic and work engaged employees: dead ringers or worlds apart? J. Occup. Health Psychol. 16, 468–482. doi: 10.1037/a0024392

Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychol. Rev. 92, 548–573. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548

Keywords : intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, heavy work investment, job engagement, work status, moderated moderation, cultural differences

Citation: Shkoler O and Kimura T (2020) How Does Work Motivation Impact Employees’ Investment at Work and Their Job Engagement? A Moderated-Moderation Perspective Through an International Lens. Front. Psychol. 11:38. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00038

Received: 27 July 2019; Accepted: 07 January 2020; Published: 21 February 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Shkoler and Kimura. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Or Shkoler, [email protected]

† These authors have contributed equally this work

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

We're Hiring!
Help Center

EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITY: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

A substantial body of theory and empirical evidence exists to attest to the fact that motivation and productivity are concepts which have been subjects of immense interest among researchers and managers. The objective of this paper is to conduct a literature review and analysis on theories and empirical evidence on the relationship between employee motivation and organizational productivity with a view to drawing important lessons for managerial practice. To achieve this, the paper conducted a review of some of the key theories and empirical studies on motivation and its impact on employee productivity drawing experiences from diverse organizational settings in Nigeria and several other countries. The study revealed that there are different factors to consider in motivating employees: some monetary or financial such as pay and others are non-financial like recognition and challenging jobs. Important implications are presented for managerial practice.

Related Papers

Sirkka Naundobe

This study examines the relationship between Motivation and Employee productivity, using First Bank Nigeria Plc. as a case study. First Bank of Nigeria, is a Nigerian multinational bank and financial services company. It is the country's largest financial services company serving about eight Million (8,000,000) strong customer base through over 750 nationwide branches , as well as online services, with its global reach and currently it is Nigerian's largest bank by assets. Just like any long standing big organization First Bank Plc. is faced with the problem of developing and sustaining staff engagement through motivation to achieve high employee and organization productivity and prevent low employee morale and low overall organizational performance, the paper aimed at identifying various strategies and motivational techniques that exist in the organization, determination of the best motivational techniques that bring the best out of employees and to determine ways of improving overall organizational performance through appropriate motivational approach. This study was carried out among the employees of First bank Nigeria Plc. spanning through branches and the headquarter in Lagos, Nigeria. 450 well –structured questionnaire were administered on the six (6) geopolitical zones of Nigeria where First Bank Plc is evenly represented in branches with a total of 300 questionnaires received back and passed through statistical analyses. Research questions were raised based on the research objectives and hypotheses. Chi () statistical test was deployed to test the various hypotheses formulated in the study. The result showed that quality of supervision has positive effect on employee motivation to work better. It was also found that workers perception on what obtained in his

Academic Research

Emmanuel O . Olusanya

Employees are a company's livelihood. How they feel about the work they are doing and the results received from that work directly impact an organization's performance and, ultimately, its stability. An unstable organization ultimately underperforms. The study had the following objectives: to find out the motivational factors put in place by the organization to enhance performance, to find out the relationship between employee motivation and performance, and to find out the challenges that organizations face in its attempt to motivate staff. To achieve these goals, a questionnaire was designed based on the objectives. The completed questionnaires were processed and analysed using the SPSS version 20 The study used descriptive sample survey for the representation and the analysis of the findings. A sample of 100 respondents was used. The study relied on both primary data, collected through a questionnaire, and secondary data collected from journals and the internet. The result shows that 11 % of the respondents functioned as management, 29 % as senior staff, 48 % as junior staffs and the remaining 12 % were contract staff. Summary of findings shows that 99% of the respondents strongly agreed that employees are motivated through monetary rewards, 65% of the respondents agreed that receiving Recognition for Work Done Affects Employees Output, one respondent was undecided while 34% strongly agreed. Finally, 98% of the respondents strongly agreed to the notion that motivated staff have higher productivity while 2% are also in agreement. The study, therefore, recommends that management should do well by adopting on the spot praise as a medium for recognition and appreciation for hard work for promptness equal effectiveness.

sherry shinwari

This study is aimed at looking into the importance of motivation in the management of people at work, no system moves smoothly without it, and no organization achieve its objective without motivating its human resources. The study therefore is to study and come out with the effect and ways of motivating worker in organization, hence comparative study of Manufacturing firms in Nnewi, Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the analysis of the data. Necessary literatures were reviewed. During the analysis of the data it was discovered that the goal of motivation is to cause people to put fourth their best efforts with enthusiasm and effectiveness in order to achieve and hopefully surpass organizational objective. It is evidence that workers of manufacturing firms in Nnewi are poorly motivated; hence low productivity. Findings from the research on productivity of manufacturing firm's staff are reported. Two sets of questionnaires were employed in the study. One set was administered on management staff and the other on junior staff. The study reveals that salaries paid to junior staff in the company were very below the stipulations of Nigerian National Joint Industry Council. It further shows that the junior staff is rarely promoted and the junior staff prefers financial incentives than non financial incentives. The study recommended that increase in salary via promotion; overtime allowance and holiday with pay should be used as motivational tools.

FEMI P R A I S E MOYIN

Femi Praise

MOYIN P R A I S E FEMI

One of the most important functions of management is to ensure that employee work is more satisfying and to reconcile employee motivation with organizational goals. With the diversity of current jobs, this is a dynamic challenge. What people value and enjoy is influenced by many factors, including the influence of different cultural backgrounds. This research report examines employee motivation and its impact on employee performance. The study examines some common theories of motivation that can be used in an organization to improve employee performance. The study showed that employees have their differences in terms of the concept of motivation. Various forms of theories of motivation in literature have been debated along with their applications and implications. Three questions were examined: What is motivation? What kind of motivation can best be used to increase employee performance? The results of the study show that motivation can increase or decrease employee performance. If the chosen form of motivation meets the needs of the employee, their performance increases. If, on the other hand, the chosen form of motivation does not satisfy the needs of the employee, the benefit decreases. It therefore encourages organizations to understand the motivating need of each employee to improve performance.

SAU Journal of Management and Social Sciences

Prof. Oyedokun E M M A N U E L Godwin , Modupeola Adeolu-Akande

The researchers investigated the impact of motivation on employee productivity in the Nigerian Baptist Convention, Survey research design was adopted while questionnaire was used as the questionnaire of data collection. The reliability of the research instrument was calculated and all variables have Cronbach's alpha value, ranging from 0.907 to 0.935, which achieved the minimum acceptable level of coefficient alpha above 0.70. The data collected were analysed, using the Special Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) to generate tables as well as percentages. This was done to ensure an easy and clear understanding of the work. Multiple linear regression and correlation were used to test the validity of the hypotheses to establish the link between motivation and productivity. The R-square coefficient of the variables (work environment, training and development, recognition, leadership style and workers' efficiency) was 0.999. This shows that the variables constitute 99.9% of total variance which is a high coefficient on the employment motivation (dependent variable). This shows that they have a significant impact on employee motivation at Nigerian Baptist Convention. Thus, organisations, managers and employers should take the issue of motivation seriously.

SSRN Electronic Journal

Stephen Dugguh

Employees are the most important resources in any organization. They are needed to use inputs to enhance outcomes. Low productivity in manufacturing companies in Nigeria in general may be traceable to poor employee motivation. The objective of the paper therefore is to determine how certain theories of motivation could be applied to increase productivity in Cement Manufacturing Companies in Nigeria. The paper is theoretical in nature and draws from various literatures on motivation and productivity and concludes that motivation has a link to productivity since ‘motivated employees are productive employees’. The paper further suggests that relevant motivation theories should be applied to elicit and drive employee performance and increase the level of productivity in Cement Manufacturing Companies in Nigeria.

American Journal of Business and Management

Daniel Tulu

Samuel Ajayi

ABSTRACT This study examines the relationship between Motivation and Employee productivity, using First Bank Nigeria Plc. as a case study. First Bank of Nigeria, is a Nigerian multinational bank and financial services company. It is the country’s largest financial services company serving about eight Million (8,000,000) strong customer base through over 750 nationwide branches , as well as online services, with its global reach and currently it is Nigerian's largest bank by assets. Just like any long standing big organization First Bank Plc. is faced with the problem of developing and sustaining staff engagement through motivation to achieve high employee and organization productivity and prevent low employee morale and low overall organizational performance, the paper aimed at identifying various strategies and motivational techniques that exist in the organization, determination of the best motivational techniques that bring the best out of employees and to determine ways of improving overall organizational performance through appropriate motivational approach. This study was carried out among the employees of First bank Nigeria Plc. spanning through branches and the headquarter in Lagos, Nigeria. 450 well –structured questionnaire were administered on the six (6) geopolitical zones of Nigeria where First Bank Plc is evenly represented in branches with a total of 300 questionnaires received back and passed through statistical analyses. Research questions were raised based on the research objectives and hypotheses. Chi ( ) statistical test was deployed to test the various hypotheses formulated in the study. The result showed that quality of supervision has positive effect on employee motivation to work better. It was also found that workers perception on what obtained in his organization will motivate him to greater productivity. Financial motivation involving monetary rewards have greater impact on performance and organizational productivity.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

An Empirical Study of Employees’ Motivation and Its Influence Job Satisfaction

Ali, B. J., & Anwar, G. (2021). An Empirical Study of Employees’ Motivation and its Influence Job Satisfaction. International Journal of Engineering, Business and Management, 5(2), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijebm.5.2.3

10 Pages Posted: 21 Apr 2021

Bayad Jamal Ali

Komar University for Science and Technology

Govand Anwar

Knowledge University

An Empirical Study of Employees’ Motivation and its Influence Job Satisfaction

Date Written: April 8, 2021

Human Resource Management is getting more important in the business nowadays, because people and their knowledge are the most important aspects affecting the productivity of the company. One of the main aspects of Human Resource Management is the measurement of employee satisfaction. Companies have to make sure that employee satisfaction is high among the workers, which is a precondition for increasing productivity, responsiveness, quality, and recognition service. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the level of employee satisfaction and work motivation. It also deals with the effect the culture has on employee satisfaction. The theoretical framework of this thesis includes such concepts as, job satisfaction, motivation, and rewards differences. One of the biggest strength of the organization is the relationship and communication between the employees and the managers.

Keywords: Motivation, Reward, Incentive, Recognition, Job Satisfaction

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Bayad Jamal Ali (Contact Author)

Komar university for science and technology ( email ).

Sulaimani Qularesi Kurdistan, Sulaimani Iraq

Knowledge University ( email )

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on ssrn, paper statistics, related ejournals, industrial & organizational psychology ejournal.

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Front Psychol

How Does Work Motivation Impact Employees’ Investment at Work and Their Job Engagement? A Moderated-Moderation Perspective Through an International Lens

1 Independent Researcher, Netanya, Israel

Takuma Kimura

2 Graduate School of Career Studies, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan

Associated Data

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Introduction

Work Motivation

“…there is increasing evidence that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are independent, each with unique antecedents and outcomes … in organizations, because financial incentives exist alongside interesting tasks, individuals can simultaneously experience extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for doing their work.” (p. 11)

Job Engagement

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and JE

H1 : Intrinsic motivation positively associates with JE.
H2 : Extrinsic motivation positively associates with JE.

Heavy Work Investment

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and HWI

H3 : Intrinsic motivation positively associates with both HWI-TC and HWI-WI.
H4 : Extrinsic motivation positively associates with both HWI-TC and HWI-WI.

H5a : JE positively associates with HWI-TC.
H5b : JE positively associates with HWI-WI.
H5c : JE has a stronger association with HWI-WI than with HWI-TC.

Worker’s Status—Buffering Effect

H6 : Worker’s status moderates the relationship between intrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the relationship will be weaker for working students than for non-student employees.
H7 : Worker’s status moderates the relationship between extrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the relationship will be weaker for working students than for non-student employees.

Country Difference—Buffering Effect

H8 : Country differences condition the moderation of worker’s status on the relationship between intrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the effect of worker’s status suggested in H6 will be weaker for Japanese than for Israelis.
H9 : Country differences condition the moderation of worker’s status on the relationship between extrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the effect of worker’s status suggested in H7 will be weaker for Japanese than for Israelis.

Figure 1 portrays the overall model.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g001.jpg

Research model. Worker’s status: 1 = working students, 2 = non-student employees. Country: 1 = Israel, 2 = Japan. HWI-TC = time commitment dimension of heavy work investment. HWI-WI = work intensity dimension of heavy work investment.

Materials and Methods

Participants

Demographical and descriptive statistics for the Israeli ( N = 242) and the Japanese ( N = 171; in parenthesis) samples.


Gender	Female	36.8 (49.7)	–	–	–	χ = 2.55
	Male	63.2 (50.3)	–	–	–
Marital status	Single	49.2 (31.0)	–	–	–	χ = 5.31
	Married	45.9 (64.3)	–	–	–
	Divorced	5.0 (4.7)	–	–	–
Job position	Non-managerial	74.0 (42.7)	–	–	–	χ = 6.70**
	Managerial	26.0 (57.3)	–	–	–
Worker status	Working student	31.8 (56.7)	–	–	–	χ = 3.99*
	Regular employees	68.2 (43.3)	–	–	–
Age	–	–	22–55 (24–70)	35.26 (45.57)	9.95 (8.93)	= 10.81***
No. of children	–	–	0–6 (0–4)	1.47 (0.87)	1.75 (1.02)	= 4.03**
Tenure	–	–	0.5–19 (1–40)	5.60 (12.38)	4.99 (9.80)	= 9.21***

The items of the questionnaire were initially written in English and then translated into Hebrew and Japanese, utilizing the back-translation procedure ( Brislin, 1980 ).

Data Analyses

Control Variables

Moderficients and confidence intervals (CIs) for predicting HWI-TC.




I-Mot	4.26	[3.16, 5.36]***	E-Mot	2.98	[2.19, 3.78]***
Worker status	10.11	[7.35, 12.88]***	Worker status	7.39	[5.14, 9.63]***
Country	8.99	[5.73, 12.24]***	Country	5.78	[3.17, 8.38]***
INT (Mot × Status)	–1.99	[−2.66, −1.34]***	INT	–1.47	[−1.97, −0.98]***
INT (Mot × Country)	–2.18	[−3.05, −1.29]***	INT	–1.56	[−2.16, −0.96]***
INT (Status × Country)	–5.64	[−7.53, −3.75]***	INT	–4.26	[−5.85, −2.67]***
INT (Mot × Status × Country)	1.18	[0.66, 1.70]***	INT	0.87	[0.50, 1.26]***

Gender	0.09	[−0.14, 0.32]		0.06	[−0.17, 0.29]
Age	0.01	[−0.01, 0.03]		0.01	[−0.01, 0.02]
Marital status	0.15	[−0.12, 0.41]		0.18	[−0.08, 0.44]
Number of children	–0.03	[−0.14, 0.09]		0.01	[−0.10, 0.11]
Tenure	–0.02	[−0.04, −0.01]*		–0.02	[−0.04, −0.01]*
Job position	0.08	[−0.18, 0.35]		0.08	[−0.17, 0.34]

Moderated-moderation regression coefficients and confidence intervals (CIs) for predicting job engagement (JE).




I-Mot	3.53	[2.21, 4.86]***	E-Mot	1.95	[1.41, 2.50]***
Worker status	7.20	[3.79, 10.60]***	Worker status	3.90	[2.12, 5.68]***
Country	7.72	[4.30, 11.42]***	Country	2.82	[1.10, 4.55]**
INT (Mot × Status)	–1.43	[−2.19, −0.68]***	INT	–0.78	[−1.14, −0.42]***
INT (Mot × Country)	–1.50	[−2.39, −0.62]***	INT	–0.54	[−0.90, −0.17]**
INT (Status × Country)	–3.81	[−5.94, −1.69]***	INT	–1.82	[−2.97, −0.68]**
INT (Mot × Status × Country)	0.78	[0.26, 1.30]**	INT	0.36	[0.12, 0.60]**

Gender	0.20	[−0.01, 0.40]		0.07	[−0.09, 0.23]
Age	–0.01	[−0.03, 0.01]		–0.02	[−0.03, −0.01]**
Marital status	–0.17	[−0.41, 0.06]		–0.22	[−0.40, −0.04]*
Number of children	0.01	[−0.11, 0.09]		0.05	[−0.02, 0.13]
Tenure	–0.01	[−0.03, 0.01]		–0.01	[−0.03, −0.01]*
Job position	0.42	[0.18, 0.65]***		0.33	[0.16, 0.51]***

Common Method Bias

First, we explored descriptive statistics and associations between the variables. These results are displayed in Tables 2 , ,3, 3 , for each sample.

Pearson correlation matrix for working students ( below the diagonal; n = 77) and non-student employees ( above the diagonal; n = 165), means and standard deviations in the Israeli sample ( N = 242).

						( )	( )
(1) Intrinsic motivation	–	0.87	0.39	0.29	0.59	4.50 (3.98)	0.90 (0.84)
(2) Extrinsic motivation	0.87	–	0.36	0.38	0.74	4.27 (3.94)	1.48 (1.36)
(3) HWI-TC	0.78	0.85	–	0.33	0.30	3.85 (4.44)	1.48 (1.00)
(4) HWI-WI	0.47	0.73	0.69	–	0.77	4.77 (5.07)	1.66 (1.03)
(5) Job engagement	0.76	0.88	0.55	0.76	–	4.25 (4.04)	1.72 (1.28)

Pearson correlation matrix for working students ( below the diagonal; n = 97) and non-student employees ( above the diagonal; n = 74), means and standard deviations in the Japanese sample ( N = 171).

						( )	( )
(1) Intrinsic motivation	–	0.69	0.36	0.48	0.60	3.26 (3.45)	0.72 (0.81)
(2) Extrinsic motivation	0.65	–	0.38	0.58	0.81	4.00 (4.20)	1.09 (1.14)
(3) HWI-TC			–	0.50	0.30	2.47 (2.50)	1.36 (1.36)
(4) HWI-WI	0.46	0.55	0.50	–	0.62	3.79 (3.96)	1.09 (1.17)
(5) Job engagement	0.45	0.81		0.71	–	3.99 (4.10)	1.04 (1.06)

As shown in Table 2 , we found the following regarding the Israeli sample:

- JE positively correlates with HWI-TC for working students, r (77) = 0.55, p = 0.000, and for non-student employees r (165) = 0.30, p = 0.000 (supporting H5a, in Israel).
- JE positively correlates with HWI-WI for working students, r (77) = 0.76, p = 0.000, and for non-student employees r (165) = 0.77, p = 0.000 (supporting H5b, in Israel).

Moreover, as shown in Table 3 , we found the following regarding the Japanese sample:

- JE positively correlates with HWI-TC only for non-student employees, r (74) = 0.30, p = 0.001, but is non-significant for working students, r (94) = 0.15, p = 0.146 (partially supporting H5a, in Japan).
- JE positively correlates with HWI-WI for working students, r (94) = 0.72, p = 0.000, and for non-student employees, r (74) = 0.62, p = 0.000 (supporting H5b, in Japan).

These differences in correlation coefficients are in line with our H5c, meaning JE has stronger links to HWI-WI as opposed to HWI-TC. Ergo, in order to gauge whether these differences are statistically significant, we used Fisher’s Z transformation and significance test. For working students, the difference is indeed significant ( Z = 5.12, p = 0.000) and is also significant for the non-student employees’ group ( Z = 2.48, p = 0.013). This supports H5c, in Japan.

Moderated-moderation regression coefficients and confidence intervals (CIs) for predicting HWI-WI.




I-Mot	1.33	[0.19, 4.73]*	E-Mot	1.35	[0.63, 2.06]***
Worker status	4.69	[0.56, 8.82]*	Worker status	4.60	[2.50, 6.70]***
Country	2.56	[−2.07, 6.79]	Country	1.89	[−0.45, 4.24]
INT (Mot × Status)	–0.67	[−1.56, 0.21]	INT	–0.72	[−1.14, −0.29]**
INT (Mot × Country)	–0.33	[−1.37, 0.71]	INT	–0.38	[−0.88, 0.11]
INT (Status × Country)	–2.32	[−4.74, 0.10]	INT	–2.25	[−3.66, −0.84]**
INT (Mot × Status × Country)	0.34	[−0.23, 0.91]	INT	0.36	[0.06, 0.67]*

Gender	0.01	[0.19, 0.21]		–0.04	[−0.23, 0.14]
Age	–0.01	[−0.02, 0.01]		–0.01	[−0.02, 0.01]
Marital status	–0.20	[−0.43, 0.03]		–0.23	[−0.43, −0.02]*
Number of children	–0.13	[−0.22, −0.03]*		–0.09	[−0.18, −0.01]*
Tenure	–0.01	[−0.03, −0.01]		–0.01	[−0.02, 0.01]
Job position	0.27	[0.04, 0.50]*		0.21	[0.01, 0.42]*

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g002.jpg

Interaction effects of Intrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-TC. HWI-TC, time commitment dimension of heavy work investment.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g007.jpg

Interaction effects of Extrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting job engagement.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g003.jpg

Interaction effects of Extrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-TC. HWI-TC, time commitment dimension of heavy work investment.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g004.jpg

Interaction effects of Intrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-WI. HWI-WI, work intensity dimension of heavy work investment.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g005.jpg

Interaction effects of Extrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting HWI-WI. Notes . HWI-WI = work intensity dimension of heavy work investment.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-11-00038-g006.jpg

Interaction effects of Intrinsic Motivation × Worker’s Status × Country in predicting job engagement.

Figures 2 –7 display surprising findings:

(1) The behaviors of the correlations (for instance, between intrinsic motivation and JE or HWI-TC) are different between the two countries, in general, such that means and correlations are both higher in the Israeli sample as opposed to the Japanese one.
(2) The behaviors of the correlations (for instance, between intrinsic motivation and JE or HWI-TC) are different between the two groups of worker status, in each country on its own , such that (a) working students, in Israel, exhibit stronger links to the outcome variables (i.e., HWI-TC, HWI-TC, and JE) as opposed to non-student employees; (b) however, in most cases, these associations were not so different between said groups, in the Japanese sample.
(3) The behaviors of the correlations (for instance, between intrinsic motivation and JE or HWI-TC) are different between the two groups of worker status when comparing each country, such that (a) working students, in Israel, exhibit stronger links to the outcome variables as opposed their Japanese counterparts; (b) however, in most cases, these associations were not so different between non-student employees (in Israel vs. Japan).
(4) The only analysis in which points 1–3 above do not apply is when using intrinsic motivation to predict HWI-WI (again, in a moderated-moderation model). It suggests that intrinsic motivation’s impact on the increased effort at work changes based on neither worker status nor the country/culture.

Results of hypothesis testing.


H1: Intrinsic motivation positively associates with JE.	Supported ( )
H2: Extrinsic motivation positively associates with JE.	Supported ( )
H3: Intrinsic motivation positively associates with both HWI-TC and HWI-WI.	Supported ( , 5)
H4: Extrinsic motivation positively associates with both HWI-TC and HWI-WI.	Supported ( , 5)
H5a: JE positively associates with HWI-TC.	Supported (partial support, in Japan) ( )
H5b: JE positively associates with HWI-WI.	Supported ( )
H5c: JE has a stronger association with HWI-WI than with HWI-TC.	Supported ( )
H6: Worker’s status moderates the relationship between intrinsic motivation and HWI- TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the relationship will be weaker for working students than for non-student employees.	Supported ( , 4)
H7: Worker’s status moderates the relationship between extrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the relationship will be weaker for working students than for non-student employees.	Supported ( , 5)
H8: Country differences condition the moderation of worker’s status on the relationship between intrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the effect of worker’s status suggested in H6 will be weaker for Japanese than for Israelis.	Supported ( )
H9: Country differences condition the moderation of worker’s status on the relationship between extrinsic motivation and HWI-TC, HWI-WI, and JE, such that the effect of worker’s status suggested in H7 will be weaker for Japanese than for Israelis.	Supported ( )

Theoretical Implications

Practical Implications

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Alarcon G. M., Edwards J. M. (2011). The relationship of engagement, job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Stress Health 27 e294–e298. 10.1002/smi.1365 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Aycan Z., Kanungo R., Mendonca M., Yu K., Deller J., Stahl G., et al. (2000). Impact of culture on human resource management practices: a 10-country comparison. Appl. Psychol. 49 192–221. 10.1111/1464-0597.00010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Bailey C., Madden A., Alfes K., Fletcher L. (2017). The meaning, antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement: a narrative synthesis. Int. J. Manag. Rev 19 31–53. 10.1111/ijmr.12077 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Bakker A. B., Schaufeli W. B., Leiter M. P., Taris T. W. (2008). Work engagement: an emerging concept in occupational health psychology. Work Stress 22 187–200. 10.1080/02678370802393649 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Barrett G. V., Bass B. M. (1976). “ Cross-cultural issues in industrial and organizational psychology ,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology , ed. Dunnette M., (Chicago, IL: Rand McNally; ), 1639–1686. [ Google Scholar ]
Basit A. A. (2017). Trust in supervisor and job engagement: mediating effects of psychological safety and felt obligation. J. Psychol. 151 701–721. 10.1080/00223980.2017.1372350 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Bauer K. N., Orvis K. A., Ely K., Surface E. A. (2016). Re-examination of motivation in learning contexts: meta-analytically investigating the role type of motivation plays in the prediction of key training outcomes. J. Bus. Psychol. 31 33–50. 10.1007/s10869-015-9401-1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Blomberg C. (1994). The Heart of the Warrior: Origins and Religious Background of the Samurai System in Feudal Japan. New York, NY: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
Breevaart K., Bakker A. B., Demerouti E., Derks D. (2016). Who takes the lead? A multi-source diary study on leadership, work engagement, and job performance. J. Organ. Behav. 37 309–325. 10.1002/job.2041 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Brislin R. W. (1980). “ Translation and content analysis of oral and written material ,” in Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology , eds Triandis H. C., Berry J. W., (Boston: Allyn and Bacon; ), 389–444. [ Google Scholar ]
Caruso C. C. (2014). Negative impacts of shiftwork and long work hours. Rehabil. Nurs. 39 16–25. 10.1002/rnj.107 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Chaudhary R., Rangnekar S., Barua M. K. (2012). Relationships between occupational self efficacy, human resource development climate, and work engagement. Team Perform. Manag. 18 370–383. 10.1108/13527591211281110 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Chughtai A. A., Buckley F. (2011). Work engagement: antecedents, the mediating role of learning goal orientation and job performance. Career Dev. Int. 16 684–705. 10.1108/13620431111187290 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Corrales-Herrero H., Rodríguez-Prado B. (2018). The role of non-formal lifelong learning at different points in the business cycle. Int. J. Manpow. 39 334–352. 10.1108/IJM-08-2016-0164 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Dawson C., Veliziotis M., Hopkins B. (2017). Temporary employment, job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Econ. Indust. Democracy 38 69–98. 10.1177/0143831X14559781 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Deci E. L., Koestner R., Ryan R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychol. Bull. 125 627–668. 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York, NY: Plenum Press. [ Google Scholar ]
Deshpandé R., Farley J. U. (1999). Corporate culture and market orientation: comparing Indian and Japanese firms. J. Int. Mark. 7 111–127. 10.1177/1069031x9900700407 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Deshpandé R., Farley J. U., Webster F. E., Jr. (1993). Corporate culture, customer orientation, and innovativeness in Japanese firms: a quadrad analysis. J. Mark. 57 23–37. 10.2307/1252055 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Franklin S. (2017). Japanese Business Culture: A Study on Foreigner Integration and Social Inclusion. Honors thesis, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY. [ Google Scholar ]
Gyu Park J., Sik Kim J., Yoon S. W., Joo B. K. (2017). The effects of empowering leadership on psychological well-being and job engagement: the mediating role of psychological capital. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 38 350–367. 10.1108/LODJ-08-2015-0182 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hayes A. F., Cai L. (2007). Using heteroskedasticity-consistent standard error estimators in OLS regression: an introduction and software implementation. Behav. Res. Methods 39 709–722. 10.3758/BF03192961 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hernandez M., Guarana C. L. (2018). An examination of the temporal intricacies of job engagement. J. Manag. 44 1711–1735. 10.1177/0149206315622573 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hobfoll S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. Am. Psychol. 44 513–524. 10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hobfoll S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 84 116–122. 10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02016.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hofstede G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
Hofstede G. (1991). Cultures and Organization: Software of the Mind. London, UK: McGraw-Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
Hofstede G. (2018). The 6-D Model – Countries Comparison. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/israel,japan/ (accessed January 19, 2019). [ Google Scholar ]
Kahn W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Acad. Manag. J. 33 692–724. 10.5465/256287 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Kanfer R. (2009). Work motivation: identifying use-inspired research directions. Indust. Organ. Psychol. 2 77–93. 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2008.01112.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Kanfer R., Frese M., Johnson R. E. (2017). Motivation related to work: a century of progress. J. Appl. Psychol. 102 338–355. 10.1037/apl0000133 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Koene B. A., Galais N., Garsten C. (eds) (2014). Management and Organization of Temporary Agency Work. New York, NY: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
Kumar M., Jauhari H., Rastogi A., Sivakumar S. (2018). Managerial support for development and turnover intention: roles of organizational support, work engagement and job satisfaction. J. Organ. Chang. Manag. 31 135–153. 10.1108/JOCM-06-2017-0232 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Latham G. P., Pinder C. C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56 485–516. 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142105 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Latta G. F., Fait J. I. (2016). Sources of motivation and work engagement: a cross-industry analysis of differentiated profiles. J. Organ. Psychol. 16 29–44. [ Google Scholar ]
Leary M. R., Kowalski R. M. (1990). Impression management: a literature review and two-component model. Psychol. Bull. 107 34–47. 10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Lebron M., Tabak F., Shkoler O., Rabenu E. (2018). Counterproductive work behaviors toward organization and leader-member exchange: the mediating roles of emotional exhaustion and work engagement. Organ. Manag. J. 15 159–173. 10.1080/15416518.2018.1528857 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Legault L. (2016). “ Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation ,” in Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences , eds Virgil Z. H., Shackelford T. K., (New York, NY: Springer; ), 1–3. [ Google Scholar ]
Macey W. H., Schneider B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Indust. Organ. Psychol. 1 3–30. [ Google Scholar ]
Mason S. (2019). Teachers, Twitter and tackling overwork in Japan. Issues Educ. Res. 29 881–898. [ Google Scholar ]
Neuner J. (2013). 40% of America’s Workforce Will be Freelancers by 2020. Available at: https://qz.com/65279/40-of-americas-workforce-will-be-freelancers-by-2020/ (accessed January 19, 2019). [ Google Scholar ]
Owens B. P., Baker W. E., Sumpter D. M., Cameron K. S. (2016). Relational energy at work: implications for job engagement and job performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 101 35–49. 10.1037/apl0000032 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Palloff R. M., Pratt K. (2003). The Virtual Student: A Profile and Guide to Working with Online Learners. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. [ Google Scholar ]
Pilla D., Kuriansky J. (2018). Mental health in Japan: intersecting risks in the workplace. J. Stud. Res. 7 38–41. [ Google Scholar ]
Pinder C. C. (2008). Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior , 2nd edn, New York, NY: Psychology Press. [ Google Scholar ]
Podsakoff P. M., MacKenzie S. B., Lee J. Y., Podsakoff N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88 879–903. 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Rabenu E., Aharoni-Goldenberg S. (2017). Understanding the relationship between overtime and burnout. Int. Stud. Manag. Organ. 47 324–335. 10.1080/00208825.2017.1382269 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Rich B. L., LePine J. A., Crawford E. R. (2010). Job engagement: antecedents and effects on job performance. Acad. Manag. J. 53 617–635. 10.5465/amj.2010.51468988 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Rockmann K. W., Ballinger G. A. (2017). Intrinsic motivation and organizational identification among on-demand workers. J. Appl. Psychol. 102 1305–1316. 10.1037/apl0000224 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ryan R. M., Deci E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 25 54–67. 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ryan R. M., Deci E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am. Psychol. 55 68–78. 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Schaufeli W. B., Bakker A. B., Salanova M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire. Educ. Psychol. Measur. 66 701–716. 10.1177/0013164405282471 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Schaufeli W. B., Salanova M., González-Romá V., Bakker A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: a two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. J. Happ. Stud. 3 71–92. 10.1023/A:1015630930326 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Shahpouri S., Namdari K., Abedi A. (2016). Mediating role of work engagement in the relationship between job resources and personal resources with turnover intention among female nurses. Appl. Nurs. Res. 30 216–221. 10.1016/j.apnr.2015.10.008 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Sharoni G., Shkoler O., Tziner A. (2015). Job engagement: antecedents and outcomes. J. Organ. Psychol. 15 34–48. [ Google Scholar ]
Shkoler O., Rabenu E., Tziner A. (2017). The dimensionality of workaholism and its relations with internal and external factors. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 33 193–203. 10.1016/j.rpto.2017.09.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Snir R., Harpaz I. (2012). Beyond workaholism: towards a general model of heavy work investment. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 22 232–243. 10.1016/j.hrmr.2011.11.011 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Snir R., Harpaz I. (2015). “ A general model of heavy work investment ,” in Heavy Work Investment: Its Nature, Sources, Outcomes, and Future Directions , eds Harpaz I., Snir R., (New York, NY: Routledge; ), 3–30. [ Google Scholar ]
Stimpfel A. W., Sloane D. M., Aiken L. H. (2012). The longer the shifts for hospital nurses, the higher the levels of burnout and patient dissatisfaction. Health Aff. 31 2501–2509. 10.1377/hlthaff.2011.1377 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Taris T., van Beek I., Schaufeli W. B. (2015). “ The beauty versus the beast: on the motives of engaged and workaholic employees ,” in Heavy work Investment: Its Nature, Sources, Outcomes, and Future Directions , eds Harpaz I., Snir R., (New York, NY: Routledge; ), 121–138. [ Google Scholar ]
Tremblay M. A., Blanchard C. M., Taylor S., Pelletier L. G., Villeneuve M. (2009). Work extrinsic and intrinsic motivation scale: its value for organizational psychology research. Can. J. Behav. Sci. 41 213–226. 10.1037/a0018176 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Tziner A., Buzea C., Rabenu E., Truta C., Shkoler O. (2019). Understanding the relationship between antecedents of heavy work investment (HWI) and burnout. Econ. Amphith. 21 : 153 [ Google Scholar ]
Tziner A., Fein E., Oren L. (2012). “ Human motivation and performance outcomes in the context of downsizing ,” in Downsizing: Is Less Still More? eds Cooper C. L., Pandey A., Quick J. C., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; ), 103–133. 10.1017/cbo9780511791574.008 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Weil D. (2014). The Fissured Workplace: Why Work Became so Bad for so Many and What Can be Done to Improve it ? . Master’s thesis, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [ Google Scholar ]
van Beek I., Taris T. W., Schaufeli W. B. (2011). Workaholic and work engaged employees: dead ringers or worlds apart?. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 16 468–482. 10.1037/a0024392 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Weiner B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychol. Rev. 92 548–573. 10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Performance Appraisal on Employees’ Motivation: A Comprehensive Analysis

Conference paper
First Online: 20 September 2020
Cite this conference paper

research paper about employees motivation

Maryam Alsuwaidi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9281-8560 19 ,
Muhammad Alshurideh ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7336-381X 19 , 20 ,
Barween Al Kurdi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0825-4617 21 &
Said A. Salloum ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6073-3981 22

Part of the book series: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ((AISC,volume 1261))

Included in the following conference series:

International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Systems and Informatics

4703 Accesses

40 Citations

Several analysis studies have been carried out with a view to providing valuable knowledge into the existing research outline of the performance appraisal and employee motivation. The current study systematically reviews and synthesizes the performance appraisal and employee motivation aiming to provide a comprehensive analysis of 27 articles from 2015 to 2020. The research will aim to establish the impact of performance appraisal fairness on the employees’ motivation in an organization. To achieve its objective, the study will adopt descriptive research. It will be informed of a survey, and there will be a sample selection to make the process economical. This shows that there will be a use of different techniques of information collection since the data to be collected a primary data. There will be interviewing of the sample size, and their responses will be noted down. The presence of the researcher may influence some people, and this necessitates the use of questionnaires for the respondents to fill on their own. In addition, most of the analyzed studies were conducted in Malaysia, China, Pakistan, and India. Besides, most of the analyzed studies were frequently conducted in job satisfaction and performance context, employee motivation followed by organizational effectiveness context. To that end, the findings of this review study provide an insight into the current trend of how performance appraisal affects employee’s motivation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

Get 10 units per month
Download Article/Chapter or eBook
1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
Cancel anytime
Available as PDF
Read on any device
Instant download
Own it forever
Available as EPUB and PDF
Compact, lightweight edition
Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Is the Employees’ Performance Appraisal Process Different in the Large Romanian Companies? An Empirical Research

Impact of motivation on the job performance of public sector employees: the case of Morocco

Employee empowerment, performance appraisal quality and performance

Alkalha, Z., Al-Zu’bi, Z., Al-Dmour, H., Alshurideh, M., Masa’deh, R.: Investigating the effects of human resource policies on organizational performance: an empirical study on commercial banks operating in Jordan. Eur. J. Econ. Finance Adm. Sci. 51 (1), 44–64 (2012)

Google Scholar

Ammari, G., Alkurdi, B., Alshurideh, M., Alrowwad, A.: Investigating the impact of communication satisfaction on organizational commitment: a practical approach to increase employees’ loyalty. Int. J. Mark. Stud. 9 (2), 113–133 (2017)

Article Google Scholar

ELSamen, A., Alshurideh, M.: The impact of internal marketing on internal service quality: a case study in a Jordanian pharmaceutical company. Int. J. Bus. Manag. 7 (19), 84–95 (2012)

Bowra, Z.A., Nasir, A.: Impact of fairness of performance appraisal on motivation and job satisfaction in banking sector of Pakistan. J. Basic Appl. Sci. Res. 4 (2), 16–20 (2014)

Alshurideh, M., Alhadid, A., Alkurdi, B.: The effect of internal marketing on organizational citizenship behavior an applicable study on the University of Jordan employees. Int. J. Mark. Stud. 7 (1), 138 (2015)

Obeidat, B., Sweis, R., Zyod, D., Alshurideh, M.: The effect of perceived service quality on customer loyalty in internet service providers in Jordan. J. Manag. Res. 4 (4), 224–242 (2012)

Alshraideh, A., Al-Lozi, M., Alshurideh, M.: The impact of training strategy on organizational loyalty via the mediating variables of organizational satisfaction and organizational performance: an empirical study on jordanian agricultural credit corporation staff. J. Soc. Sci. 6 , 383–394 (2017)

Obeidat, Z., Alshurideh, M., Al Dweeri., R., Masa’deh, R.: The influence of online revenge acts on consumers psychological and emotional states: does revenge taste sweet? In: 33 IBIMA Conference proceedings, Granada, Spain, 10–11 April 2019 (2019)

Abu Zayyad, H.M., Obeidat, Z.M., Alshurideh, M.T., Abuhashesh, M., Maqableh, M., Masa’deh, R.: Corporate social responsibility and patronage intentions: the mediating effect of brand credibility. J. Mark. Commun., 1–24 (2020)

Al-dweeri, R., Obeidat, Z., Al-dwiry, M., Alshurideh, M., Alhorani, A.: The impact of e-service quality and e-loyalty on online shopping: moderating effect of e-satisfaction and e-trust. Int. J. Mark. Stud. 9 (2), 92–103 (2017)

Alshurideh, M., Masa’deh, R., Alkurdi, B.: The effect of customer satisfaction upon customer retention in the Jordanian mobile market: an empirical investigation. Eur. J. Econ. Finance Adm. Sci. 47 (12), 69–78 (2012)

Hamid, S., Hamali, J.B.H., Abdullah, F.: Performance measurement for local authorities in Sarawak. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 224 , 437–444 (2016)

Ashurideh, M.: Customer service retention–a behavioural perspective of the UK mobile market. Durham University (2010)

Alshurideh, M.T.: Exploring the main factors affecting consumer choice of mobile phone service provider contracts. Int. J. Commun. Netw. Syst. Sci. 9 (12), 563–581 (2016)

Aburayya, A., Alshurideh, M., Albqaeen, A., Alawadhi, D., Ayadeh, I.: An investigation of factors affecting patients waiting time in primary health care centers: an assessment study in Dubai. Manag. Sci. Lett. 10 (6), 1265–1276 (2020)

Alshurideh, M.: A qualitative analysis of customer repeat purchase behaviour in the UK mobile phone market. J. Manag. Res. 6 (1), 109 (2014)

Teo, S.T.T., Bentley, T., Nguyen, D.: Psychosocial work environment, work engagement, and employee commitment: a moderated, mediation model. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 88 , 102415 (2019)

Sendawula, K., Nakyejwe Kimuli, S., Bananuka, J., Najjemba Muganga, G.: Training, employee engagement and employee performance: evidence from Uganda’s health sector. Cogent Bus. Manag. 5 (1), 1470891 (2018)

Alshurideh, M., et al.: Loyalty program effectiveness: theoretical reviews and practical proofs. Uncertain Supply Chain Manag. 8 (3), 1–10 (2020)

Alzoubi, H., Alshurideh, M., Al Kurdi, B., Inairata, M.: Do perceived service value, quality, price fairness and service recovery shape customer satisfaction and delight? A practical study in the service telecommunication context. Uncertain Supply Chain Manag. 8 (3), 1–10 (2020)

Alshurideh, M.T., et al.: The impact of Islamic bank’s service quality perception on Jordanian customer’s loyalty. J. Manag. Res. 9 , 139–159 (2017)

Al Dmour, H., Alshurideh, M., Shishan, F.: The influence of mobile application quality and attributes on the continuance intention of mobile shopping. Life Sci. J. 11 (10), 172–181 (2014)

Meng, F., Wu, J.: Merit pay fairness, leader-member exchange, and job engagement: evidence from Mainland China. Rev. Public Pers. Adm. 35 (1), 47–69 (2015)

Article MathSciNet Google Scholar

Lothian, N.: Measuring corporate performance: a guide to non-financial indicators. Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (1987)

Alshurideh, D.M.: Do electronic loyalty programs still drive customer choice and repeat purchase behaviour? Int. J. Electron. Cust. Relatsh. Manag. 12 (1), 40–57 (2019)

Harrington, J.R., Lee, J.H.: What drives perceived fairness of performance appraisal? Exploring the effects of psychological contract fulfillment on employees’ perceived fairness of performance appraisal in US federal agencies. Public Pers. Manag. 44 (2), 214–238 (2015)

Rubel, M.R.B., Kee, D.M.H.: High commitment compensation practices and employee turnover intention: mediating role of job satisfaction. Mediterr. J. Soc. Sci. 6 (6 S4), 321 (2015)

Edirisooriya, W.A.: Impact of rewards on employee performance: with special reference to ElectriCo. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Management and Economics, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 311–318 (2014)

Sharma, N.P., Sharma, T., Agarwal, M.N.: Measuring employee perception of performance management system effectiveness. Empl. Relat. 38 , 224–247 (2016)

Martinic, M.K., Pieper, D., Glatt, A., Puljak, L.: Definition of a systematic review used in overviews of systematic reviews, meta-epidemiological studies and textbooks. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 19 (1), 203 (2019)

Arnăutu, E., Panc, I.: Evaluation criteria for performance appraisal of faculty members. Procedia-Social Behav. Sci. 203 , 386–392 (2015)

Salloum, S.A., Al-Emran, M., Shaalan, K.: The impact of knowledge sharing on information systems: a review. In: International Conference on Knowledge Management in Organizations, pp. 94–106 (2018)

Assad, N.F., Alshurideh, M.T.: Financial reporting quality, audit quality, and investment efficiency: evidence from GCC economies. WAFFEN-UND Kostumkd. J. 11 (3), 194–208 (2020)

Alshurideh, M.T., Assad, N.F.: Investment in context of financial reporting quality: a systematic review. WAFFEN-UND Kostumkd. J. 11 (3), 255–286 (2020)

Salloum, S.A., Alshurideh, M., Elnagar, A., Shaalan, K.: Mining in educational data: review and future directions. In: Joint European-US Workshop on Applications of Invariance in Computer Vision, pp. 92–102 (2020)

Salloum, S.A., Alshurideh, M., Elnagar, A., Shaalan, K.: Machine learning and deep learning techniques for cybersecurity: a review. In: Joint European-US Workshop on Applications of Invariance in Computer Vision, pp. 50–57 (2020)

Al-Emran, M., Mezhuyev, V., Kamaludin, A., Shaalan, K.: The impact of knowledge management processes on information systems: a systematic review. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 43 (July), 173–187 (2018)

Calabrò, A., Vecchiarini, M., Gast, J., Campopiano, G., De Massis, A., Kraus, S.: Innovation in family firms: a systematic literature review and guidance for future research. Int. J. Manag. Rev. 21 (3), 317–355 (2019)

Salloum, S.A., Al-Emran, M.: Factors affecting the adoption of e-payment systems by university students: extending the TAM with trust. Int. J. Electron. Bus. 14 (4), 371–390 (2018)

Alhashmi, S.F.S., Salloum, S.A., Abdallah, S.: Critical success factors for implementing Artificial Intelligence (AI) Projects in Dubai Government United Arab Emirates (UAE) health sector: applying the extended Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). In: International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Systems and Informatics, pp. 393–405 (2019)

Alshurideh, M., Al Kurdi, B., Salloum, S.: Examining the main mobile learning system drivers’ effects: a mix empirical examination of both the Expectation-Confirmation Model (ECM) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). In: International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Systems and Informatics, pp. 406–417 (2019)

Al-Emran, M., Mezhuyev, V., Kamaludin, A.: Technology acceptance model in M-learning context: a systematic review. Comput. Educ. 125 , 389–412 (2018)

Nair, M.S., Salleh, R.: Linking performance appraisal justice, trust, and employee engagement: a conceptual framework. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 211 , 1155–1162 (2015)

Syafii, L.I., Thoyib, A., Nimran, U.: The role of corporate culture and employee motivation as a mediating variable of leadership style related with the employee performance (studies in Perum Perhutani). Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 211 , 1142–1147 (2015)

Khaskhelly, F.Z.: Investigating the impact of training on employee performance: a study of non-government organizations at Hyderabad division. University of Sindh, Jamshoro (2018)

Baleghi-Zadeh, S., Ayub, A.F.M., Mahmud, R., Daud, S.M.: Behaviour Intention to use the learning management: integrating technology acceptance model with task-technology fit. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 19 (1), 76–84 (2014)

Kumar, R.: Research Methodology: A Step-by-step Guide for Beginners. Sage Publications Limited, Thousand Oaks (2019)

Imran, M., Hamid, S.N.B.A., Aziz, A.B., Wan, C.Y.: The effect of performance appraisal politics on employee performance in emergency services of Punjab, Pakistan. Acad. Strateg. Manag. J. 18 , 1–7 (2019)

Saether, E.A.: Motivational antecedents to high-tech R&D employees’ innovative work behavior: self-determined motivation, person-organization fit, organization support of creativity, and pay justice. J. High Technol. Manag. Res. 30 (2), 100350 (2019)

Shrivastava, A., Purang, P.: Performance appraisal fairness & its outcomes: a study of Indian banks. Indian J. Ind. Relat. 51 , 660–674 (2016)

Sattar, T., Ahmad, K., Hassan, S.M.: Role of human resource practices in employee performance and job satisfaction with mediating effect of employee engagement. Pak. Econ. Soc. Rev. 53 , 81–96 (2015)

Yang, J.-T., Wan, C.-S., Wu, C.-W.: Effect of internal branding on employee brand commitment and behavior in hospitality. Tour. Hosp. Res. 15 (4), 267–280 (2015)

Gollan, P.J., Kalfa, S., Agarwal, R., Green, R., Randhawa, K.: Lean manufacturing as a high-performance work system: the case of cochlear. Int. J. Prod. Res. 52 (21), 6434–6447 (2014)

Dobre, O.-I.: Employee motivation and organizational performance. Rev. Appl. Soc.-Econ. Res. 5 (1) (2013)

Jain, R.: Employee innovative behavior: a conceptual framework. Indian J. Ind. Relat. 51 , 1–16 (2015)

Schmidt, C.G., Foerstl, K., Schaltenbrand, B.: The supply chain position paradox: green practices and firm performance. J. Supply Chain Manag. 53 (1), 3–25 (2017)

Ren, T., Xiao, Y., Yang, H., Liu, S.: Employee ownership heterogeneity and firm performance in China. Hum. Resour. Manag. 58 (6), 621–639 (2019)

Kim, T., Wang, J., Chen, T., Zhu, Y., Sun, R.: Equal or equitable pay? Individual differences in pay fairness perceptions. Hum. Resour. Manag. 58 (2), 169–186 (2019)

Hanaysha, J.R.: An examination of the factors affecting consumer’s purchase decision in the Malaysian retail market. PSU Res. Rev. 2 , 7–23 (2018)

Hauff, S., Alewell, D., Hansen, N.K.: Further exploring the links between high-performance work practices and firm performance: a multiple-mediation model in the German context. Ger. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 32 (1), 5–26 (2018)

Li, F., Chen, T., Lai, X.: How does a reward for creativity program benefit or frustrate employee creative performance? The perspective of transactional model of stress and coping. Gr. Organ. Manag. 43 (1), 138–175 (2018)

Ibrahim, Z., Ismail, A., Mohamed, N.A.K., Raduan, N.S.M.: Association of managers’ political interests towards employees’ feelings of distributive justice and job satisfaction in performance appraisal system. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 224 , 523–530 (2016)

Naeem, M., Jamal, W., Riaz, M.K.: The relationship of employees’ performance appraisal satisfaction with employees’ outcomes: evidence from higher educational institutes. FWU J. Soc. Sci. 11 (2), 71–81 (2017)

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE

Maryam Alsuwaidi & Muhammad Alshurideh

Faculty of Business, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan

Muhammad Alshurideh

Amman Arab University, Amman, Jordan

Barween Al Kurdi

Research Institute of Sciences and Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE

Said A. Salloum

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Said A. Salloum .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence, Information Technology Department, and Chair of the Scientific Research Group in Egypt, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

Aboul Ella Hassanien

Department of Electronics and Computer Science, Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin, Poland

Adam Slowik

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava-Poruba, Moravskoslezsky, Czech Republic

Václav Snášel

Rector of the Electronic Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt

Hisham El-Deeb

Faculty of computers and information, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Fahmy M. Tolba

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this paper

Cite this paper.

Alsuwaidi, M., Alshurideh, M., Al Kurdi, B., Salloum, S.A. (2021). Performance Appraisal on Employees’ Motivation: A Comprehensive Analysis. In: Hassanien, A.E., Slowik, A., Snášel, V., El-Deeb, H., Tolba, F.M. (eds) Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Systems and Informatics 2020. AISI 2020. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 1261. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58669-0_61

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58669-0_61

Published : 20 September 2020

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-58668-3

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-58669-0

eBook Packages : Intelligent Technologies and Robotics Intelligent Technologies and Robotics (R0)

Share this paper

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

Open access
Published: 04 September 2021

Employee motivation and job performance: a study of basic school teachers in Ghana

Joseph Ato Forson ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5997-5713 1 ,
Eric Ofosu-Dwamena 2 ,
Rosemary Afrakomah Opoku 3 &
Samuel Evergreen Adjavon ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2713-3327 4

Future Business Journal volume 7 , Article number: 30 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

84k Accesses

16 Citations

Metrics details

Motivation as a meaningful construct is a desire to satisfy a certain want and is a central pillar at the workplace. Thus, motivating employees adequately is a challenge as it has what it takes to define employee satisfaction at the workplace. In this study, we examine the relationship between job motivation factors and performance among teachers of basic schools in Ghana. The study employs a quantitative approach on a sample of 254 teachers from a population of 678 in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana, of which 159 questionnaires were duly answered and returned (representing 62.6% return rate). Using multiple regression and ANOVA, the study finds compensation package, job design and environment and performance management system as significant factors in determining teacher’s motivation in the municipality. Thus, these motivation factors were significant predictors on performance when regressed at a decomposed and aggregated levels. These findings support the self-determination theory, more specifically on the explanations advanced under the controlled and autonomous motivation factors. Significant differences were also observed in teachers’ performance among one of the age cohorts. The study urges the municipal directorate of education to make more room for young teacher trainees and interns who are at the formative stage of their careers to be engaged to augment the experienced staff strength. More should be done to make the profession attain some level of autonomy in the discharge of duty to breed the next genre of innovative educators in the municipality.

Introduction

Motivation as a meaningful construct is a central pillar at the workplace. Thus, motivating employees adequately is a challenge as it has what it takes to define employee satisfaction at the workplace. Quite a number of studies have been devoted to the link between motivation and its constituent factors and employee performance in different organizations [ 7 , 46 ]. Our study draws inspiration from the self-determination theory (SDT) advanced by Deci et al. [ 14 ] as a framework that can be applied to teachers motivation and performance in basic schools in Ghana. It is worth noting that SDT differentiates between controlled motivation and autonomous motivation. The latter is evident when individuals are faced with pressure and control. The former on the other hand emphasizes on the volitional nature of the behavior of individuals. The SDT provides evidence that suggests that motivation fuels performance [ 14 , 57 ].

In Ghana, the subject of motivation has always been at the apex of national agenda and is evident in the number of strike actions in the public service. In the early part of the 2000s, teachers were part of the public servants whose agitation for improved condition of service did not go unnoticed. Forson and Opoku [ 16 ] had stated that teachers’ emolument accounted for less than 35% of the public service wage bill although teachers were perceived to be in the majority in terms of numbers. This phenomenon did spark a wave of attrition of trained teachers to other sectors of the Ghanaian economy. The teaching profession as a matter of fact became a launched pad for the youth. It should be said that the nature of the school setting is basically a function of internal management and leadership. The head teacher or director of education as the Chief Executive needs to appreciate and recognize that results can be obtained through people. In today’s world, organizations are concerned with what should be done to achieve sustained high level of performance through people who are innovative thinkers [ 4 , 17 , 41 ]. These include paying more attention to how individuals can best be motivated and provision of an atmosphere that helps individuals to deliver on their mandates in accordance with the expectations of management [ 25 ]. This means that an educational manager or an individual engaged as a teacher cannot do this job without knowing what motivates people. The building of motivating factors into organizational roles and the entire process of leading people should be contingent on knowledge of motivation. Koontz and Weinrich [ 25 ] agree that the educational managers’ job is not to manipulate people but rather to recognize what motivates people.

A national debate ensued on the significant role played by teachers in nation building and the need to address the shortfall in the condition of service of teachers to motivate them to perform. Wider consultative meetings were held with stakeholders in the teaching fraternity and the outcome and the panacea was the introduction of a uniform pay structure based on qualification. The legislative arm of government passed Act 737 in 2007 that saw the birth of the Fair Wages Salary Commission (FWSC). The mandate of the commission was to ensure a fair and systematic implementation of government pay policy [ 18 ]. Although this has stabilized the teaching profession in terms of the level of attrition, concerns on how this inducement translate into teacher’s performance seem to dominate national discourse especially in the face of fallen standard of education in Ghana. Such concerns have raised questions such as the following: (1) Does pay rise correlate with performance? (2) Are there other factors that ought to be considered in the nexus between motivation and performance? (3) Are there any significant differences in the level of performance among various age cohorts (4) Do educational background motivate teachers to perform better? These and other questions are addressed in this study.

The objective of this paper is to examine the link between job motivation factors and performance among basic school teachers in Ghana. This is against the backdrop that teachers have for some time now complained about condition of service and with the passage of FWSC bill, one would have thought that would have impacted on performance of teachers as it has been proven that motivation leads to satisfaction and ultimately to high performance. The standard of education continues to be a major concern in the educational setup of Ghana.

We organize the paper as follows: section one is the introduction that sets the tone for the paper. The problem is defined in this section, and the necessary questions that warrant redress are asked. We continue with a brief literature review on the concept of motivation, leading to the development of a conceptual framework and hypothesis based on the self-determination theory (SDT). Section two focuses on the method deployed, with emphasis on the aim, design and setting of the study. The theoretical equation for the multiple regression is brought to the fore here. Section three is the results and discussion, and section four concludes with policy implications.

The concept of motivation and self-determination theory (SDT)

Maslow [ 33 ] is credited for being part of the early contributors of human motivation concept. Maslow classifies human needs that motivate them into two: (1) homeostasis and (2) finding that appetites (preferential choices among foods). The former refers to the body’s automatic efforts to maintain a constant, normal state of the blood stream. The latter concept, on the other hand, is of the view that if the body lacks some chemical, the individual will tend (in an imperfect way) to develop a specific appetite or partial hunger for that missing food element. Thus, Maslow was of the view that any of the physiological needs and the consummatory behavior involved with them serve as channels for all sorts of other needs. Relating this assertion to teachers and the need for a salary pay rise, it should be pointed out that a person who thinks he is hungry may actually be seeking more for comfort, or dependence and managers in the educational sector ought to know this. Contemporary researches have expanded on the theory of motivation as advanced by Maslow [ 33 , 34 ]. For an organization to thrive and be efficient, certain conditions ought to be available in order for managers to get the best out of its human resources (workers/employees). Employees of an organization are the greatest asset in a dynamic and competitive environment [ 49 ]. In the words of Martin [ 32 ], if an organization wants to be effective and aims to sustain the success for a longer period of time, it is important for it to have a motivated workforce made up of employees ready to learn. The last three decades have witnessed an avalanche of studies that emphasizes on the point that employee motivation is essential for the success of a business [ 2 ].

In exploring further on this connection, Mifflin [ 35 ] delved into the fundamental meaning of the word “motivation” and pointed out that it is a Latin word which means to move. Therefore, it is near impossible to move peoples’ behavior in an organization unless such move is triggered by certain incentives. Robins and Coulter [ 49 ] explained the term motivation as the desire and willingness to exert high level of inspiration to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. In this study, we define motivation simply as the act of moving people triggered by the provision of some incentives to achieve a desired goal.

In the words of Deci and Ryan [ 13 ], the SDT focuses on human beings inherent desire to bring change and progress as they advance to their fullest potential. Several studies have applied the SDT in various research areas that includes education, medicine and other organizational context. The SDT is of the view that individuals are by nature active entities who will do everything possible to be integrated into the wider social environment in an attempt to be responsive to the behavior consistent with existing self. The theory according to Trépanier et al. [ 57 ] defines social context as the workplace which facilitate or frustrate ones striving toward self-determination.

The SDT theory has two major forms of motivation which may be differentiated on the basis of its nature and quality according to Howard et al. [ 22 ]. When employees engage in interesting activities or in pursuance of their needs, such a form of motivation is ascribed as autonomous motivation. Such a form of motivation facilitates employees’ vitality and energy including satisfaction and well-being [ 14 ]. When employees engage in activities out of pressure as a result of external factors such as attaining rewards including threat of being punished, or even endogenous sources of such pressure as maintaining self-esteem, want of approval, image management or avoiding guilt, such a form of motivation can be ascribed as controlled motivation. Gillet et al. [ 20 ] explain that people with controlled motivational behavior do so out of reason as long as these contingencies exist and thus it predicts maladaptive work outcomes (e.g., exhaustion of personal energy) and turnover intentions.

SDT and job performance

According to Motowildo et al. [ 38 ], job performance is a construct that elicits behavior related to achievement with evaluative components. Most studies on this relationship have emphasized on the role of autonomous and intrinsic motivation on performance with the argument that individuals autonomously motivated have certain inherent values and behaviors and thus give off optimal performance. The theory of self-determination explains that autonomous motivation should be the necessary ingredient for better performance. That is, when individuals are better informed about the purpose of their job and have a sense of ownership and the degree of freedom to operate (autonomy), the possibility of they performing better at work may be high. The source of such motivation according to Deci et al. [ 14 ] may be from one’s interest and values. It is purpose-driven, amplifies energy, enjoyable and provides enough rationalization for tasks to be accomplished effectively. Moreover, the intrinsic component of autonomous motivation has been linked with job performance in related literature and types of performance [ 7 ].

Empirically, there are evidence to suggest that autonomous motivation is linked with performance. Evidence pertaining to controlled motivation is less dispositive. Proponents of the SDT have argued that controlled motivation (e.g., performance management systems) could reduce employee functioning because action derived from personal values and interest may be disconnected, therefore leading to negative effects on performance [ 48 ]. Counter argument posits that controlled motivation may foster employee willingness to complete tasks in an attempt to avoid guilt or punishment or to earn external reward which may come in the form of compensation package [ 27 ]. In this study, we focus on both the controlled and autonomous motivational factors. More specifically, we focus on Herzberg et al. [ 21 ] motivators validated by Harvard Business Review in 2003 which were made up of two motivators: (1) intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition for achievement, the work itself, growth, responsibility and advancement, and (2) extrinsic factors such as supervision, working conditions, payment, interpersonal relationship, appreciation and company policy. Therefore, the bundle of motivators used in this study are similar to the aforementioned ones and may include performance management systems, external rewards that come in the form of compensation packages, job environment and training and development [ 30 ]. We explain these constructs further with the empirical evidence leading to the development of the conceptual framework.

Compensation package

Rasheed et al. [ 44 ] posit that package of compensation offered to teachers in institutions of higher learning has to be made based on several factors that may include the experience that underpins the abilities of the teacher, qualifications and perhaps market rates. This is supported by Bohlander et al. [ 6 ] who argued that teachers compensation ought to be the most central concern for managers and administrators of schools in stimulating them. Most of these research studies are premised on the fact that compensation should be designed to meet the needs of teachers and has be fashioned in the form of tangible rewards. In corroborating this assertion, Marlow et al. [ 31 ] observed that low condition of service defined by salary creates stress among teachers in schools. Thus, teachers’ condition of service should be market competitive in order to get higher motivation and to maintain them. Other studies have found that salary levels have been the main challenge for education managers and are the reason for the high attrition and that education planners and managers should pay attention to the design of compensation packages.

Job design and working environment

The needs of teachers on the job ought to be planned properly. The workload on teachers should not be such that it will de-motivate [ 44 ], p. 103. Teachers at all levels should have a learning environment, and educational administrators should make a point to treat existing human resource (teachers) with maximum respect devoid of any discrimination.

Nowadays, job design is the central focus of managers and human resource researchers. Thus, a well-designed job has what it takes in getting interest of employees. On the contrary, poorly designed job breeds boredom among employees. Davidson [ 12 ] makes an important observation and remarked in his research that when teachers are overloaded and burdened with so many non-teaching activities, it portends as a hindrance in the job design. Other scholars such as Clarke and Keating [ 9 ] have argued that the working environment of an educational institution affects teachers’ motivation. Clarke and Keating [ 9 ] found students to be the main reason why teachers are motivated in schools. His emphasis was on talented and hardworking students who boost the morale of teachers. Students who do not produce the desired results, on the other hand, de-motivate teachers. Moreover, class size is another important consideration in motivating teachers. Other variants of the job design and environment are captured in Ofoegbu [ 39 ] research in which he argued that institutions provide support in the form of resources to the teachers in the form of computers with Internet connections. Moreover, other factors such as the provision of e-libraries and research equipment, and other logistics for students may also serve as an effective motivator for teachers.

Performance management system

Management of teachers and educational administrators in all levels of education should focus on implementing basic performance management systems to continually appraise teachers’ accomplishments. For instance, the use of a so-called 360-degree feedback system is important where students’ feedback is attended to with the attention it deserves.

Stafyarakis [ 53 ] corroborated this and asserted that ‘Annual Confidential Reports’ have become obsolete. Yet there has been an emergence of a scientific approach on the field of performance management as time goes on. In discussing this further, Milliman [ 37 ] is of the view that although there are many practices available in this field, but a performance management system based on 360-degree feedback approach is the most effective.

Contrary to the norm that teachers are most motivated by the intrinsic factors and least motivated by the monetary aspects of teaching, Rao [ 43 ] demonstrates that poor appraisal systems, lack of recognition and lack of respect from the head and other co-workers are some common reasons of distress and de-motivation among teachers in educational institutions. The lack of recognition from supervisors is one of the many reasons why teachers would want to leave the teaching profession Stafyarakis [ 53 ].

Moreover, Rasheed et al. [ 45 ] points out that teachers are much concerned about students’ feedback; hence, feedback from the students should be given a proper weightage and in appraising and managing teachers’ performance in the institutions of higher education. Jordan [ 23 ] stressed that the feedback of students is a major issue of that motivates teachers and therefore teachers should be given feedback from their students in scientific manners.

Training and development

It is of significance that educational administrators focus on training activities as an essential means of both motivating employees and sustaining the survival of that organization according to Photanan [ 42 ] and Bohlander et al. [ 6 ]. Leslie [ 28 ] identified professional growth as basic motivator for teachers. He stressed that the professional learning platform available to a teacher is the basic path of his/her career development [ 29 ].

Conceptual framework and hypothesis development

In this section, the study harmonizes the components of the SDT theory into a conceptual framework on motivation and performance connection. The framework developed in this research may be useful as a guide by academicians and practitioners in understanding the mechanisms through which motivational factors affect job performance among teachers in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana. On elucidating on what a framework is, Chinn and Kramer [ 8 ] explained that a framework can be seen as a complex mental formulation of experience. Further clarification was given to distinguish conceptual framework from a theoretical framework. They assert that while theoretical framework is the theory on which the study is based, the conceptual framework deals with the operationalization of the theory. Put in another way, it represents the position of the researcher on the problem at hand and at the same time gives direction to the study. It may be entirely new, or an adoption of, or adaptation of, a model used in previous research with modification to fit the context of the inquiry [ 8 ].

The framework developed in this research has three components: the first component looks at the factors necessary to induce motivation among teachers. The second component focuses on motivation as a concept. The last component which is on job performance looks at the link between the aggregate motivational factors and performance. The extant literature survey on motivational factors and performance provides all the necessary ingredients for the construction of the framework. First, the extant literature shows that motivation as a concept is simply the act of moving people triggered by the provision of some incentives to achieve a desired goal. The triggers of motivation may include such factors such as compensation packages, job design and working environment, performance management system and training and development which are controlled and autonomous factors as crucial elements for motivation.

The second component of the framework is the aggregate motivation, which is the interaction of the controlled and autonomous factors of motivation. Motivation according to Reeve (2001) refers to the excitement level, the determination and the way a person works hard at his work setting. Ricks et al. [ 47 ] explicating on the thesis of motivation was of the view that motivation is an internal aspiration of a man that compels him to reach an objective or the goal set for him.

The third component of the framework is performance. According to Culture IQ [ 11 ] and Motowildo et al. [ 38 ], job performance is the assessment of whether an employee has done their job well. It is an individual evaluation (one measured based on a single person’s effort). In the words of Viswesvaran and Ones [ 58 ], p. 216, the term job performance is used in reference to actions that are scalable, behavior and outcomes that employees engage in or bring about that are linked with and contribute to the goals of an organization. It is linked to both employee- and organizational-level outcomes. A distinctive feature of the framework developed in this research is that it shows the interaction between autonomous and controlled factors and motivation and how it affects the performance of teachers in Fig. 1 .

Source : Created by the authors

A Conceptual model of the relationship between Motivation and Teachers’ Performance.

It can be visibly seen from the framework that teachers motivation may be defined by both controlled and intrinsic motivational factors that may include those that fall under compensation packages, working environment, performance management system and training and development of teachers [ 44 ]. Yet the performance of teachers in itself motivates management and policy makers to institute compensation packages, improved psychological aura through enhanced working environment and job design and implementing appropriate performance management policy for a continued performance enhancement. It should also be emphasized here that these job satisfaction factors may pass as job motivational factors and theorize that a highly motivated teacher may be related to the level of satisfaction.

Scholars such as Thus Milda et al. [ 36 ] and Spector [ 52 ] collectively share the opinion that teachers differ from typical employees in various ways. Therefore, instruments that usually measure such job satisfaction and motivation dimensions as appreciation, communication, coworkers, fringe benefits, job conditions, nature of work, organization itself, organizations’ policies and procedures, pay, personal growth, promotion opportunities, recognition, security, supervision may not always match with teachers’ motivation aspects on the teaching field. However, some of these factors according to some researchers can be used in understanding motivation and performance among teachers. The consensus on these dimensions is especially on supervision, work itself, promotion and recognition being important dimensions of teachers’ motivation at work [ 50 , 51 , 56 ]. In addition, several researchers have used the same measurement or dimension but with different wording (synonym). For instance, Kreitner and Kinici [ 26 ] define job satisfaction with the synonym “motivation” which they argue contains “those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed” Motivation depends on certain intrinsic, as well as extrinsic factors which in collaboration results in fully committed employees. Based on this relationship, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 1

Teachers’ compensation package, job environment and design, performance management systems, training and development significantly affect teachers’ motivation.

In a similar manner, Board [ 5 ] asserted that tangible incentives are effective in increasing performance for task not done before, to encourage “thinking smarter” and to support both quality and quantity to achieve goals. Incentives, rewards and recognitions are the prime factors that impact on employee motivation. Aarabi et al. [ 1 ] confirmed this assertion by making use of factors such as payment, job security, promotion, freedom, friendly environment, and training and employee job performance to measure the term organizational motivation with positive relationship found on these factors. On rewards (which comes in various forms, e.g., income/pay, bonus, fringe benefits among others ) and recognition/appreciation, according to other researchers keep high spirit among employees which boost employee’s morale which may have a direct impact on performance and output. The study hypothesizes that:

Hypothesis 2

Teacher’s motivation positively affects their performance.

The aim, design and setting of the study

The paper aims to examine the link between motivation factors and performance among basic school teachers in Ghana. Data for this study were collected from primary. Primary data were sourced from the field of study through questionnaire administration. The researchers sought for permission from the municipal directorate of education to engage with teachers within the municipality. A written permission was granted, and questionnaires were administered to all basic schools’ teachers in the municipality.

At the preparatory stage, the questionnaires designed were tested to make sure participants understood the demands of the questions in the questionnaires. Informal interviews method has been adopted to make sure that additional information that could not have been gathered through the use of questionnaires was captured. The formal interviews using questionnaires ensured that we stayed focused on the background objective that formed the basis of the study.

Sampling technique and data analysis

On the determination of the sample size, different authors have differing views, but in most cases, the recommendation is that it should be large. Stevens [ 54 ] recommends at least 15 participants per predictor for reliable equation in the case of factor analysis. Tabachnick and Fidel [ 55 ] provides a formula for calculating sample size requirements, taking into consideration the number of independent variables that one wish to use: N > 50 + 8 m (where m = number of independent variables). In line with these and other requirements like Yamane [ 60 ], the exact sample size will be determined and questionnaires distributed accordingly to the selected public and private schools in the Effutu Municipality.

The human resource unit of the educational directorate of education in the municipality has indicated that there are over 678 teachers teaching at various levels in the municipality [ 15 ]. Thus, the 678 teachers become the population in the municipality. Using Yamane [ 60 ] and validating with other sampling size technique, a sample size of 254 has been adopted with a 0.5 level of precision. Thus, 254 questionnaires were distributed among the various schools, but 159 were filled and returned (representing 62.6% return rate).

Quantitative data are analyzed by means of a software called Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20). This is necessitated by the fact that the analyzed quantitative data ought to be presented by graphs to give quick visual impression of what it entails.

The scale measurement of the questionnaires included nominal scale, ordinal and intervals. Questionnaires used were segmented to capture the demographic characteristics of the respondents and the constructs that feeds into the multi-level latent variables using a five-point Likert scale (see [ 19 , 24 ]). A verification was done to assess the suitability of the data for factor analysis with the expectation that Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy ( ${\mathrm{i.e}}., {\rm KMo}\ge 0.6)$ and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity value are significant ( p = 0.05), which was the case for our sample data. In measuring some of the latent variables, the study developed a 9-scale item on compensation package with the following loadings (e.g., how high is your qualification and pay ( $\alpha =0.72)$ , “is your experience linked to your current pay?” ( $\alpha =0.80)$ , “are you satisfied with the market premium” ( $\alpha =0.75)$ etc.). All items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “not important” to 5 = “very important.” A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicates that the hypothesized correlated 3-factor structure fits well with the responds of the participants ( ${\chi }^{2}/df = 2.01, {\rm RMR}=0.05,{\rm RMSEA}=0.06,{\rm TLC}=0.94,{\rm CFI}=0.94)$ .

Job design and working environment was measured by a 7-item scale based on questions such as “how do you perceive your workload” ( $\alpha =0.88)$ , “does your work type offer learning environment?” ( $\alpha =0.83),$ “Are you inspired by your working environment?” ( $\alpha =0.87)$ , “Talented student boost morale” ( $\alpha =0.84)$ etc. Similarly, all items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “not important” to 5 = “very important.” A confirmatory factor analysis reveals that the hypothesized one-factor structure fits well with the data ( ${\chi }^{2}/df = 3.06, {\rm RMR}=0.05,{\rm RMSEA}=0.06,{\rm TLC}=0.94,{\rm CFI}=0.94)$ .

Performance management system was assessed using a 9-item scale based on these inferences (e.g., “number of times supervisor visits” ( $\alpha =0.69)$ , “how often are you visited by the municipal director of education” ( $\alpha =0.78)$ , “work recognition” ( $\alpha =0.72)$ , etc.). All constructs were rated as 1 = “not important” to 5 = “very important.” A confirmatory factor analysis reveals that the hypothesized two-factor structure was in line with the data ( ${\chi }^{2}/df=2.86, {\rm RMR}=0.05,{\rm RMSEA}=0.06,{\rm TLC}=0.94,{\rm CFI}=0.94)$ .

The last but not the least concept explored was job performance. It was assessed on a 12-item scale based on the inferences such as (e.g., “are pupils treated with respect?” ( $\alpha$ =0.77), “do you help pupils work on their social-emotional skills?” ( $\alpha$ = 0.69), “are you fair and consistent with pupils” ( $\alpha$ = 0.87), etc.). All items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “not important” to 5 = “very important.” A confirmatory factor analysis reveals that the hypothesized two-factor structure was in line with the data ( ${\chi }^{2}/df = 2.06, {\rm RMR} = 0.05,{\rm RMSEA} = 0.06,{\rm TLC} = 0.94,{\rm CFI} = 0.93)$ . The study proceeds to make use of the proposed measurement models to assess the relationship outlined in the conceptual model in Fig. 1 .

Hypothesized theoretical equation

Based on the conceptual model in Fig. 1 , the study makes a number of hypothesis on the relation between motivational factors and motivation itself and subsequently the link between motivation and performance. Consequently, the study model leads to two structural equations as presented below:

where JM = job motivation, CP = compensation package, JDWE = job design and working environment, PMS = performance management system, TD = training and development, JP = job performance.

Results and discussion

The study begins with a frequency distribution and descriptive statistics to capture the responses of teachers regarding the itemized construct identified in the conceptual model. Beginning with these two is borne out of the fact that the data category used in the study included categorical, ordinal and nominal variables which may be difficult to have a summary descriptive statistic.

With the understanding that every statistical approach is guided by certain principles or in most cases what has come to be known as assumptions, a diagnostic check was undertaken. Multicollinearity and singularity, for instance, look at the relationship among the independent variables. Thus, multicollinearity exists when the independent variables are highly correlated (r = 0.5 and above). The study was particular about these assumptions because multiple regression abhors them (singularity and multicollinearity). Issues concerning outliers (i.e., very high and low scores) was dealt with given the fact that multiple regression is sensitive to them. On normality, the results of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statics were used to assess the distribution of scores. The test result was insignificant (i.e., sig. value of more than 0.05), which pointed to normality. Having done these, the study was sure there were no errors in the data and that the descriptive phase of the data used can begin.

Consistent with the general distribution of gender in the demographic characteristics of Ghana, about 63 of the teachers were female (39.6%) with 59.1% made up of male and 1.3% being transgender. The transgender teachers were foreign teachers who were here on an exchange program. Most of the teachers in the sample taught at the primary level (46.5%), followed by junior high level (43.4%) and kindergarten (8.8%), respectively. About 34.6% of the respondent responded they have taught between 6 and 10 years and 22.0% had spent between 11 and 20 years teaching. In terms of educational background, about 50.3% of the respondent have had first degree, with the remaining 49.7% being holders of teachers Cert. A or Diploma from the training colleges, and master’s degree of the returned samples. The average number of years participants have taught was observed to be 2.34 years with a corresponding standard deviation of 1.010. We present the demographic characteristics of our participants in Table 1 .

As shown in Table 2 , the compensation package scale has good internal consistency, with a Cronbach alpha coefficient reported to be around 0.725. According to Pallant [ 40 ], Cronbach alpha values above 0.7 are considered acceptable; however, values above 0.8 are preferable. Therefore, the threshold value of 0.725 means our scale is internally consistent and acceptable. Similarly, the job design and working environment scale recorded a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.793.

Performance management on the other hand had a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.70, yet training and development recorded a lower Cronbach alpha of 0.53, which meant it lacked internal consistency. The study had to drop training and development as factor for job motivation and proceed with the others. Job performance, however conspicuously recorded a Cronbach alpha of 0.83. In terms of the output from the correlation matrix, it can be visibly seen that the scales computed were not highly correlated and fallen below the threshold of 0.8 as recommended (see [ 40 ], p. 56). Both the assumption of singularity and multicollinearity by extension have not been violated (see Durbin Watson results) and thus the study can proceed to run the regression as per the set objectives and the conceptual model.

We go further to examine the causal effect of the factors identified as triggers of motivation on teachers’ level of motivation using ordinary least square method with multiple regression as the exact approach. Having gained credence from the test of reliability and validity, examining the causal effect becomes imperative. Using the baseline model in Eq. ( 1 ), the study concurrently runs the regression with the output shown in Tables 2 , 3 and 4 .

In model one, the study regresses compensation package with the dependent variable without controlling for other related factors. By implication what the results in model (1) seeks to explain is that, as the value of compensation package for teachers increases by 73 percentage points in the municipality, the mean of job motivation increases by that same margin. The high compensation is evidenced by government of Ghana reform in salary structure and bolstered by the effort of the Member of Parliament (MP) through the sharing of teaching and learning materials (TLMs) in the municipality. By this gesture by the MP, teachers feel appreciated and derive high motivation. Moreover, the presence of a university (University of Education, Winneba) has helped to deepen the level of motivation. The model has cross-variable variance of 52 percentage and with close to about 48 percentage unexplained as inferred from the coefficients of both coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) and adjusted coefficient of determination. Generally, the model is jointly significant ( F = 170, p < 0.01) with a corresponding tolerance and variable inflationary factor (VIF) of 1.

In model (2), the study varies the variables used with the inclusion of job design and working environment to examine how well the model can be through it cross-variable variance. Controlling for job design and environment shows a significant drop in the coefficient of compensation package from 0.73 to 0.53 although highly significant. Job design and environment recorded a coefficient of 0.49 which meant this indicator increases teachers’ satisfaction and thus motivation by 49 percentage points. In explaining this phenomenon, one would say that jobs that are rich in positive behavioral essentials such as autonomy, task significance and identity and feedback contribute to employees’ motivation. Government has since the introduction of its flagship program on free senior high education emphasized the significance of education across all the strata. The autonomy of heads of unit was by this directive curtailed. Heads of unit were barred from initiating policies to ease their operations. This finding is supported in the literature [ 7 , 30 , 46 ] and is aligned with the SDT. For example, head teachers who had levied pupils with printing fees were sanctioned for such initiative. Thus, by this gesture, the autonomy of the profession was in doubt and this explains why the level of motivation when this parameter is mentioned is low. With this addition, model (2) marginally sees an improvement of 0.73 in the cross-variable variance which is a significant. Model (2) was jointly significant ( F = 170, p < 0.01).

All the identified job motivation variables are concurrently used in model (3) to infer whether there was going to be a significant increase in the coefficient of determination and a drop in the residue. As a confirmation to the priori assumption, there was a marginal improvement of the explanatory strength of the model (R 2 = 0.88). However, the model witnessed significant drop in the coefficients. Thus, compensation package dropped further from 0.53 to 0.42 and job design and environment from 0.49 to 0.34.

It is important to note that the value of Durbin Watson test results when all the identified factors are brought together in model (3) indicate a no autocorrelation in the model which validates the earlier point of having dealt with critical assumptions that borders on autocorrelation. Moreover, both our VIF and tolerance were within the acceptable level. For instance, models (1)–(3) had a VIF score less than or equal to 1, which meant there were no issues concerning a possibility of high multicollinearity. For tolerance, there are no clear-cut cut-off point, but there is a suggestion of a tolerance greater than 0.40 according to Allison [ 3 ]. Yet Weisburd and Britt [ 59 ] are of the view that anything below 0.2 is an indication of serious multicollinearity. Inferring from these, it therefore goes to suggest that the tolerance levels of above 1 meant no multicollinearity.

In examining the relationship between the aggregated motivational factors and performance, the study brings to the fore the following findings as shown in Table 3 . The study presents four (4) different models on the relationship between motivation and performance. Model (1) regresses the aggregate motivational factors on job performance, and the findings are quite interesting to note. The job performance indicator is increased by 46% for every unit increase in motivation. This relationship can further be explained to mean a teacher within the municipality with a sense of satisfaction with his/her teaching job may feel more inclined to be at post no matter what the prevailing circumstances are. The snowball effect of this phenomenon is the reduction in absenteeism with a corresponding curb on teachers’ turnover. Although the coefficient of determination which explains the cross-variable variance is by far lower than expected ( R 2 = 0.214), the model is jointly significant ( F = 41.44, p < 0.01). The VIF and tolerance levels are within acceptable threshold with a Durbin Watson of 2.04 that signals a no concern of autocorrelation in the model.

Models (2)–(4) regress the decomposed job motivation factors on performance to ascertain their level of significance, and indeed, as theorized, these factors were positively significant except with lower coefficient of determinations ( R 2 ). To explain the relation in model (2), it is important to note that compensation is the output and the benefit that a teacher within the municipality receives in the form of pay, or even any form of exchanges (in kind or in cash) to increase performance. The Member of Parliament for the area as part of effort to ensure teachers are well compensated shared over 700 laptops to teachers within the municipality for effective teaching and learning. This certainly explains why the attrition rate in the municipality is low vis-à-vis high morale of teachers which largely explains the level of motivation and satisfaction.

Model (3) touches on the psychological state the teacher finds him or herself owed to the nature and state of the job. This may include the job environment and the degree of specialization. Yet in model (4), there is an exponential increase in the coefficient of performance management systems as it increases job performance within the municipality by 51 percentage point. It should be noted that performance management sets expectations for teachers’ performance and thus motivates them to work harder in ways expected by the municipal directorate of education under GES. The results in model (5) confirm earlier ones, but the inclusion of the other variables as control seems to have increased the coefficients of the various motivational factors. This partly explains the performance of the municipality in the central region in successive BECE.

Further investigation is made to understand which of the age groups is responsible for the ensuing level of performance in the municipality. To do this, the study relies on one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Here, the mean scores of more than two groups are compared using a continuous variable as the dependent variable. Having transformed the ordinal variables to continuous, it makes it quite straightforward to do this. Using the categorical independent variable of age which has more than three categories and the job performance variable which we have transformed to be continuous variable, the study undertakes a one-way between groups ANOVA with post hoc tests. Teachers were divided into four groups according to their ages (group 1: 20–30 yrs.; group 2: 31–40 yrs.; group 3: 41–50 yrs.; group 4: above 51 yrs.). There was a statistically significant difference at the $p<0.10$ level in job performance scores for the four age groups: F (4, 159) = 0.042, p = 0.10. Despite reaching statistical significance for one of the groups, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups was quite small. The effect size was calculated using eta squared (eta squared = 179.1/8513 = 0.02) which in Cohen’s ([ 10 ], pp. 248–7) terms is considered far too small a size. Note should be taking that Cohen categorizes 0.01 as a small effect, 0.06 as a medium effect and 0.14 as a large effect. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for group 1 (56.12, SD = 4.26) is significantly different from the other three groups which were insignificant. The result has theoretical soundness. Group 1 was made up of young teachers who had either returned from training colleges after completion or on internship and thus had cause to perform for a possibility of being retained or given a very good report since internship supervision forms part of the trainees’ assessment.

In this study, we examined among a host of autonomous and controlled motivational factors and their relationship to performance among basic schools’ teachers in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana. A conceptual model was developed with the necessary hypotheses formulated. Using multiple regression and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), the causal effect as shown in the model is tested.

The study finds compensation package, job design and environment and performance management system to be positively significant factors in explaining teacher’s motivation in the municipality. These job motivation factors were significant predictors on job performance. The aggregated job motivation indicator when regressed on job performance reveals a positive and significant effect. Based on the results from the ANOVA, the study recommends the municipal directorate of education to make more room for young teacher trainees who are at the formative stage of their career to be engaged to augment the experienced staff strength. More should be done to make the profession attain some level of autonomy in the discharge of duty to breed the next genre of innovative educators in the municipality. A limitation of the study is its inability to treat job motivation as a mediatory variable as captured in the framework. The study recommends future research to explore this connection.

Availability of data and material

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Analysis of variance

Self-determination theory

Single spine salary structure

Fair wages salary commission

Teaching and learning materials

Member of parliament

Job motivation

Job performance

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin

Confirmatory factor analysis

Standardized root mean square residual

Root mean square error of approximation

Statistical package for social science

Variable inflationary factor

Aarabi MS, Subramaniam IV, Akeel AB (2013) Relationship between motivational factors and job performance of employees in Malaysian Service Industry. Asian Soc Sci 9(9):301–310. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n9p301

Article Google Scholar

Al-Alawi AI (2005) Motivating factors on information technology employees in Bahrain Hotel Industry.

Allison P (1999) Multiple regression: a primer. Pine Forge Press

Armstrong M (2003) Handbook of management and leadership: a guide to management for results. Kogan

Board LM (2007) Coaching a stockholder on performance improvement option. In: ASTD international conference

Bohlander G, Snell S, Sherman A (2001) Managing human resources. South-Western College

Cerasoli CP, Nicklin JM, Ford MT (2014) Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: a 40-year meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 140(4):980–1008

Chinn PL, Kramer MK (1999) Theory and nursing: integrated knowledge development, 5th edn. Mosby Inc

Clarke R, Keating WF (1995) A fresh look at teacher job satisfaction (ED 391; 795).

Cohen JW (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavorial sciences, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Culture IQ (2018) Understanding job performance in your company. Job Performance.

Davidson E (2005) Understanding and improving quality in Tanzanian primary schooling. University of East Anglia

Deci EL, Ryan RM (2000) The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol Inq 11(4):227–268

Deci EL, Olafsen AH, Ryan RM (2017) Self-determination theory in work organizations: the state of a science. Annu Rev Organ Psych Organ Behav 4(1):19–43

EMA (2019) Effutu Municipal Directorate

Forson JA, Opoku RA (2014) Government’s restructuring pay policy and job satisfaction: the case of teachers in the Ga West Municipal Assembly of Ghana. Int J Manag Knowl Learn 3(1):79–99. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2457629

Forson JA, Opoku RA, Appiah MO, Kyeremeh E, Ahmed IA, Addo-quaye R, Peng Z, Acheampong EY, Bekuni B, Bingab B, Bosomtwe E (2020) Innovation, institutions and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa—an IV estimation of a panel threshold model. J Econ Admin Sci. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEAS-11-2019-0127

FWSC (2013) Is performance management in Ghana’s public service a mirage? The fair wages and salaries commission’s role in public service performance management. http://www.fairwages.gov.gh/index.php/Slideshow-News/is-performance-management-in-ghanas-public-service-a-mirage/The-Fair-Wages-and-Salaries-Commissions-Role-in-Public-Service-Performance-Management.html

Gall P, Gall D, Borg W (2007) Applying educational research. Pearson Education Inc

Gillet N, Vallerand RJ, Lafreniere MAK, Bureau JS (2013) The mediating role of positive and negative affect in the situational motivation-performance relationship. Motiv Emot 37(3):465–479

Herzberg F, Mausner B, Synderman B (1959) Motivation to work. Wiley

Google Scholar

Howard JL, Gagné M, Bureau JS (2017) Testing a continuum structure of self-determined motivation: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 143(12):1346–1377

Jordan JL (1992) Performance appraisal satisfaction and supervisor’s traits. Psychol Rep 66(1):1337–1338

Kerlinger FN (1978) Foundation of behavioral research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York

Koontz H, Weinrich H (1998) Essentials of management, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill, London

Kreitner R, Kinici A (2004) Organizational behavior. McGraw-Hill, Irwin

Kuvaas B, Buch R, Weibel A, Dysvik A, Nerstad CGL (2017) Do intrinsic and extrinsic motivation relate differently to employee outcomes? J Econ Psychol 61(1):244–258

Leslie K (1989) Administrators must consider and improve teacher satisfaction. NASSP Bull 73(1):19–22

Lynn S (2002) The winding path: understanding the career cycle of teachers. Clearing House J Educ Strat Issues Ideas 75(4):179–182

Manolopoulos D (2008) An evaluation of employee motivation in the extended public sector in Greece. Empl Relat 30(1):63–85

Marlow L, Inman D, Bentancourt-Smith M (1996) Teacher job satisfaction (ED 393; 802)

Martin AJ (2003) The student motivation scale: further testing of an instrument that measures school students motivation. Aust J Educ 47(1):88–106

Maslow AH (1943) A theory of human motivation. Psychol Rev 50:370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

Maslow AH (1954) Motivation and personality. Harper & Row

Mifflin (1995) Management and organization. South-Western Publishing Co

Milda A, Raimundas V, Aidas P (2011) Job satisfaction survey: a confirmatory factor analysis based on secondary school teachers’ sample. Int J Bus Manag 6(5):41–50

Milliman JZ (1994) Companies evaluate employees from all perspectives. Pers J 73(11):99–103

Motowildo SJ, Borman WC, Schmit MJ (1997) A theory of individual differences in task and contextual performance. Hum Perform 10(2):71–83

Ofoegbu FI (2004) Teacher motivation as an essential factor for classroom effectiveness and school improvement. Coll Stud J 3(1):54–61

Pallant J (2011) SPSS survival manual. Allen & Unwin, Australia

Peng Z, Lian Y, Forson JA (2020) Peer effects in R&D investment policy: Evidence from China. Int J Finance Econ. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.2028

Photanan T (2004) Human resource focus. Innographics Ltd

Rao TV (2004) Performance management and appraisal systems: HR tools for global competitiveness. Sage Publications Inc

Rasheed MI, Humayon AA, Awan U, Din Ahmed A (2016) Factors affecting teachers’ motivation. Norwich 30(1):101–114. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-04-2014-0057

Rasheed MI, Sarwar S, Aslam HD (2010) Motivational issues for teachers in higher education: a critical case of IUB. J Manag Res 2(2):1–23

Reizer A, Brender-Ilan Y, Sheaffer Z (2019) Employee motivation, emotions and performance: a longitudinal diary study. J Manag Pschol 34(6):415–428

Ricks BR, Glinn ML, Daughtrey AS (1995) Contemporary supervision, managing people and technology. McGraw-Hill Inc, New York

Rigby CS, Ryan RM (2018) Self-determination theory in human resource development: new directions and practical considerations. Adv Dev Hum Resour 20(2):133–147

Robins SP, Coulter M (2005) Management, 7th edn. A Pearson Education Company

Rosser VJ (2005) Measuring the change in faculty perceptions over time: An examination of their work life and satisfaction. Res High Educ 46(1):81–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-004-6290-y

Sharma RD, Jyoti J (2009) Job satisfaction of university teachers: an empirical study. J Serv Res 9(2)

Spector PE (1997) Job satisfaction: application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Sage Publications Ltd

Stafyarakis M (2002) HRD and performance management. University of Manchester

Stevens J (1996) Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum

Tabachnick BG, Fidel S (2013) Using multivariate statistics. New Jersey Education Inc

Tillman WR, Tillman CJ (2008) And you thought it was the apple: a study of job satisfaction among teachers. Acad Educ Leadersh J 12(3):1–18

Trépanier SG, Forest J, Fernet C, Austin S (2015) On the psychological and motivational processes linking job characteristics to employee functioning: insights from self-determination theory. Work Stress 29(3):286–305

Viswesvaran C, Ones DS (2000) Perspectives on models of job performance. Int J Sel Assess 8(4):216–226

Weisburd D, Britt C (2013) Statistics in criminal justice, 4th edn. Springer, Berlin

Yamane T (1967) Statistics, an introductory analysis, 2nd edn. New York Harper and Row, New York

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Effutu Directorate of Education, particularly the Municipal Director of Education for the support during the data collection stage. We thank all the basic school teachers in the municipality who devoted time to fill and return questionnaires sent to them. We are also grateful to the Directorate for the secondary materials given to the team.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Applied Finance and Policy Management, University of Education, Winneba, P.O. Box 25, Winneba, Ghana

Joseph Ato Forson

Department of Educational Foundations, University of Education, Winneba, Winneba, Ghana

Eric Ofosu-Dwamena

Department of Educational Administration and Management, University of Education, Winneba, Winneba, Ghana

Rosemary Afrakomah Opoku

Department of Applied Finance and Policy Management, University of Education, Winneba, Winneba, Ghana

Samuel Evergreen Adjavon

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

JAF contributed 50%, EOD contributed 25%, RAO contributed 20%, and SEA contributed 5%, respectively. All authors have read and approved the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joseph Ato Forson .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Forson, J.A., Ofosu-Dwamena, E., Opoku, R.A. et al. Employee motivation and job performance: a study of basic school teachers in Ghana. Futur Bus J 7 , 30 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-021-00077-6

Download citation

Received : 21 February 2021

Accepted : 11 June 2021

Published : 04 September 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-021-00077-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Performance
Performance management systems
Single spine salary structure (SSSS)

JEL Classification

Open access
Published: 28 August 2024

A qualitative study identifying implementation strategies using the i-PARIHS framework to increase access to pre-exposure prophylaxis at federally qualified health centers in Mississippi

Trisha Arnold ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3556-5717 1 , 2 ,
Laura Whiteley 2 ,
Kayla K. Giorlando 1 ,
Andrew P. Barnett 1 , 2 ,
Ariana M. Albanese 2 ,
Avery Leigland 1 ,
Courtney Sims-Gomillia 3 ,
A. Rani Elwy 2 , 5 ,
Precious Patrick Edet 3 ,
Demetra M. Lewis 4 ,
James B. Brock 4 &
Larry K. Brown 1 , 2

Implementation Science Communications volume 5 , Article number: 92 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

3 Altmetric

Metrics details

Mississippi (MS) experiences disproportionally high rates of new HIV infections and limited availability of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) are poised to increase access to PrEP. However, little is known about the implementation strategies needed to successfully integrate PrEP services into FQHCs in MS.

The study had two objectives: identify barriers and facilitators to PrEP use and to develop tailored implementation strategies for FQHCs.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 staff and 17 PrEP-eligible patients in MS FQHCs between April 2021 and March 2022. The interview was guided by the integrated-Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (i-PARIHS) framework which covered PrEP facilitators and barriers. Interviews were coded according to the i-PARIHS domains of context, innovation, and recipients, followed by thematic analysis of these codes. Identified implementation strategies were presented to 9 FQHC staff for feedback.

Data suggested that PrEP use at FQHCs is influenced by patient and clinic staff knowledge with higher levels of knowledge reflecting more PrEP use. Perceived side effects are the most significant barrier to PrEP use for patients, but participants also identified several other barriers including low HIV risk perception and untrained providers. Despite these barriers, patients also expressed a strong motivation to protect themselves, their partners, and their communities from HIV. Implementation strategies included education and provider training which were perceived as acceptable and appropriate.

Conclusions

Though patients are motivated to increase protection against HIV, multiple barriers threaten uptake of PrEP within FQHCs in MS. Educating patients and providers, as well as training providers, are promising implementation strategies to overcome these barriers.

Peer Review reports

Contributions to the literature

We propose utilizing Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) to increase pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use among people living in Mississippi.

Little is currently known about how to distribute PrEP at FQHCs.

We comprehensively describe the barriers and facilitators to implementing PrEP at FQHCs.

Utilizing effective implementation strategies of PrEP, such as education and provider training at FQHCs, may increase PrEP use and decrease new HIV infections.

Introduction

The HIV outbreak in Mississippi (MS) is among the most critical in the United States (U.S.). It is distinguished by significant inequalities, a considerable prevalence of HIV in remote areas, and low levels of HIV medical care participation and virologic suppression [ 1 ]. MS has consistently ranked among the states with the highest HIV rates in the U.S. This includes being the 6th highest in new HIV diagnoses [ 2 ] and 2nd highest in HIV diagnoses among men who have sex with men (MSM) compared to other states [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Throughout MS, the HIV epidemic disproportionately affects racial and ethnic minority groups, particularly among Black individuals. A spatial epidemiology and statistical modeling study completed in MS identified HIV hot spots in the MS Delta region, Southern MS, and in greater Jackson, including surrounding rural counties [ 5 ]. Black race and urban location were positively associated with HIV clusters. This disparity is often driven by the complex interplay of social, economic, and structural factors, including poverty, limited access to healthcare, and stigma [ 5 ].

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) has gained significant recognition due to its safety and effectiveness in preventing HIV transmission when taken as prescribed [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. However, despite the progression in PrEP and its accessibility, its uptake has been slow among individuals at high risk of contracting HIV, particularly in Southern states such as MS [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. According to the CDC [ 5 ], “4,530 Mississippians at high risk for HIV could potentially benefit from PrEP, but only 927 were prescribed PrEP.” Several barriers hinder PrEP use in MS including limited access to healthcare, cost, stigma, and medical mistrust [ 15 , 16 , 17 ].

Federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) are primary healthcare organizations that are community-based and patient-directed, serve geographically and demographically diverse patients with limited access to medical care, and provide care regardless of a patient’s ability to pay [ 18 ]. FQHCs in these areas exhibit reluctance in prescribing or counseling patients regarding PrEP, primarily because they lack the required training and expertise [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Physicians in academic medical centers are more likely to prescribe PrEP compared to those in community settings [ 22 ]. Furthermore, providers at FQHCs may exhibit less familiarity with conducting HIV risk assessments, express concerns regarding potential side effects of PrEP, and have mixed feelings about prescribing it [ 23 , 24 ]. Task shifting might also be needed as some FQHCs may lack sufficient physician support to manage all aspects of PrEP care. Tailored strategies and approaches are necessary for FQHCs to effectively navigate the many challenges that threaten their patients’ access to and utilization of PrEP.

The main objectives of this study were to identify the barriers and facilitators to PrEP use and to develop tailored implementation strategies for FQHCs providing PrEP. To service these objectives, this study had three specific aims. Aim 1 involved conducting a qualitative formative evaluation guided by the integrated-Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (i-PARIHS) framework- with FQHC staff and PrEP-eligible patients across three FQHCs in MS [ 25 ]. Interviews covered each of the three i-PARIHS domains: context, innovation, and recipients. These interviews sought to identify barriers and facilitators to implementing PrEP. Aim 2 involved using interview data to select and tailor implementation strategies from the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) project [ 26 ] (e.g., provider training) and methods (e.g., telemedicine, PrEP navigators) for the FQHCs. Aim 3 was to member-check the selected implementation strategies and further refine these if necessary. Data from all three aims are presented below. The standards for reporting qualitative research (SRQR) checklist was used to improve the transparency of reporting this qualitative study [ 27 ].

Formative evaluation interviews

Interviews were conducted with 19 staff and 17 PrEP-eligible patients from three FQHCs in Jackson, Canton, and Clarksdale, Mississippi. Staff were eligible to participate if they were English-speaking and employed by their organization for at least a year. Eligibility criteria for patients included: 1) English speaking, 2) aged 18 years or older, 3) a present or prior patient at the FQHC, 4) HIV negative, and 5) currently taking PrEP or reported any one of the following factors that may indicate an increased risk for HIV: in the past year, having unprotected sex with more than one person with unknown (or positive) HIV status, testing positive for a sexually transmitted infection (STI) (syphilis, gonorrhea, or chlamydia), or using injection drugs.

Data collection

The institutional review boards of the affiliated hospitals approved this study prior to data collection. An employee at each FQHC acted as a study contact and assisted with recruitment. The contacts advertised the study through word-of-mouth to coworkers and relayed the contact information of those interested to research staff. Patients were informed about the study from FQHC employees and flyers while visiting the FQHC for HIV testing. Those interested filled out consent-to-contact forms, which were securely and electronically sent to research staff. Potential participants were then contacted by a research assistant, screened for eligibility, electronically consented via DocuSign (a HIPAA-compliant signature capturing program), then scheduled for an interview. Interviews occurred remotely over Zoom, a HIPAA-compliant, video conferencing platform. Interviews were conducted until data saturation was reached. In addition to the interview, all participants were asked to complete a short demographics survey via REDCap, a HIPAA-compliant, online, data collection tool. Each participant received a $100 gift card for their time.

The i-PARIHS framework guided interview content and was used to create a semi-structured interview guide [ 28 ]. Within the i-PARIHS framework’s elements, the interview guide content included facilitators and barriers to PrEP use at the FQHC: 1) the innovation, (PrEP), such as its degree of fit with existing practices and values at FQHCs; 2) the recipients (individuals presenting to FQHCs), such as their PrEP awareness, barriers to receiving PrEP such as motivation, resources, support, and personal PrEP experiences; and 3) the context of the setting (FQHCs), such as clinic staff PrEP awareness, barriers providing PrEP services, and recommendations regarding PrEP care. Interviews specifically asked about the use of telemedicine, various methods for expanding PrEP knowledge for both patients and providers (e.g., social media, advertisements, community events/seminars), and location of services (e.g., mobile clinics, gyms, annual health checkups, health fairs). Staff and patients were asked the same interview questions. Data were reviewed and analyzed iteratively throughout data collection, and interview guides were adapted as needed.

Data analysis

Interviews were all audio-recorded, then transcribed by an outside, HIPAA-certified transcription company. Transcriptions were reviewed for accuracy by the research staff who conducted the interviews.

Seven members of the research team (TA, LW, KKG, AB, CSG, AL, LKB) independently coded the transcripts using an a priori coding schedule that was developed using the i-PARIHS and previous studies [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. All research team members were trained in qualitative methods prior to beginning the coding process. The coding scheme covered: patient PrEP awareness, clinic staff PrEP awareness, barriers to receiving PrEP services, barriers to providing PrEP services, and motivation to take PrEP. Each coder read each line of text and identified if any of the codes from the a priori coding framework were potentially at play in each piece of text. Double coding was permitted when applicable. New codes were created and defined when a piece of text from transcripts represented a new important idea. Codes were categorized according to alignment with i-PARIHS constructs. To ensure intercoder reliability, the first 50% of the interviews were coded by two researchers. Team meetings were regularly held to discuss coding discrepancies (to reach a consensus). Coded data were organized using NVivo software (Version 12). Data were deductively analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, a six-step process for analyzing and reporting qualitative data, to determine themes relevant to selecting appropriate implementation strategies to increase PrEP use at FQHCs in MS [ 29 ]. The resulting thematic categories were used to select ERIC implementation strategies [ 26 ]. Elements for each strategy were then operationalized and the mechanism of change for each strategy was hypothesized [ 30 , 31 ]. Mechanisms define how an implementation strategy will have an effect [ 30 , 31 ]. We used the identified determinants to hypothesize the mechanism of change for each strategy.

Member checking focus groups

Member checking is when the data or results are presented back to the participants, who provide feedback [ 32 ] to check for accuracy [ 33 ] and improve the validity of the data [ 34 ]. This process helps reduce the possibility of misrepresentation of the data [ 35 ]. Member checking was completed with clinic staff rather than patients because the focus was on identifying strategies to implement PrEP in the FQHCs.

Two focus groups were conducted with nine staff from the three FQHCs in MS. Eligibility criteria were the same as above. A combination of previously interviewed staff and non-interviewed staff were recruited. Staff members were a mix of medical (e.g., nurses, patient navigators, social workers) and non-medical (e.g., administrative assistant, branding officer) personnel. Focus group one had six participants and focus group two had three participants. The goal was for focus group participants to comprise half of staff members who had previously been interviewed and half of non-interviewed staff.

Participants were recruited and compensated via the same methods as above. All participants electronically consented via DocuSign, and then were scheduled for a focus group. Focus groups occurred remotely over Zoom. Focus groups were conducted until data saturation was reached and no new information surfaced. The goal of the focus groups was to member-check results from the interviews and assess the feasibility and acceptability of selected implementation strategies. PowerPoint slides with the results and implementation strategies written in lay terms were shared with the participants, which is a suggested technique to use in member checking [ 33 ]. Participants were asked to provide feedback on each slide.

Focus groups were all audio-recorded, then transcribed. Transcriptions were reviewed for accuracy by the research staff who completed focus groups. Findings from the focus groups were synthesized using rapid qualitative analyses [ 36 , 37 ]. Facilitators (TA, PPE) both took notes during the focus groups of the primary findings. Notes were then compared during team meetings and results were finalized. Results obtained from previous findings of the interviews and i-PARIHS framework were presented. To ensure the reliability of results, an additional team member (KKG) read the transcripts to verify the primary findings and selected supportive quotes for each theme. Team meetings were regularly held to discuss the results.

Thirty-six semi-structured interviews in HIV hot spots were completed between April 2021 and March 2022. Among the 19 FQHC staff, most staff members had several years of experience working with those at risk for HIV. Staff members were a mix of medical (e.g., doctors, nurses, CNAs, social workers) and non-medical (e.g., receptionists, case managers) personnel. Table 1 provides the demographic characteristics for the 19 FQHC clinic staff and 17 FQHC patients.

Table 2 provides a detailed description of the findings within each category: PrEP knowledge, PrEP barriers, and PrEP motivation. Themes are described in detail, with representative quotes, below. Implementation determinants are specific factors that influence implementation outcomes and can be barriers or facilitators. Table 3 highlights which implementation determinants can increase ( +) or decrease (-) the implementation of PrEP at FQHCs in MS. Each determinant, mapped to its corresponding i-PARIHS construct, is discussed in more detail below. There were no significant differences in responses across the three FQHCs.

PrEP knowledge

Patient prep awareness (i-parihs: recipients).

Most patients had heard of PrEP and were somewhat familiar with the medication. One patient described her knowledge of PrEP as follows, “I know that PrEP is I guess a program that helps people who are high-risk with sexual behaviors and that doesn't have HIV, but they're at high-risk.”- Patient, Age 32, Female, Not on PrEP. However, many lacked knowledge of who may benefit from PrEP, where to receive a prescription, the different medications used for PrEP, and the efficacy of PrEP. Below is a comment made by a patient listing what she would need to know to consider taking PrEP. “I would need to know the price. I would need to know the side effects. I need to know the percentage, like, is it 100 or 90 percent effective.”— Patient, Age Unknown, Female, Not on PrEP. Patients reported learning about PrEP via television and social media commercials, medical providers, and their social networks. One patient reported learning about PrEP from her cousin. “The only person I heard it [PrEP] from was my cousin, and she talks about it all the time, givin’ us advice and lettin’ us know that it’s a good thing.”— Patient, Age Unknown, Female, Not on PrEP.

Clinic Staff PrEP Awareness (i-PARIHS: Context)

Training in who may benefit from PrEP and how to prescribe PrEP varied among clinic staff at different FQHCs. Not all clinics offered formal PrEP education for employees; however, most knew that PrEP is a tool used for HIV prevention. Staff reported learning about PrEP via different speakers and meetings. A clinic staff member reported learning about PrEP during quarterly meetings. “Well, sometimes when we have different staff meetings, we have them quarterly, and we discuss PrEP. Throughout those meetings, they tell us a little bit of information about it, so that's how I know about PrEP.” – Staff, Dental Assistant, Female. Some FQHC staff members reported having very little knowledge of PrEP. One staff member shared that she knew only the “bare minimum” about PrEP, stating,

“I probably know the bare minimum about PrEP. I know a little about it [PrEP] as far as if taken the correct way, it can prevent you from gettin’ HIV. I know it [PrEP] doesn’t prevent against STDs but I know it’s a prevention method for HIV and just a healthier lifestyle.” –Staff, Accountant, Female

A few of the organizations had PrEP navigators to which providers refer patients. These providers were well informed on who to screen for PrEP eligibility and the process for helping the patient obtain a PrEP prescription. One clinic staff member highlighted how providers must be willing to be trained in the process of prescribing PrEP and make time for patients who may benefit. Specifically, she said,

“I have been trained [for PrEP/HIV care]. It just depends on if that’s something that you’re willing to do, they can train on what labs and stuff to order ’cause it’s a whole lot of labs. But usually, I try to do it. At least for everybody that’s high-risk.” – Staff, OB/GYN Nurse Practitioner, Female

Another clinic staff member reported learning about PrEP while observing another staff member being training in PrEP procedures.

“Well, they kinda explained to me what it [PrEP] is, but I was in training with the actual PrEP person, so it was kinda more so for his training. I know what PrEP is. I know the medications and I know he does a patient assistance program. If my patients have partners who are not HIV positive and wanna continue to be HIV negative, I can refer 'em.” – Staff, Administrative Assistant, Female

PrEP barriers

Barriers receiving prep services (i-parihs: recipients, innovation).

Several barriers to receiving PrEP services were identified in both patient and clinic staff interviews. There was a strong concern for the side effects of PrEP. One patient heard that PrEP could cause weight gain and nightmares, “I’m afraid of gaining weight. I’ve heard that actual HIV medication, a lotta people have nightmares or bad dreams.” - Patient, Age 30, Female, Not on PrEP. Another patient was concerned about perceived general side effects that many medications have. “Probably just the [potential] side effects. You know, most of the pills have allergic reactions and side effects, dizziness, seizures, you know.” - Patient, Age 30, Female, Not on PrEP.

The burden of remembering to take a daily pill was also mentioned as a barrier to PrEP use. One female patient explained how PrEP is something she is interested in taking; however, she would be unable to take a daily medication.

“I’m in school now and not used to takin’ a medication every day. I was takin’ a birth control pill, but now take a shot. That was one of the main reasons that I didn’t start PrEP cause they did tell me I could get it that day. So like I wanna be in the mind state to where I’m able to mentally, in my head, take a pill every day. PrEP is somethin’ that I wanna do.” - Patient, Age Unknown, Female, Not on PrEP

Stigma and confidentiality were also barriers to PrEP use at FQHCs. One staff member highlighted how in small communities it is difficult to go to a clinic where employees know you personally. Saying,

“If somebody knows you’re going to talk to this specific person, they know what you’re goin’ back there for, and that could cause you to be a little hesitant in coming. So there’s always gonna be a little hesitancy or mistrust, especially in a small community. Everybody knows everybody. The people that you’re gonna see goes to church with you.” – Staff, Accountant, Female

Some patients had a low perceived risk of HIV and felt PrEP may be an unnecessary addition to their routine. One patient shared that if she perceived she was at risk for HIV, then she would be more interested in taking PrEP, “If it ever came up to the point where I would need it [PrEP], then yes, I would want to know more about it [PrEP].”— Patient, Age Unknown, Female, Not on PrEP.

Some participants expressed difficulty initiating or staying on PrEP because of associated costs, transportation and/or scheduling barriers. A staff member explained how transportation may be available in the city but not available in more rural areas,

“I guess it all depends on the person and where they are. In a city it might take a while, but at least they have the transportation compared to someone that lives in a rural area where transportation might be an issue.” - Staff, Director of Nurses, Female

Childcare during appointments was also mentioned as a barrier, “It looks like here a lot of people don't have transportation or reliable transportation and another thing I don't have anybody to watch my kids right now. —Staff, Patient Navigator, Female.

Barriers Providing PrEP Services (i-PARIHS: Context)

Barriers to providing PrEP services were also identified. Many providers are still not trained in PrEP procedures nor feel comfortable discussing or prescribing PrEP to their patients. One patient shared an experience of going to a provider who was PrEP-uninformed and assumed his medication was to treat HIV,

“Once I told her about it [PrEP], she [clinic provider] literally right in front of me, Googled it [PrEP], and then she was Googlin’ the medication, Descovy. I went to get a lab work, and she came back and was like, “Is this for treatment?” I was like, “Why would you automatically think it’s for treatment?” I literally told her and the nurse, “I would never come here if I lived here.” - Patient, Age 50, Male, Taking PrEP

Also, it was reported that there is not enough variety in the kind of providers who offer PrEP (e.g., OB/GYN, primary care). Many providers such as OB/GYNs could serve as a great way to reach individuals who may benefit from PrEP; however, patients reported a lack of PrEP being discussed in annual visits. “My previous ones (OB/GYN), they’ve talked about birth control and every other method and they asked me if I wanted to get tested for HIV and any STIs, but the conversation never came up about PrEP.” -Patient, Age Unknown, Female, Not on PrEP.

PrEP motivation

Motivation to take prep (i-parihs: recipients).

Participants mentioned several motivators that enhanced patient willingness to use PrEP. Many patients reported being motivated to use PrEP to protect themselves and their partners from HIV. Additionally, participants reported wanting to take PrEP to help their community. One patient reported being motivated by both his sexuality and the rates of HIV in his area, saying, “I mean, I'm bisexual. So, you know, anyway I can protect myself. You know, it's just bein' that the HIV number has risen. You know, that's scary. So just being, in, an area with higher incidents of cases.”— Patient, Age Unknown, Male, Not on PrEP . Some participants reported that experiencing an HIV scare also motivated them to consider using PrEP. One patient acknowledged his behaviors that put him at risk and indicated that this increased his willingness to take PrEP, “I was havin' a problem with, you know, uh, bein' promiscuous. You know? So it [PrEP] was, uh, something that I would think, would help me, if I wasn't gonna change the way I was, uh, actin' sexually.”— Patient, Age Unknown, Male, Taking PrEP .

Table 3 outlines the implementation strategies identified from themes from the interview and focus group data. Below we recognize the barriers and determinants to PrEP uptake for patients attending FQHCs in MS by each i-PARIHS construct (innovation, recipient, context) [ 28 ]. Based on the data, we mapped the determinants to specific strategies from the ERIC project [ 26 ] and hypothesized the mechanism of change for each strategy [ 30 , 31 ].

Two focus groups were conducted with nine staff from threeFQHCs in MS. There were six participants in the 1st focus group and three in the 2nd. Staff members were a mix of medical (e.g., nurses, patient navigators, social workers) and non-medical (e.g., administrative assistant, branding officer) personnel. Table 4 provides the demographic characteristics for the FQHC focus group participants.

Staff participating in the focus groups generally agreed that the strategies identified via the interviews were appropriate and acceptable. Focus group content helped to further clarify some of the selected strategies. Below we highlight findings by each strategy domain.

PrEP information dissemination

Participants specified that awareness of HIV is lower, and stigma related to PrEP is higher in rural areas. One participant specifically said,

“There is some awareness but needs to be more awareness, especially to rural areas here in Mississippi. If you live in the major metropolitan areas there is a lot of information but when we start looking at the rural communities, there is not a lot.” – Staff, Branding Officer, Male

Participants strongly agreed that many patients don’t realize they may benefit from PrEP and that more inclusive advertisements are needed. A nurse specifically stated,

“ When we have new clients that come in that we are trying to inform them about PrEP and I have asked them if they may have seen the commercial, especially the younger population. They will say exactly what you said, that “Oh, I thought that was for homosexuals or whatever,” and I am saying “No, it is for anyone that is at risk.” – Staff, Nurse, Female

Further, staff agreed that younger populations should be included in PrEP efforts to alleviate stigma. Participants added that including PrEP information with other prevention methods (i.e., birth control, vaccines) is a good place to include parents and adolescents:

“Just trying to educate them about Hepatitis and things of that nature, Herpes. I think we should also, as they are approaching 15, the same way we educate them about their cycle coming on and what to expect, it’s almost like we need to start incorporating this (PrEP education), even with different forms of birth control methods with our young ladies.” – Staff, Nurse, Female

Participants agreed that PrEP testimonials would be helpful, specifically from people who started PrEP, stopped, and then were diagnosed with HIV. Participants indicated that this may improve PrEP uptake and persistence. One nurse stated:

“I have seen where a patient has been on PrEP a time or two and at some point, early in the year or later part of the year, and we have seen where they’ve missed those appointments and were not consistent with their medication regimen. And we have seen those who’ve tested positive for HIV. So, if there is a way we could get one of those patients who will be willing to share their testimony, I think they can really be impactful because it’s showing that taking up preventive measures was good and then kind of being inconsistent, this is what the outcome is, unfortunately.” – Staff, Nurse, Female

Increase variety and number of PrEP providers

Participants agreed that a “PrEP champion” (someone to promote PrEP and answer PrEP related questions) would be helpful, especially for providers who need more education about PrEP to feel comfortable prescribing. A patient navigator said,

“I definitely think that a provider PrEP champion is needed in every clinic or organization that is offering PrEP. And it goes back to what we were saying about the providers not being knowledgeable on it [PrEP]. If you have a PrEP champion that already knows this information, it is gonna benefit everybody, patients, patient advocates, the provider, everyone all around. Everyone needs a champion." – Staff, Patient Navigator, Female

Staff noted that they have walk-in appointments for PrEP available; however, they often have too many walk-in appointments to see everyone. They noted that having more resources and providers may alleviate this barrier for some patients:

“We still have challenges with people walking in versus scheduling an appointment, but we do have same day appointments. It is just hard sometimes because the volume that we have at our clinic and the number of patients that we have that walk in on a daily basis.” – Staff, Social Worker, Female

Enhance PrEP provider alliance and trust

Participants agreed that educational meetings would be beneficial and highlighted that meetings should happen regularly and emphasized a preference for in-person meetings. This is emphasized by the statement below,

“They should be in-person with handouts. You have to kind of meet people where they are as far as learning. Giving the knowledge, obtaining the knowledge, and using it, and so you have to find a place. I definitely think that yearly in-person training to update guidelines, medication doses, different things like that." – Staff, Patient Navigator, Female

Staff also suggested hosting one very large collaborative event to bring together all organizations that offer PrEP and HIV testing to meet and discuss additional efforts:

“What I would like to see happen here in the state of Mississippi, because we are so high on the list for new HIV infections, I would like to see a big collaborative event. As far as PrEP goes, those that are not on PrEP, one big collaborative event with different community health centers. You do testing, we do PrEP, and the referral get split. Everyone coming together for one main purpose.” – Staff, Patient Navigator, Female

Increase access to PrEP

Participants highlighted that most of the clinics they worked for already offer a variety of service sites (pharmacy, mobile clinic) but that more clinics should offer these alternative options for patients to receive PrEP. One patient navigator outlined the services they offer,

“We have a mobile unit. We do not have a home health travel nurse. We do telephone visits. We offer primary care, OB/GYN. We have our own pharmacy. We also have samples in our pharmacy available to patients that can’t get their medicine on the same day cos we like to implement same day PrEP. It has worked for us. More people should utilize those services.” – Staff, Patient Navigator, Female

Other staff suggested utilizing minute clinics and pharmacies at grocery stores. Highlighting, that offering PrEP at these locations may increase PrEP uptake.

There has been great scientific expansion of HIV prevention research and priorities must now pivot to addressing how to best implement effective interventions like PrEP [ 38 ]. PrEP remains underutilized among individuals who may benefit, particularly in Southern states such as MS [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Implementation science could help ameliorate this by identifying barriers and facilitators to PrEP rollout and uptake. We selected and defined several strategies from the ERIC project [ 26 ] to increase PrEP use utilizing FQHCs. Our results, as shown in Table 3 , highlight the four domains of strategies selected: 1) PrEP Information Dissemination, 2) Increase Variety and Number of PrEP Providers, 3) Enhance PrEP Provider Alliance and Trust, and 4) Increase Access to PrEP.

Firstly, individuals cannot utilize PrEP if they are not aware of its presence and utility. In Mississippi, advertising PrEP services is integral to implementation efforts given the existing stigma and lack of health literacy in this region [ 39 ]. Potential avenues for expanding PrEP awareness are integrating it into educational curriculums, adolescents’ routine preventative healthcare, and health fairs. This study compliments prior research that people should be offered sexual health and PrEP education at a younger age to increase awareness of risk, foster change in social norms and enhance willingness to seek out prevention services [ 40 , 41 ]. To meet the resulting growing need for PrEP educators, healthcare professionals should receive up-to-date PrEP information and training, so that they can confidently relay information to their patients. Similar to existing research, increasing provider education could accelerate PrEP expansion [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Training programs aimed at increasing provider PrEP knowledge may increase PrEP prescriptions provided [ 43 ] by addressing one of the most frequently listed barriers to PrEP prescription among providers [ 45 , 46 ].

Many patients prefer to receive PrEP at the healthcare locations they already attend and report a barrier to PrEP being limited healthcare settings that offer PrEP [ 39 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. The aforementioned PrEP training could increase the number of healthcare workers willing to provide PrEP services. It is also imperative that providers in a diverse range of healthcare settings (e.g., primary care, OB/GYN, pediatricians and adolescent medicine providers) join the list of those offering PrEP to reduce stigma and enhance patient comfort.

These results mirrored other studies in the South that have shown that using relatable healthcare providers and trusted members of the community may serve to facilitate PrEP uptake [ 41 , 50 , 51 ]. If patients have a larger number of PrEP providers to choose from, they can select one that best fits their needs (e.g., location, in-network) and preferences (e.g., familiarity, cultural similarities). Enhanced comfort facilitates a strong patient-provider alliance and can lead to more open/honest communication regarding HIV risk behavior.

The lack of conveniently located PrEP providers is consistently reported as a structural barrier in the South [ 44 , 52 ]. This creates an increase in the demand on patients to attend regular follow-up appointments. The three strategies above all play a vital role in increasing access to PrEP. If more individuals are trained to provide PrEP care, there will be more PrEP providers, and patients can choose the best option for them. A sizeable influx of new PrEP providers could help staff new care facilities and service options in the community (e.g., mobile health units, home care, community-based clinics, telemedicine). Offering PrEP via telemedicine and mobile clinics to patients has been largely supported in the literature [ 44 , 53 , 54 ]. Intra- and inter-organizational collaborations could similarly increase PrEP access by sharing information and resources to ensure patients get timely, reliable care.

Our results largely supported previous findings by two systematic reviews on the barriers to PrEP uptake and implementation strategies to overcome it [ 39 , 47 ]. Sullivan et.al.’s review focused on the Southern U.S. [ 38 ], while Bonacci et. al. explored steps to improve PrEP equity for Black and Hispanic/Latino communities [ 47 ]. Both agreed that barriers to PrEP access are complex. Thus, cooperation from policymakers and the expansion of state Medicaid or targeted Medicaid waivers is vital to make PrEP attainable for those living in the coverage gap. Further, many FQHCs receive Ryan White funding for HIV care and treatment, contracting flexibility in the utility of these other sources of support may aid in eliminating the cost of PrEP as a barrier. They also stressed the need for educating community members and healthcare personnel about PrEP, increasing and diversifying PrEP service sites, normalizing PrEP campaigns and screening to alleviate stigma, and streamlining clinical procedures to facilitate the option for same-day PrEP. However, they also noted that these strategies are easier said than done. This further highlights the need for prioritizing research efforts towards implementation studies for effectiveness and practicality of overcoming the complex and systemic needs around HIV prevention/treatment.

The present study was able to build on past findings by providing a more holistic view of the barriers to PrEP use and possible strategies to address them through querying PrEP-eligible patients, medical providers, and non-medical staff. By interviewing a diverse range of stakeholders, it was possible to identify unmet patient needs, current PrEP care procedures and infrastructure, and attitudes and needed resources among those who could potentially be trained to provide PrEP in the future.

Limitations

Our results are limited to participants and clinic staff who were willing to engage in a research interview to discuss PrEP and FQHCs. Results are only generalizable to Mississippi and may be less relevant for other geographic areas. However, this is a strength given these strategies are meant to be tailored specifically to FQHCs in MS. Due to COVID-19 restrictions, interviews were conducted via Zoom. This allowed us to reach participants unable to come in physically for an interview and may have increased their comfort responding to questions [ 55 ]. However, some participants may have been less comfortable discussing via Zoom, which may have limited their willingness to respond.

This study highlighted the need for implementing PrEP strategies to combat HIV in Mississippi. PrEP knowledge, barriers, and motivation were identified as key factors influencing PrEP utilization, and four domains of strategies were identified for improving PrEP accessibility and uptake. Future research should further refine and assess the feasibility and acceptability of selected and defined implementation strategies and test strategies.

Availability of data and materials

De-identified data from this study are not available in a public archive due to sensitive nature of the data. De-identified data from this study will be made available (as allowable according to institutional IRB standards) by emailing the corresponding author.

Abbreviations

Mississippi

Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis

Federally Qualified Health Centers

Integrated-Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services

Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change

Men Who Have Sex With Men

Health MSDo. Mississippi’s Ending the HIV Epidemic Plan: MSDH; 2021. Available from: http://healthyms.com/msdhsite/_static/resources/5116.pdf .

Digre P, Avoundjian T, Johnson K, Peyton D, Lewis C, Barnabas RV, et al. Barriers, facilitators, and cost of integrating HIV-related activities into sexually transmitted disease partner services in Jackson, Mississippi. Sexually Transmit Dis. 2021;48(3):145–51.

Article Google Scholar

Rosenberg ES, Grey JA, Sanchez TH, Sullivan PS. Rates of prevalent HIV infection, prevalent diagnoses, and new diagnoses among men who have sex with men in US states, metropolitan statistical areas, and counties, 2012–2013. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2016;2(1):e5684.

Khosropour CM, Backus KV, Means AR, Beauchamps L, Johnson K, Golden MR, et al. A pharmacist-led, same-day, HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis initiation program to increase PrEP uptake and decrease time to PrEP initiation. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2020;34(1):1–6.

Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Stopka TJ, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Johnson K, Chan PA, Hutcheson M, Crosby R, et al. HIV Clustering in Mississippi: spatial epidemiological study to inform implementation science in the deep south. JMIR Publ Health Surveil. 2018;4(2):e35-e.

Choopanya K, Martin M, Suntharasamai P, Sangkum U, Mock PA, Leethochawalit M, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV infection in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand (the Bangkok Tenofovir Study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. The Lancet. 2013;381(9883):2083–90.

Molina J-M, Capitant C, Spire B, Pialoux G, Cotte L, Charreau I, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237–46.

Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Molina J, Charreau I, Spire B, Cotte L, Chas J, Capitant C, et al. ANRS IPERGAY Study Group Efficacy, safety, and effect on sexual behaviour of on-demand pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV in men who have sex with men: an observational cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4(9):e402–10.

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How effective is PrEP? : CDC; 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/prep/prep-effectiveness.html .

Kirby T, Thornber-Dunwell M. Uptake of PrEP for HIV slow among MSM. Lancet. 2014;383(9915):399–400.

Elopre L, Kudroff K, Westfall AO, Overton ET, Mugavero MJ. The right people, right places, and right practices: disparities in PrEP access among African American men, women and MSM in the Deep South. J Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndr (1999). 2017;74(1):56.

Article PubMed Central Google Scholar

Brantley ML, Rebeiro PF, Pettit AC, Sanders A, Cooper L, McGoy S, et al. Temporal trends and sociodemographic correlates of PrEP uptake in Tennessee, 2017. AIDS Behav. 2019;23:304–12.

Hollcroft MR, Gipson J, Barnes A, Mena L, Dombrowski JC, Ward LM, et al. PrEP acceptance among eligible patients attending the largest PrEP Clinic in Jackson, Mississippi. J Int Assoc Providers AIDS Care (JIAPAC). 2023;22:23259582231167960.

PubMed Google Scholar

Chase E, Mena L, Johnson KL, Prather M, Khosropour CM. Patterns of Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Use in a Population Accessing PrEP in Jackson, Mississippi. AIDS Behav. 2023;27(4):1082–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-022-03845-9 .

Arnold T, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Chan PA, Perez-Brumer A, Bologna ES, Beauchamps L, et al. Social, structural, behavioral and clinical factors influencing retention in Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) care in Mississippi. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(2):e0172354.

Cahill S, Taylor SW, Elsesser SA, Mena L, Hickson D, Mayer KH. Stigma, medical mistrust, and perceived racism may affect PrEP awareness and uptake in black compared to white gay and bisexual men in Jackson, Mississippi and Boston, Massachusetts. AIDS care. 2017;29(11):1351–8.

Arnold T, Gaudiano BA, Barnett AP, Elwy AR, Whiteley L, Giorlando KK, et al. Development of an acceptance based PrEP intervention (ACTPrEP) to engage young black MSM in the South utilizing the Adaptome Model of intervention adaptation. J Contextual Behav Sci. 2023;28:60–70.

Administration HRS. What is a Health Center? 2023. Available from: https://bphc.hrsa.gov/about-health-centers/what-health-center .

Oster AM, Dorell CG, Mena LA, Thomas PE, Toledo CA, Heffelfinger JD. HIV risk among young African American men who have sex with men: A case–control study in Mississippi. Am J Public Health. 2011;101(1):137–43.

Hall HI, Li J, McKenna MT. HIV in predominantly rural areas of the United States. J Rural Health. 2005;21(3):245–53.

Williams PB, Sallar AM. HIV/AIDS and African American men: Urban-rural differentials in sexual behavior, HIV knowledge, and attitude towards condoms use. J Natl Med Assoc. 2010;102(12):1139–49.

Krakower D, Mayer KH. Engaging healthcare providers to implement HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7(6):593.

Krakower D, Ware N, Mitty JA, Maloney K, Mayer KH. HIV providers’ perceived barriers and facilitators to implementing pre-exposure prophylaxis in care settings: a qualitative study. AIDS Behav. 2014;18:1712–21.

Hakre S, Blaylock JM, Dawson P, Beckett C, Garges EC, Michael NL, Danaher PJ, Scott PT, Okulicz JF. Knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis among US Air Force Health Care Providers. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(32):e4511. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000004511 .

Yakovchenko V, Bolton RE, Drainoni ML, Gifford AL. Primary care provider perceptions and experiences of implementing hepatitis C virus birth cohort testing: a qualitative formative evaluation. BMC Health Serv Res. 2019;19(1):236.

Powell BJ, Waltz TJ, Chinman MJ, Damschroder LJ, Smith JL, Matthieu MM, et al. A refined compilation of implementation strategies: results from the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) project. Implement Sci. 2015;10(1):21.

O'Brien BC, Harris IB, Beckman TJ, Reed DA, Cook DA. Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations. Acad Med. 2014;89(9):1245–51. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388 .

Harvey G, Kitson A. PARIHS revisited: from heuristic to integrated framework for the successful implementation of knowledge into practice. Implement Sci. 2016;11(1):33.

Braun V, Clarke V, Hayfield N, Terry G. Thematic Analysis. In: Liamputtong P, editor. Handbook of research methods in health social sciences. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019. p. 843–60.

Chapter Google Scholar

Lewis CC, Klasnja P, Powell BJ, Lyon AR, Tuzzio L, Jones S, Walsh-Bailey C, Weiner B. From Classification to Causality: Advancing Understanding of Mechanisms of Change in Implementation Science. Front Public Health. 2018;6:136. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00136 .

Lewis CC, Powell BJ, Brewer SK, Nguyen AM, Schriger SH, Vejnoska SF, et al. Advancing mechanisms of implementation to accelerate sustainable evidence-based practice integration: protocol for generating a research agenda. BMJ Open. 2021;11(10):e053474.

Varpio L, Ajjawi R, Monrouxe LV, O’Brien BC, Rees CE. Shedding the cobra effect: problematising thematic emergence, triangulation, saturation and member checking. Med Educ. 2017;51(1):40–50.

McKim C. Meaningful member-checking: a structured approach to member-checking. Am J Qual Res. 2023;7(2):41–52.

Google Scholar

Elo S, Kääriäinen M, Kanste O, Pölkki T, Utriainen K, Kyngäs H. Qualitative content analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. SAGE Open. 2014;4(1):2158244014522633.

Candela AG. Exploring the function of member checking. The qualitative report. 2019;24(3):619–28.

Vindrola-Padros C, Johnson GA. Rapid techniques in qualitative research: a critical review of the literature. Qual Health Res. 2020;30(10):1596–604.

Neal JW, Neal ZP, VanDyke E, Kornbluh M. Expediting the analysis of qualitative data in evaluation: a procedure for the Rapid Identification of Themes from Audio recordings (RITA). Am J Eval. 2015;36(1):118–32.

Theobald S, Brandes N, Gyapong M, El-Saharty S, Proctor E, Diaz T, et al. Implementation research: new imperatives and opportunities in global health. The Lancet. 2018;392(10160):2214–28.

Sullivan PS, Mena L, Elopre L, Siegler AJ. Implementation strategies to increase PrEP Uptake in the South. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2019;16(4):259–69.

Elopre L, Ott C, Lambert CC, Amico KR, Sullivan PS, Marrazzo J, et al. Missed prevention opportunities: why young, black MSM with recent HIV diagnosis did not access HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis services. AIDS Behav. 2021;25(5):1464–73.

Arnold T, Giorlando KK, Barnett AP, Gaudiano BA, Rogers BG, Whiteley L, et al. Social, structural, behavioral, and clinical barriers influencing Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) use among young black men who have sex with men in the south: a qualitative update to a 2016 study. Arch Sex Behav. 2024;53(2):785–97.

Edelman EJ, Moore BA, Calabrese SK, Berkenblit G, Cunningham CO, Ogbuagu O, et al. Preferences for implementation of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP): Results from a survey of primary care providers. Prev Med Rep. 2020;17: 101012.

Petroll AE, Walsh JL, Owczarzak JL, McAuliffe TL, Bogart LM, Kelly JA. PrEP awareness, familiarity, comfort, and prescribing experience among US primary care providers and HIV specialists. AIDS Behav. 2017;21(5):1256–67.

Barnett AP, Arnold T, Elwy AR, Brock JB, Giorlando KK, Sims-Gomillia C, et al. Considerations for PrEP implementation at federally qualified health centers in Mississippi: perspectives from staff and patients. AIDS Educ Prev. 2023;35(4):309–19.

Seidman D, Carlson K, Weber S, Witt J, Kelly PJ. United States family planning providers’ knowledge of and attitudes towards preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: a national survey. Contraception. 2016;93(5):463–9.

Clement ME, Seidelman J, Wu J, Alexis K, McGee K, Okeke NL, et al. An educational initiative in response to identified PrEP prescribing needs among PCPs in the Southern U.S. AIDS Care. 2018;30(5):650–5.

Bonacci RA, Smith DK, Ojikutu BO. Toward greater pre-exposure prophylaxis equity: increasing provision and uptake for black and Hispanic/Latino individuals in the US. Am J Prev Med. 2021;61(5 Suppl 1):S60-s72.

Arnold T, Whiteley L, Elwy RA, Ward LM, Konkle-Parker DJ, Brock JB, et al. Mapping Implementation Science with Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (MIS-ERIC): strategies to improve PrEP use among black cisgender women living in Mississippi. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2023;10(6):2744–61.

Hirschhorn LR, Brown RN, Friedman EE, Greene GJ, Bender A, Christeller C, Bouris A, Johnson AK, Pickett J, Modali L, Ridgway JP. Black Cisgender Women's PrEP Knowledge, Attitudes, Preferences, and Experience in Chicago. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2020;84(5):497–507. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000002377 .

Pichon LC, Teti M, McGoy S, Murry VM, Juarez PD. Engaging black men who have sex with men (MSM) in the South in identifying strategies to increase PrEP uptake. BMC Health Serv Res. 2022;22(1):1491.

Auerbach JD, Kinsky S, Brown G, Charles V. Knowledge, attitudes, and likelihood of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use among US women at risk of acquiring HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29(2):102–10.

Siegler AJ, Bratcher A, Weiss KM. Geographic access to preexposure prophylaxis clinics among men who have sex with men in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2019;109(9):1216–23.

Rousseau E, Julies RF, Madubela N, Kassim S. Novel platforms for biomedical HIV prevention delivery to key populations — community mobile clinics, peer-supported, pharmacy-Led PrEP delivery, and the use of telemedicine. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2021;18(6):500–7.

Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Player MS, Cooper NA, Perkins S, Diaz VA. Evaluation of a telemedicine pilot program for the provision of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis in the Southeastern United States. AIDS Care. 2022;34(12):1499–505.

Gray LM, Wong-Wylie G, Rempel GR, Cook K. Expanding qualitative research interviewing strategies: Zoom video communications. Qual Rep. 2020;25(5):1292–301.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Authors would like to acknowledge and thank Sarah Bailey for reviewing the manuscript and assisting for formatting.

This study was funded by the National Institute of Health (R34MH115744) and was facilitated by the Providence/Boston Center for AIDS Research (P30AI042853). Additionally, work by Dr. Trisha Arnold was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health Grant (K23MH124539-01A1) and work by Dr. Andrew Barnett was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health Grant (T32MH078788). Dr. Elwy is supported by a Department of Veterans Affairs Research Career Scientist Award (RCS 23–018).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychiatry, Rhode Island Hospital, One Hoppin Street, Coro West, 204, Providence, RI, 02903, USA

Trisha Arnold, Kayla K. Giorlando, Andrew P. Barnett, Avery Leigland & Larry K. Brown

Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

Trisha Arnold, Laura Whiteley, Andrew P. Barnett, Ariana M. Albanese, A. Rani Elwy & Larry K. Brown

Department of Population Health Science, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA

Courtney Sims-Gomillia & Precious Patrick Edet

Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA

Demetra M. Lewis & James B. Brock

Center for Healthcare Organization and Implementation Research, VA Bedford Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, USA

A. Rani Elwy

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

TA and ARE led the conceptualization of this paper. TA, LW, LKB, DML, and JBB completed the literature search and study design. TA, LW, LKB, KKG, PPE, AB, AL, and CSG assisted with analyzing and interpreting the data. TA, ARE, and AMA finalized the results and implementation concepts of the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Trisha Arnold .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by both the Rhode Island Hospital Institutional Review Board and the University of Mississippi Medical Center Institutional Review Board. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest or competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Arnold, T., Whiteley, L., Giorlando, K.K. et al. A qualitative study identifying implementation strategies using the i-PARIHS framework to increase access to pre-exposure prophylaxis at federally qualified health centers in Mississippi. Implement Sci Commun 5 , 92 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43058-024-00632-6

Download citation

Received : 22 May 2024

Accepted : 21 August 2024

Published : 28 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s43058-024-00632-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

HIV Prevention
Implementation Science
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)
Telemedicine

Implementation Science Communications

ISSN: 2662-2211

Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
General enquiries: [email protected]

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

View all journals
Explore content
About the journal
Publish with us
Sign up for alerts
Open access
Published: 27 August 2024

Investigating viewer engagement in esports through motivation and attitudes toward metaverse and NFTs

Hyeon Jo ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7442-4736 1 &
Seung-A. Shin 2

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 19934 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Environmental social sciences
Mathematics and computing

As the esports industry continues its rapid growth, new opportunities such as the metaverse and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are emerging, driven by the inherently digital nature of esports. To better understand viewer engagement in this evolving landscape, this study investigates viewer behavior in the context of watching esports. A survey was conducted on a sample of 312 esports viewers in South Korea, and the data was subsequently analyzed using structural equation modeling. The study's findings indicate that hedonic motivation is significantly correlated with attitudes toward esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse. Furthermore, perceived enjoyment was found to significantly positively influence attitudes toward esports, the metaverse expansion of esports, and the use of esports via NFTs. Notably, attitudes toward esports showed a significant relationship with continuance intention. Both subjective norms and perceived behavioral control were also found to significantly influence continuance intention.

Exploring the impact of beauty vloggers’ credible attributes, parasocial interaction, and trust on consumer purchase intention in influencer marketing

Exploring the effects of audience and strategies used by beauty vloggers on behavioural intention towards endorsed brands

Exploring e-sports fans’ motivation for watching live streams based on self-determination theory

Introduction.

Over the past few years, esports, known as competitive video gaming, has experienced enormous growth, attracting a global audience of more than 500 million people and generating a projected revenue of $1.5 billion by 2023 1 . Esports has also become a lucrative industry, with professional teams, players, and tournaments attracting significant sponsorships and investments 2 . As esports has grown, significant interest has been sparked in the potential for its expansion into cyberspace, with various stakeholders seeking to monetize this burgeoning industry 3 . The expansion of esports bears significant implications for the industry, leading to increased revenue streams, growth opportunities, and an expanded esports ecosystem 4 , 5 .

Two emerging technologies that are reshaping the esports landscape are the metaverse and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) 6 . The metaverse, a fully immersive and interactive virtual space, has already been utilized for live esports events, offering a novel experience to fans 7 , 8 . For instance, Riot Games hosted the League of Legends World Championship in a virtual venue within the metaverse, allowing fans to interact and engage with the event in a dynamic, digital environment 9 . Similarly, the Fortnite World Cup used the metaverse to create a virtual stadium experience, where fans could watch the tournament live, interact with one another, and even participate in parallel in-game events 10 . While virtual reality (VR) creates isolated, immersive experiences through headsets, the metaverse encompasses a broader, interconnected virtual universe where users can engage in social interactions, economic activities, and content creation 11 . Virtual stadiums in esports exemplify this metaverse concept by allowing users to interact with each other, participate in events, and engage in communal activities, thus going beyond the solitary experience of VR to offer a socially immersive environment. This connectivity and shared experience highlight how virtual stadiums qualify as part of the metaverse.

In the case of NFTs, the esports industry is witnessing a revolutionary change in how digital assets are perceived and monetized 12 . NFTs, stored on blockchain technology, offer unique ownership of digital items. Specifically, the incorporation of NFTs in esports extends to in-game assets 13 , 14 , 15 . A notable example includes Dapper Labs’ NBA Top Shot, where fans can buy, sell, and trade officially licensed NBA collectible highlights as NFTs 16 . Another instance is the collaboration between F1 Delta Time and Animoca Brands, where players purchase, collect, and use NFTs of cars, drivers, and components in the game 17 . Additionally, in the popular game Axie Infinity, players can buy, breed, and trade digital creatures called Axies as NFTs. Each Axie is unique, and some rare breeds have been sold for significant amounts, highlighting the potential for NFTs to create economic value within esports games 18 , 19 . By creating scarcity and exclusivity through NFTs, esports organizations and players may be able to generate new revenue streams and enhance fan engagement. This development presents a range of specific opportunities and challenges across legal, regulatory, and ethical domains. Legally, NFTs provide a clear framework for digital ownership of in-game assets, potentially enhancing intellectual property rights and creating new licensing opportunities 20 . However, they also pose questions regarding the management of these digital rights 21 . From a regulatory standpoint, classifying NFTs as securities or commodities offers a chance for clearer governance and taxation guidelines, yet also introduces ambiguity that necessitates careful consideration 22 . Ethically, while the high energy consumption of blockchain technology, the basis for NFTs, is a notable concern 23 , it also paves the way for the development of more sustainable blockchain solutions. Additionally, integrating NFTs into online games raises ethical considerations around game addiction and microtransactions 21 . The market volatility and potential for speculative bubbles in NFT markets underline the importance of effective risk management strategies 24 . Despite these challenges, the foray of esports into domains such as the metaverse and NFTs calls for an empirical exploration of viewers' attitudes and intentions, providing valuable insights for managers and marketers in the industry.

We employ the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in our study to predict and explain the continuance intention of esports viewers, particularly as it relates to emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs. TPB is ideal for this context as it encompasses three critical factors: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. These components are particularly relevant for understanding esports viewership, where decisions to continue watching are significantly influenced not only by individual attitudes towards esports, particularly in new formats like the metaverse and NFTs, but also by social influences and the perceived ease or difficulty of accessing these platforms. The adoption of TPB allows us to comprehensively assess how these factors collectively shape viewers' intentions in the rapidly evolving landscape of esports entertainment.

Esports, fundamentally seen as entertainment mediums, are driven by the enjoyment and pleasure viewers derive from watching competitive gaming. Thus, it is conceptually logical to consider hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment as antecedents of attitude toward esports, as well as toward its expansion into the metaverse and utilization via NFTs. Hedonic motivation, defined as the pursuit of pleasure, fun, and enjoyment, inherently influences an individual’s attitude toward esports, shaping their perception of the game’s entertainment value and overall attractiveness 25 . Similarly, perceived enjoyment, which gauges the degree of pleasure or delight experienced while watching esports, significantly shapes their attitude towards its extension into the metaverse or via NFTs. The greater the pleasure derived from esports, the more likely viewers are to possess a positive attitude towards its utilization in new digital domains.

Understanding viewer behavior, particularly their motivations, attitudes, and intentions, is crucial for sports managers to design strategies that drive engagement and foster brand loyalty 26 . The primary variables investigated in this study—including hedonic motivation, perceived enjoyment, attitudes toward esports, the metaverse, and NFTs, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and continuance intention—offer a comprehensive view of viewer behavior. They encompass both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that guide viewers' decisions and actions, shaping their overall engagement with esports and its associated virtual spaces. Insights into these variables can enable marketers to develop targeted campaigns that appeal to viewers' pursuit of pleasure, fostering positive attitudes toward esports and its sustained use. A nuanced understanding of attitudes toward esports, the metaverse, and NFTs can aid in leveraging these innovative platforms for enhancing viewer engagement and participation. Additionally, insights into viewers' continuance intention provide valuable information about their likelihood of participating in extended activities related to esports in a virtual environment.

This study aims to bridge a gap by examining esports fans' attitudes and intentions towards emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs. It delves into esports viewers' perceptions and intentions regarding the expansion of esports into virtual spaces, providing insights crucial for the industry's growth in these domains. While previous research has often focused on the intention to engage with esports 25 , 27 or the potential of virtual spaces 28 , 29 , this study takes a unique approach by empirically analyzing viewers' intentions to use technologies such as the metaverse and NFTs. Additionally, unlike existing studies that predominantly utilize technology acceptance and usage models 25 , 30 , this research applies a general behavioral theory model to explain esports viewers' behavior. This shift in theoretical approach allows for a broader understanding of the motivational factors in esports viewing. A key aspect of this study is the emphasis on the role of pleasure in viewing motivation. It explores the relationship between hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment, concepts linked to the pleasure and satisfaction derived from engaging in activities like esports viewing 30 , 31 , 32 , thus providing deeper insights into why viewers engage in esports and how they interact with these new technologies.

The research questions/objectives of this study are as follows: First, how do hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment influence attitudes towards esports, its expansion into the metaverse, and utilization via NFTs? Second, how do these attitudes impact the continuance intention to view esports? Third, to what extent do subjective norms and perceived behavioral control contribute to the continuance intention of esports viewers? These objectives aim to unravel the complex interplay between viewer motivations, attitudes, and behavioral intentions in the context of emerging digital trends in the esports industry. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact, ultimately offering insights that can inform strategies for enhancing viewer engagement and sustaining the growth of esports in the evolving digital landscape.

Literature review

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the study of esports, and various researchers have attempted to investigate the factors influencing esports consumption behavior. Jang and Byon 30 studied the relationship between media consumption of esports events and esports gameplay, revealing that intention to play esports is influenced by effort expectancy, hedonic motivation, and price value. Additionally, Jang et al. 33 conducted research on the relationship between recreational gameplay and event broadcast, exploring the mediating impact of esports content live streaming. Their study found that the intention of esports content live streaming consumption played a full mediation role in this relationship. In another study, Jang and Byon 32 investigated the moderating effects of genre on the relationship between elements in the UTAUT model and gameplay intention. They identified imagination, physical enactment, and sports simulation as three types of genres and found that the imagination group was statistically different when compared to the physical enactment and sport simulation groups. Additionally, Jang et al. 25 conducted a study on the determinants of intention to play esports by applying the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model. They found that the interaction between gender and genre moderates the relationship between drivers and esports gameplay intention.

Some studies have suggested motivations for esports spectators or compared them with traditional sports. Zhou et al. 34 conducted a study on the motivation of online spectators in esports and proposed various scales to measure it. They identified skill improvement and vicarious sensation as unique motives in the context of esports, while also noting that entertainment, competition excitement, friends bonding, competitive nature, and dramatic nature align with the motives of traditional sports fans. Using the theory of reasoned action, Xiao 35 investigated the antecedents of esports viewership and found that aesthetics, drama, and escapism influence attitudes, while subjective norms affect behavioral intentions via attitudes. Comparing consumption motives between esports and traditional sports, Lee and Schoenstedt 36 discovered that competition, peer pressure, and skill are significantly related to gameplay. Pizzo et al. 37 compared the spectator motives between esports and traditional sports, suggesting excitement, entertainment, and enjoyment of aggression as motives.

To summarize the above studies, although there have been many studies on the behavior of visitors to esports, few studies have explained the expansion of esports into a virtual space. In addition, several studies have commonly verified hedonic motivation and pleasure as determinants involved in esports. Therefore, this study explains the intention of using esports in a virtual space based on representative preceding factors of esports users.

Esports on metaverse and NFTs

The metaverse refers to a virtual space that is a fully immersive and interactive environment 38 . One potential application of the metaverse in the esports industry is as a platform for live events 39 . Esports tournaments are currently held in physical venues such as stadiums and convention centers, but the metaverse could provide a virtual space for fans to attend events from anywhere in the world. A virtual arena could be created in the metaverse, where fans could watch matches and interact with each other. Another potential application of the metaverse in esports is as a platform for advertising and sponsorships 40 . In-game advertising is already a common feature in many esports titles, but the metaverse could provide an even more immersive advertising experience. Brands could create virtual storefronts or sponsor virtual events, creating a more personalized experience for fans. The metaverse could also provide opportunities for esports teams and organizations to monetize their content 41 . As platforms like Twitch and YouTube have expanded, esports teams and organizations have been able to generate revenue from advertising and sponsorships. The metaverse could provide additional opportunities for teams and organizations to monetize their content, such as selling virtual merchandise or creating virtual events.

The concept of NFTs has recently garnered significant attention in the esports industry, offering revolutionary prospects for content monetization 42 . As distinctive digital assets stored on a blockchain, NFTs have the potential to represent a diverse array of items, from artistic creations to virtual game elements 43 . Their use in esports paves the way for the creation and exchange of unique, rare, and valuable items, free from concerns of duplication, forgery, or fraud 44 . A key application of NFTs in esports is the monetization of in-game assets 45 . Esports games often feature items such as skins, weapons, or characters that players can earn or purchase 46 . NFTs offer a means for players to genuinely own these items and facilitate the creation of rare and unique items that could command high prices. Moreover, esports matches produce extensive data, including highlights, player statistics, and outcomes 47 . NFTs can capture and commodify unique moments in these matches, such as a pivotal play or a championship triumph, selling them as collectibles whose value may appreciate over time. Additionally, NFTs in esports create fan engagement and community-building opportunities. Fans can engage in creating and trading NFTs, fostering a sense of ownership and community around their favorite teams or titles. NFTs can also serve as incentives for fan participation in activities like social media campaigns or event attendance 13 .

The TPB is a widely-used psychological model that aims to explain and predict human behavior 48 . It was first introduced by Ajzen in 1985 as an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). The constructs of TPB include three determinants of behavior: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Attitudes refer to an individual's evaluation of a particular behavior, whether positive or negative. Subjective norms are the social norms and expectations that an individual perceives from their social environment regarding their behavior. Perceived behavioral control relates to an individual's confidence in their capability to execute a behavior effectively. These three determinants, along with behavioral intention, are assumed to predict the actual behavior of an individual.

TPB has been applied to esports in explaining participation behaviors 49 , 50 , 51 . Given that TPB is a robust theory that explains human behavior and has been verified by numerous researchers in the context of esports, this study presents a research model centered on TPB.

Research model

Hedonic motivation.

Hedonic motivation is defined as the enjoyment experienced while participating in esports 30 . It has proven to be the prevailing predictor of esports intention 25 , 30 . Hedonic motivation leads to a positive attitude in online shopping 52 and social media 53 contexts. Consumers of esports are typically fans who choose to play esports games depending on their preferences. People who watch esports for pleasure will want to enjoy the game through more diverse media. They may also expect to encounter esports in metaverse and NFTs, which have something in common with virtual spaces. Accordingly, when viewers experience a higher level of hedonic motivation, they would form a more favorable attitude toward esports, expansion on metaverse, and utilization via NFT. These discussions led to the following hypothesis:

H1a: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward esports.

H1b: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward the expansion on the metaverse.

H1c: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward the utilization via the NFTs.

Perceived enjoyment

Perceived enjoyment can be justified as the degree to which watching esports is deemed to be entertaining, outside of any performance implications 54 . It is the proximal antecedent of attitude 55 , 56 , 57 . This paper distinguishes perceived pleasure from hedonic motivation, drawing upon existing theoretical frameworks. Hedonic motivation refers to the anticipatory pleasure derived from the expectation of engaging in esports viewing 30 , a concept rooted in the desire for enjoyment and entertainment 58 . In contrast, enjoyment pertains to the actual experiential pleasure obtained during or after the viewing 59 , reflecting the real-time emotional response to the activity 60 . These distinctions are critical as they can influence attitude formation towards esports differently. While hedonic motivation influences the initial decision to engage with esports 61 , perceived enjoyment impacts the continued engagement and satisfaction post-experience 62 . Thus, the paper treats these constructs separately, recognizing their unique contributions to the esports viewing experience. Users who have gained greater enjoyment through esports may want more diverse media. They would develop a more positive attitude toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs. Therefore, perceived enjoyment is hypothesized to have an impact on attitudes toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs.

H2a: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward esports.

H2b: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward the expansion on the metaverse.

H2c: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward utilization of esports through the NFT.

Attitude refers to the positive or negative evaluation or feelings an individual holds toward performing a particular activity 48 . This study seeks to capture viewers' responses accurately by assessing attitudes toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs. The objective is to obtain a comprehensive understanding of viewers' perceptions and evaluations in these three domains. Continuance is described as an individual's sustained motivation to put forth effort in line with a deliberate plan 63 . This paper defines continuance intention as the extent to which viewers plan to continue using esports in the future or recommend it to others. In various fields, attitude has been extensively proven to be a critical precursor to behavioral intention 64 , 65 , 66 . Viewers who hold a positive attitude toward esports are more inclined to continue their usage and participate in its expanded presence on the metaverse. Similarly, viewers who exhibit a favorable attitude toward the utilization of esports through NFTs are likely to persist in using esports. Based on these observations, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H3: Attitude to esports has a positive impact on continuance intention.

H4: Attitude to the expansion on the metaverse has a positive impact on continuance intention.

H5: Attitude to the utilization of esports through the NFT has a positive impact on continuance intention.

Subjective norms

According to Ajzen 67 , subjective norms refer to an individual's perception of social pressure to either engage or not engage in a behavior. The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention has been extensively examined in research 64 , 68 , 69 . When viewers' neighbors support and agree to watch the sport more, they may want to continue it more. Thus, this study proposes that subjective norms drive continuance intention.

H6: Subjective norms have a positive impact on continuance intention.

Perceived behavioral control

Perceived behavioral control is the degree to which an individual believes that they have the ability to perform a particular behavior with ease or difficulty 48 . Its influence on the intention to continue performing a behavior has been widely studied and found to be positively significant 70 . When viewers have more time and resources to use the sport, they try to watch it more consistently. Hence, this study suggests the following hypothesis.

H7: Perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on continuance intention.

Figure 1 illustrates the research model employed in this paper. The study proposes that hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment have a significant impact on attitudes toward esports, attitudes toward expansion on the metaverse, and attitudes toward utilization through NFTs. These three types of attitudes, in turn, influence continuance intention. Moreover, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are posited to exert an influence on continuance intention. To maintain brevity, this study uses the abbreviations "attitude to esports" for "attitude toward esports," "attitude to metaverse" for "attitude toward the expansion of esports in the metaverse", and "attitude to NFT" for "attitude toward the utilization of esports through NFTs".

Research framework.

Empirical methodology

This research was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Instrument development

To ensure the research model's factors' validity, this paper sourced survey questions from existing literature, specifically media and human behavior, and modified them to fit the esports case. The author created the questionnaire, which was then translated from English to Korean by a Korean expert fluent in English. The response results were translated back into English, and the two English versions were adjusted for minor differences by the author. Academic and industry professionals in the social sciences refined the questionnaire for content validity. A pilot survey was conducted to check the measures' validity and reliability and ensure a logical arrangement of questions. Feedback from the preliminary review and pilot study was essential in clarifying the final questionnaire. All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Table 1 presents all the constructs' measurement items.

Data collection

The study used an online survey to collect empirical data and test the theoretical framework. The survey was conducted through a market research institute in Korea with professional expertise in data collection. Before disseminating the main survey in June 2022, the institute implemented a set of screening questions to ensure the participants had relevant experience or awareness related to the study's focus. These screening questions included: "Have you ever experienced e-sports?", "What sports have you watched or attended?", "Do you have knowledge about metaverse", and "Do you have knowledge about NFTs?" Only those respondents who provided affirmative and relevant answers to these screening questions were directed to the main survey. This process ensured that the participants were adequately qualified and representative of the target population interested in esports, the metaverse, and NFTs, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of the study outcomes. Participants were informed about the study's purpose and academic publication before agreeing to participate. After removing incomplete responses, the study analyzed a total of 312 responses. Among the final sample, 275 (88.1%) were male and 37 (11.9%) were female. The age group with the highest frequency was those in their 40 s with 115 (36.9%), followed by those in their 30 s with 110 (35.3%). Most of the respondents had a bachelor's degree (242, 77.6%). Most of the respondents earned between 2.5 million won and 5.0 million won per year. Table 2 describes the sample's demographic characteristics.

Ethical approval

The research subject is unspecified, and the information collected through the research does not contain sensitive information in accordance with Article 23 of the Personal Information Protection Act of Korea and is exempted from IRB of HJ Institute of Technology and Management.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to participate

Consent to participate was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Research results

In this study, the theoretical framework was analyzed using the SmartPLS method, which is widely used in the social science field due to its robustness and less restriction on data distribution and sample size 75 , 76 . The analysis and interpretation were divided into two stages, assessing the reliability and validity of the measurement model and the structural model.

Common method bias (CMB)

CMB is a potential issue in data collection where the same method used can lead to an artificial inflation in the association among variables. To evaluate if this study was affected by common method bias, we adhered to the guidelines provided by Podsakoff et al. 77 . These guidelines suggest that we can control for the impact of an unmeasured latent method factor by introducing an unmeasured latent variable in our model that impacts all the items alongside their substantive construct. The quality of fit indices of the model was then compared both with and without this method factor. In our revised model, the substantive constructs were permitted to correlate with the method factor. If the model with the method factor showed a better fit and if a considerable amount of variance in the items could be explained by the method factor, it would signify the presence of common method bias. However, our analysis results suggested that our data was not impacted by CMB, thereby indicating the reliability and validity of the study's measures.

Measurement model

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Composite reliability and Cronbach's alpha were used to assess scale reliability, with results indicating good internal consistency 78 . Convergent validity was found to be acceptable, with factor loadings ranging from 0.669 to 0.934, and all statistically significant at the p = 0.05 level, supporting the presence of convergent validity 79 . Also, the average variance extracted (AVE) was well over 0.5, presenting a satisfactory level of convergent validity 80 . Table 3 describes the test results of reliability and validity.

Table 4 shows the test results of Fornell and Larcker 80 criterion. Overall, diagonal matrix values are greater than those of the same row and column, thus satisfying the adequate level of discriminant validity.

Testing of hypotheses

The study used partial least squares structural equation modeling to evaluate the proposed relationships among the constructs, and the bootstrap resampling method was employed with 5000 resamples to determine the significance of the path coefficients in the theoretical framework. The findings of the analysis are illustrated in Fig. 2 .

The path coefficients of the research model.

Table 5 presents the results of the hypothesis testing for this study. Overall, the theoretical model accounted for approximately 71.2 percent of the variation in continuance intention.

The finding that hedonic motivation significantly correlates with attitudes toward esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse, but not with the utilization of esports via NFTs, offers several notable implications. Hedonic motivation, or the pursuit of pleasure, is known to drive individuals' engagement in leisure activities 81 . This finding suggests that the enjoyment derived from esports significantly influences how viewers perceive esports and its manifestation in the metaverse. For esports managers and marketers, this emphasizes the importance of heightening the entertainment value of esports content and its metaverse extensions to boost positive attitudes and engagement. However, the non-significant relationship with attitudes toward NFTs may indicate that viewers perceive NFTs as more of a financial endeavor than a source of pleasure 82 . Hence, when marketing NFT-related esports initiatives, the focus might need to shift toward presenting NFTs as valuable investments or exclusive perks rather than purely entertainment-based offerings. Future research might delve deeper into the nuanced perceptions of NFTs in esports to yield further insights.

The findings reveal that perceived enjoyment significantly positively influences attitudes toward esports, the metaverse expansion of esports, and the use of esports via NFTs. This is consistent with previous research that highlights enjoyment as a critical factor in fostering positive attitudes in online gaming contexts 55 , 56 , 57 . This could be due to viewers deriving greater pleasure from esports, which in turn cultivates a positive attitude towards esports and its commercialization in virtual space. Intriguingly, perceived enjoyment plays a different role from that of hedonic motivation. This study sought to discern and validate the distinction between motivation and experience. The results empirically highlight that the experience obtained plays a more crucial role than the motivation of viewers in shaping attitudes. For marketers, these results emphasize the need to create enjoyable esports experiences, whether in traditional formats, metaverse expansions, or NFT-based platforms. Strategies could include immersive storytelling, interactive features, or community-building initiatives.

The results reveal that attitudes toward esports significantly influence continuance intention, which aligns with previous research 64 , 65 , 83 , suggesting that positive attitudes towards a behavior enhance the intention to perform that behavior. This implies that viewers with a positive attitude towards esports are more likely to continue viewing. Therefore, marketers should aim to reinforce these positive attitudes through various strategies, such as improving the quality of broadcasts, creating engaging content, and building vibrant esports communities.

On the other hand, attitudes toward the expansion of esports into the metaverse and the utilization of esports through NFTs do not significantly impact continuance intention. The finding that attitude towards the metaverse has a negligible and non-significant impact on continuance intention in esports challenges some prevailing assumptions about the influence of new technologies on viewer behavior. This divergence from previous research, such as Hsu and Lin 84 ’s study, which found a positive relationship between attitudes towards innovative technologies and continuance intention, is notable. It suggests that viewers who primarily seek pure enjoyment from esports may harbor reservations about its commercialization in the metaverse. Although statistically insignificant, this slight negative correlation could indicate subtle discomfort or skepticism among these viewers towards the commercial integration of the metaverse in esports. It implies that for some fans, the essence of esports lies in its entertainment value, and the commercial aspects, especially on novel platforms like the metaverse, might not align with their reasons for continued engagement.

Similarly, the finding that attitude towards NFTs does not significantly affect continuance intention in esports viewing offers another interesting perspective. Contrasting with the anticipated impacts suggested in the literature 27 , where new technological phenomena were expected to significantly influence user engagement behaviors, the influence of NFTs on continuance intention can be interpreted similarly to that of the metaverse. This suggests that some viewers might have reservations about the commercialization aspect represented by NFTs, potentially neutralizing their intention to continue using or engaging with esports platforms. This ambivalence among a segment of the audience could be a contributing factor to the statistically insignificant result observed. Additionally, it may suggest that NFTs, being relatively less known than the metaverse, elicit a lesser degree of resistance or skepticism among viewers. Therefore, it appears that while both NFTs and the metaverse are emerging technologies in the esports context, their relative familiarity to viewers might influence their attitudes and, subsequently, their intentions to continue engaging with esports.

The study confirmed that subjective norms impact continuance intention, aligning with previous research 64 , 68 , 69 . The significant effect of subjective norms on continuance intention, observed in this study, suggests that these social influences play a crucial role in the viewer's decision to persist in engaging with esports content. The more supportive the individuals perceive these significant others to be towards their esports viewing behavior, the more likely they are to continue doing so. This finding could be due to the communal nature of esports, where social interactions, discussions, and shared experiences significantly enhance the overall enjoyment of the activity. These factors contribute to an environment that fosters continued engagement. Furthermore, this finding aligns with the TPB, which postulates that subjective norms, along with attitudes and perceived behavioral control, are key determinants of an individual's behavioral intentions. In the context of this study, it underlines the importance of considering social influences when designing strategies to retain esports viewers and promote sustained engagement.

Perceived behavioral control was found to significantly influence continuance intention, aligning with existing studies 70 . This finding is also in line with the TPB, which posits that perceived behavioral control is a key determinant of an individual's intention to perform a particular behavior. In the esports environment, this translates to the viewers' belief in their ability to access and navigate esports content, understand game mechanics, follow competitions, and participate in associated communities. When viewers perceive a high level of control over these factors, they are more likely to continue their engagement with esports. From a practical standpoint, these findings suggest that strategies aimed at enhancing viewers' perceived behavioral control could significantly improve continuance intention. For instance, providing comprehensive resources to help viewers understand games, facilitating easy access to esports content, and ensuring the user interface is intuitive and user-friendly, can enhance viewers' perceptions of control. Moreover, efforts to reduce potential barriers to esports engagement, such as high-cost equipment or limited internet access, may also increase perceived behavioral control. This would involve strategies such as providing options for low-bandwidth streaming or making esports content accessible across a variety of devices.

Finally, our study aligns closely with the findings of Yadav et al. 85 and Yadav et al. 86 , which both emphasize the significant role of blockchain technology in influencing spectator behavior in the esports and sports industries. Yadav et al. 85 utilized a TPB and machine learning approach to analyze netizens' behaviors towards a blockchain-based esports framework, finding a generally positive attitude among users. Similarly, their 2023 study further explored blockchain's potential in sports through social media analytics, underlining the positive sentiment of users towards blockchain adoption in sports. Our research complements these findings by examining how the underlying technology of blockchain, particularly through NFTs, affects spectator adoption behavior in esports. We observe a parallel trend where the technological advancement represented by NFTs in esports also generates significant interest and positive attitudes among spectators, resonating with the optimistic perspectives found in the previous works 85 , 86 . This demonstrates a broader pattern of blockchain technology's growing influence in digital sports consumption and fan engagement.

Theoretical contributions

This research contributes to sport management and marketing literature by integrating the TPB with the concept of hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment in the context of esports viewership. While TPB has been widely used in various fields, its application in the esports sector is limited 87 . By focusing on esports viewership—a vital component of the esports industry—this study brings new insights to the table. The significant relationships found between hedonic motivation and attitudes towards esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse highlight the importance of pleasure in driving esports consumption, complementing previous studies that emphasize instrumental factors in predicting esports viewership 27 . It reinforces the notion that esports, like traditional sports, provides not just competitive excitement but also hedonic enjoyment to its viewers.

The second contribution of this study lies in its exploration of new variables—attitudes toward the metaverse expansion and NFT utilization. Prior research in sport management has focused predominantly on conventional platforms and methods of engagement 88 , and our understanding of emerging phenomena like metaverses and NFTs is still in its infancy. The non-significant relationships found between attitudes towards metaverse and NFTs and continuance intention highlight the gap between viewers' interest in these new concepts and their intention to continue viewing esports. This novel finding calls for more research to understand how to bridge this gap and effectively utilize these emerging platforms in the esports industry.

Thirdly, the study demonstrates that subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors of continuance intention in the esports context. It echoes previous findings in TPB-based research in sport management 88 , 89 , reinforcing the relevance and applicability of TPB in this emerging sector. This finding also suggests that interpersonal influences and perceived control over behavior are essential considerations for esports marketers. However, unlike previous studies that predominantly focused on participation in sports 90 , this study expands the application of these constructs to viewing behavior in the esports context.

Lastly, the current research asserts the importance of continuance intention in the esports context. Most studies on sport viewership focus on initial adoption, with little attention to continued engagement 8 . This research fills this gap by exploring factors that contribute to continuance intention, offering theoretical insights on how to maintain and increase engagement in the esports industry. Scholars are encouraged to delve deeper into this area, which is crucial for the sustainability and growth of the esports sector.

Practical implications

The first key practical implication drawn from this research centers on the significance of hedonic motivation in driving viewers' attitudes towards esports and the metaverse. It suggests that esports marketers should aim to enhance the pleasure and enjoyment viewers derive from their esports consumption experience. For example, they can create immersive and engaging content, offer interactive features, and build online communities that allow viewers to share their esports experiences 91 . In addition, the development of the metaverse as a new venue for esports presents exciting opportunities for enhancing viewers' hedonic experiences. By offering unique and immersive viewing experiences that traditional platforms cannot provide, metaverse service providers can attract and retain more viewers.

Secondly, the study's findings highlight the need for marketers and industry practitioners to better understand and address the gap between viewers' interest in emerging phenomena like the metaverse and NFTs and their intention to continue viewing esports. For instance, developers can conduct user research to identify potential barriers and enhance the user interface and user experience of these new platforms. Marketers, on the other hand, can invest in educational campaigns to demystify these concepts and help viewers understand the value they bring to their esports viewing experience 92 .

Thirdly, the significant influence of subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on continuance intention implies that marketers should consider these factors in their marketing strategies. They could leverage influencers or esports celebrities to create positive subjective norms around esports viewing, thereby influencing viewers' continuance intention. In addition, providing viewers with easy access to esports content and flexible viewing options can enhance their perceived behavioral control, thus fostering their continuance intention. For instance, marketers could craft an environment that allows users to conveniently access esports through straightforward app operations and encourage sharing recommendations with others 93 .

Lastly, the non-significant relationships between attitudes towards the metaverse and NFTs and continuance intention suggest that these new concepts alone may not be sufficient to drive continuance intention. Marketers and developers should therefore consider integrating these new platforms with other established elements that viewers value in their esports consumption experience. For example, they can leverage NFTs to offer exclusive content or rewards in existing popular esports titles, or use the metaverse to host esports events that also feature real-world celebrities or esports personalities. This way, they can drive continuance intention not just through the novelty of these new platforms, but also through the value they add to the overall esports viewing experience.

Limitations and future research directions

This study, while offering insights into the impact of attitudes towards the metaverse and NFTs on continuance intention in esports, is subject to certain limitations that present avenues for future research. The reliance on self-reported measures introduces potential biases, suggesting the need for future studies to adopt experimental designs for a more robust establishment of causality. Additionally, our research did not delve deeply into the nuanced contextual factors that could influence continuance intention, such as individual differences, situational contexts, and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, future research should consider these contextual elements to gain a more comprehensive understanding of esports viewers' behaviors. An exploration of other relevant factors like perceived enjoyment, satisfaction, and loyalty could also provide a more rounded perspective on what drives continuance intention in esports viewing. Moreover, the cross-sectional nature of our study design limits our ability to infer causal relationships over time. Future studies should consider longitudinal designs to better understand how attitudes towards emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs, and their perceived complexities and unfamiliarities, evolve and influence viewer behavior over time. Given the nascent state of research in this area, there is also an opportunity for future studies to investigate the significant impacts of metaverse and NFTs, comparing esports with other contexts to ascertain the uniqueness of its viewer base. Such research could help to clarify whether the results observed in our study are specific to the esports context or are indicative of broader trends in digital entertainment consumption.

This study delves into the complex world of esports viewership, shedding light on the pivotal roles of hedonic motivation, perceived enjoyment, and viewers' attitudes towards both esports and emerging technologies such as the metaverse and NFTs. This research marks a significant step in understanding how these factors collectively influence the continuance intention of viewers, a crucial aspect for sustaining interest in this dynamic field. By methodically examining these elements, the study makes a substantial contribution to our comprehension of the evolving nature of esports viewership in the context of rapid technological advancements.

The findings of this research not only enhance academic understanding in the field of esports but also offer valuable insights for practitioners within the industry. They undersline the importance of aligning esports offerings with viewer motivations and preferences, particularly in the context of new and evolving digital platforms. The study highlights the need for esports entities to innovate continually and adapt to emerging trends in technology to maintain viewer engagement and interest.

Furthermore, this study paves the way for future research, opening avenues to explore the ever-changing interplay between technology and viewer preferences in esports. It calls for a deeper investigation into how emerging technologies can be leveraged to enhance viewer experience and engagement, and how these technologies will shape the future of esports. As the industry continues to grow and evolve, the findings of this study will undoubtedly be a valuable resource for both academics and practitioners in the domain of esports.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Newzoo. Newzoo’s Global Esports & Live Streaming Market Report 2021 . https://newzoo.com/insights/trend-reports/newzoos-globalesports-live-streaming-market-report-2021-free-version/ (2021).

Dilek, S. E. E-Sport events within tourism paradigm: A conceptual discussion. Int. J. Contemp. Tour. Res. 3 , 12–22 (2019).

Article Google Scholar

Karhulahti, V.-M. Reconsidering Esport: Economics and executive ownership. Phys. Cult. Sport. Stud. Res. 74 , 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1515/pcssr-2017-0010 (2017).

Carrillo Vera, J. A. & Aguado Terrón, J. M. The eSports ecosystem: Stakeholders and trends in a new show business. Catalan J. Commun. Cult. Stud. 11 , 3–22 (2019).

Newman, J. I., Xue, H., Watanabe, N. M., Yan, G. & McLeod, C. M. Gaming gone viral: An analysis of the emerging esports narrative economy. Commun. Sport 10 , 241–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479520961036 (2022).

Mancini, V., Marazzi, T. & Postiglione, A. Sport as a global business: Esports, Crypto, NFT and metaverse. Market 4 , 8–144 (2023).

Google Scholar

Chohan, R. & Schmidt-Devlin, E. Sports fandom in the metaverse: Marketing implications and research agenda. Mark. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-023-09702-6 (2023).

Pizzo, A. D. et al. Esports scholarship review: Synthesis, contributions, and future research. J. Sport Manag. 36 , 228–239. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2021-0228 (2022).

Kokkinakis, A. V., Cowling, P. I., Drachen, A. & Wade, A. R. Exploring the relationship between video game expertise and fluid intelligence. PLoS One 12 , e0186621. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186621 (2017).

Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Klee, M. Fortnite Gave Its Fans the Tools to Build a Whole Universe . https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/fortnite-metaverse-fortnite-creative-uefn-1234933770/ (2023).

zebpay. Metaverse vs. Virtual Reality: Understanding the Key Differences . https://zebpay.com/in/blog/metaver-vs-virtual-reality#:~:text=The%20metaverse%20represents%20a%20vast,users%20from%20the%20physical%20world (2023).

Muthe, K. B., Sharma, K. & Sri, K. E. N. In 2020 Second International Conference on Blockchain Computing and Applications (BCCA). 73–77 (IEEE).

Belk, R., Humayun, M. & Brouard, M. Money, possessions, and ownership in the Metaverse: NFTs, cryptocurrencies, Web3 and Wild Markets. J. Bus. Res. 153 , 198–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.08.031 (2022).

Reay, E. & Wanick, V. In Reinventing Fashion Retailing: Digitalising, Gamifying, Entrepreneuring (eds. Eirini, B. & Vanissa, W.) 73–90 (Springer International Publishing, 2023).

Vidal-Tomás, D. The new crypto niche: NFTs, play-to-earn, and metaverse tokens. Finance Res. Lett. 47 , 102742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2022.102742 (2022).

Zaucha, T. & Agur, C. Newly minted: Non-fungible tokens and the commodification of fandom. New Media Soc. 14614448221080481 (2022).

Friedmann, D. International Law and Economics Conference 137–189 (Springer).

Reback, S. Axie Infinity Plot Sells for $2.5M . https://www.coindesk.com/business/2021/11/26/axie-infinity-plot-sells-for-25m/ (2021).

Yeo-Teh, N. S. L. & Tang, B. L. Letter to Editor: NLP systems such as ChatGPT cannot be listed as an author because these cannot fulfill widely adopted authorship criteria. Account. Res. (2023).

Raman, R. & Raj, B. E. In Enabling Blockchain Technology for Secure Networking and Communications 89–108 (IGI Global, 2021).

Cooke, O. & Young, D. NFTS: Opportunities and Challenges in the Esports, Streaming, And Gaming Sectors . https://www.penningtonslaw.com/news-publications/latest-news/2023/nfts-opportunities-and-challenges-in-the-esports-streaming-and-gaming-sectors (2023).

Bao, H. & Roubaud, D. Non-fungible token: A systematic review and research agenda. J. Risk Financ. Manag. 15 , 215 (2022).

Rashida, S. Y., Sabaei, M., Ebadzadeh, M. M. & Rahmani, A. M. An intelligent approach for predicting resource usage by combining decomposition techniques with NFTS network. Cluster Comput. 23 , 3435–3460 (2020).

Wang, Y., Horky, F., Baals, L. J., Lucey, B. M. & Vigne, S. A. Bubbles all the way down? Detecting and date-stamping bubble behaviours in NFT and DeFi markets. J. Chin. Econ. Bus. Stud. 20 , 415–436 (2022).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Jang, W., Byon, K. K., Williams, A. & Pedersen, P. M. Augmenting the formation of esports gameplay intention: Interaction effects of genre and gender. Sport Bus. Manag. Int. J. 11 , 620–646 (2021).

Munnukka, J., Karjaluoto, H., Mahlamäki, T. & Hokkanen, V. 1051–1064 (Springer International Publishing).

Hamari, J. & Sjöblom, M. What is eSports and why do people watch it?. Internet Res. 27 , 211–232 (2017).

Ba, S. & Shen, T. Sub aesthetics: Consumption traps of livestreamed eating shows (Chibo) in the metaverse and avoidance strategies. Metaverse 3 , 10 (2022).

Cai, L., Huang, Z., Feng, Q., Chang, X. & Yan, K. Co-transformation of digital health and eSport in Metaverse: Moderating effects of digital personality on mental health in multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 20 , 760 (2023).

Jang, W. & Byon, K. K. Antecedents and consequence associated with esports gameplay. Int. J. Sports Market. Spons. 21 , 1–22 (2020).

CAS Google Scholar

Qian, T. Y., Wang, J. J., Zhang, J. J. & Lu, L. Z. It is in the game: Dimensions of esports online spectator motivation and development of a scale. Eur. Sport Manag. Q. 20 , 458–479 (2020).

Jang, W. & Byon, K. K. Antecedents of esports gameplay intention: Genre as a moderator. Comput. Hum. Behav. 109 , 106336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106336 (2020).

Jang, W. W., Byon, K. K., Baker, T. A. III. & Tsuji, Y. Mediating effect of esports content live streaming in the relationship between esports recreational gameplay and esports event broadcast. Sport Bus. Manag. Int. J. 11 , 89–108 (2021).

Zhou, R. et al. Measuring e-service quality and its importance to customer satisfaction and loyalty: An empirical study in a telecom setting. Electron. Commer. Res. 19 , 477–499 (2019).

Xiao, M. Factors influencing eSports viewership: An approach based on the theory of reasoned action. Commun. Sport 8 , 92–122 (2020).

Lee, D. & Schoenstedt, L. J. Comparison of eSports and traditional sports consumption motives. ICHPER-SD J. Res. 6 , 39–44 (2011).

Pizzo, A. et al. eSport vs sport: A comparison of spectator motives. Faculty/Researcher Works (2018).

Han, D.-I. D., Bergs, Y. & Moorhouse, N. Virtual reality consumer experience escapes: Preparing for the metaverse. Virtual Real. 1–16 (2022).

Kim, H.-M. & Kim, S. The show must go on: Why Korea lost its first-mover advantage in Esports and how it can become a major player again. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 179 , 121649 (2022).

Baker, B. J. Impact analysis of a virtual stadium: Measuring sport in the metaverse. J. Appl. Sport Manag. 14 , 7 (2022).

Smith, A. C. & Skinner, J. Sport management and COVID-19: Trends and legacies. Eur. Sport Manag. Q. 22 , 1–10 (2022).

Baker, B., Pizzo, A. & Su, Y. Non-fungible tokens: A research primer and implications for sport management. Sports Innov. J. 3 , 1–15 (2022).

Park, A., Kietzmann, J., Pitt, L. & Dabirian, A. The evolution of nonfungible tokens: Complexity and novelty of NFT use-cases. IT Prof. 24 , 9–14 (2022).

Wilson, K. B., Karg, A. & Ghaderi, H. Prospecting non-fungible tokens in the digital economy: Stakeholders and ecosystem, risk and opportunity. Bus. Horiz. 65 , 657–670 (2022).

Delfabbro, P., Delic, A. & King, D. L. Understanding the mechanics and consumer risks associated with play-to-earn (P2E) gaming. J. Behav. Addict. 11 , 716–726 (2022).

Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Nielsen, R. K. L. & Grabarczyk, P. Are Loot Boxes Gambling?: Random reward mechanisms in video games. Trans. Digit. Games Res. Assoc. 4 , 171–207 (2019).

Block, F. et al. In Proceedings of the 2018 ACM International Conference on Interactive Experiences for TV and Online Video. 29–41.

Ajzen, I. In Action Control 11–39 (Springer, 1985).

Chung, P.-K., Ou, K.-L., Wong, M. Y. C., Lau, K.-L. & Leung, K.-M. Investigation of Hong Kong students’ Esports participation intentions using the theory of planned behavior approach: A structural equation model. Hum. Behav. Emerg. Technol. 2022 , 1–19 (2022).

Leung, K.-M., Wong, M.-Y.-C., Ou, K.-L., Chung, P.-K. & Lau, K.-L. Assessing Esports participation intention: The development and psychometric properties of the theory of planned behavior-based Esports intention questionnaire (TPB-Esport-Q). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18 , 12653 (2021).

Wong, M. Y. C., Chung, P.-K., Ou, K. & Leung, K.-M. Perception of Hong Kong teenagers and young adults on esports participation: A qualitative study using theory of planned behavior. Front. Psychol. 12 , 650000 (2021).

Anand, T., Ramachandran, J., Sambasivan, M. & Batra, G. Impact of hedonic motivation on consumer satisfaction towards online shopping: Evidence from Malaysia. E-Serv. J. 11 , 56–88 (2019).

Chung, C. & Austria, K. Social media gratification and attitude toward social media marketing messages: A study of the effect of social media marketing messages on online shopping value. Proc. Northeast Bus. Econ. Assoc. (2010).

Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P. & Warshaw, P. R. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to use computers in the workplace. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 22 , 1111–1132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb00945.x (1992).

Nguyen, Q. N., Ta, A. & Prybutok, V. An integrated model of voice-user interface continuance intention: The gender effect. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 35 , 1362–1377 (2019).

Dickinger, A., Arami, M. & Meyer, D. The role of perceived enjoyment and social norm in the adoption of technology with network externalities. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 17 , 4–11 (2008).

van der Heijden, H. User acceptance of hedonic information systems. MIS Q. 28 , 695–704. https://doi.org/10.2307/25148660 (2004).

Hirschman, E. C. & Holbrook, M. B. Hedonic consumption: Emerging concepts, methods and propositions. J. Market. 46 , 92–101 (1982).

Yin, C., Huang, Y., Kim, D. & Kim, K. The effect of esports content attributes on viewing flow and well-being: A focus on the moderating effect of esports involvement. Sustainability 15 , 12207 (2023).

Babin, B. J., Darden, W. R. & Griffin, M. Work and/or fun: Measuring hedonic and utilitarian shopping value. J. Consum. Res. 20 , 644–656 (1994).

Rietz, J. & Hallmann, K. A systematic review on spectator behavior in esports: Why do people watch?. Int. J. Sports Market. Spons. 24 , 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-12-2021-0241 (2023).

Chen, A., Lu, Y. & Wang, B. Enhancing perceived enjoyment in social games through social and gaming factors. Inf. Technol. People 29 , 99–119 (2016).

Eagly, A. H. & Chaiken, S. The Psychology of Attitudes (Harcourt, 1993).

Song, H. G. & Jo, H. Understanding the continuance intention of omnichannel: Combining TAM and TPB. Sustainability 15 , 3039 (2023).

Jo, H. Determinants of continuance intention towards e-learning during COVID-19: An extended expectation-confirmation model. Asia Pac. J. Educ. 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2022.2140645 (2022).

Jo, H. What drives university students to practice social distancing? Evidence from South Korea and Vietnam. Asia Pac. Viewpoint https://doi.org/10.1111/apv.12351 (2022).

Ajzen, I. Understanding Attitudes and Predictiing Social Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, 1980).

Tran, H. T. T., Nguyen, N. T. & Tang, T. T. Influences of subjective norms on teachers’ intention to use social media in working. Contemp. Educ. Technol. 15 , ep400 (2023).

Perez-Aranda, J., Gonzalez Robles, E. M. & Urbistondo, P. A. Sport-related physical activity in tourism: An analysis of antecedents of sport based applications use. Inf. Technol. Tour. 23 , 97–120 (2021).

Kim, B. An empirical investigation of mobile data service continuance: Incorporating the theory of planned behavior into the expectation–confirmation model. Expert Syst. Appl. 37 , 7033–7039 (2010).

Salehan, M., Kim, D. J. & Kim, C. Use of online social networking services from a theoretical perspective of the motivation-participation-performance framework. J. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 18 , 1 (2017).

Ramayah, T. & Ignatius, J. Impact of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and perceived enjoyment on intention to shop online. ICFAI J. Syst. Manag. IJSM. 3 , 36–51 (2005).

Ajzen, I. The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 50 , 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T (1991).

Bhattacherjee, A. Understanding information systems continuance: An expectation-confirmation model. MIS Q. 25 , 351–370. https://doi.org/10.2307/3250921 (2001).

Chin, W. W., Marcolin, B. L. & Newsted, P. R. A partial least squares latent variable modeling approach for measuring interaction effects: Results from a Monte Carlo simulation study and an electronic-mail emotion/adoption study. Inf. Syst. Res. 14 , 189–217 (2003).

Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M. & Mena, J. A. An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research. J. Acad. Market. Sci. 40 , 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-011-0261-6 (2012).

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, M., Scott, B., Lee, J.-Y. & Podsakoff, N. P. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 885 , 10.1037 (2003).

Nunnally, J. C. Psychometric Theory , 2nd ed. (Mcgraw Hill Book Company, 1978).

Hoque, A. & Awang, Z. Does gender difference play moderating role in the relationship between entrepreneurial marketing and Bangladeshi SME performance?. Accounting 5 , 35–52 (2019).

Fornell, C. & Larcker, D. F. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement Error. J. Market. Res. 18 , 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312 (1981).

Vorderer, P., Klimmt, C. & Ritterfeld, U. Enjoyment: At the heart of media entertainment. Commun. Theory 14 , 388–408 (2004).

Belk, R. You are what you can access: Sharing and collaborative consumption online. J. Bus. Res. 67 , 1595–1600 (2014).

Jo, H. Antecedents of continuance intention of social networking services (SNS): Utilitarian, hedonic, and social contexts. Mob. Inf. Syst. 2022 , 7904124. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7904124 (2022).

Hsu, C.-L. & Lin, J.C.-C. Effect of perceived value and social influences on mobile app stickiness and in-app purchase intention. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 108 , 42–53 (2016).

Yadav, J., Misra, M., Rana, N. P., Singh, K. & Goundar, S. Netizens’ behavior towards a blockchain-based esports framework: A TPB and machine learning integrated approach. Int. J. Sports Market. Spons. 23 , 665–683. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-06-2021-0130 (2022).

Yadav, J., Misra, M., Rana, N. P., Singh, K. & Goundar, S. In Distributed Computing to Blockchain (eds Rajiv, P., Sam, G., & Shahnaz, F.) 405–414 (Academic Press, 2023).

Hwang, K. & Zhang, Q. Influence of parasocial relationship between digital celebrities and their followers on followers’ purchase and electronic word-of-mouth intentions, and persuasion knowledge. Comput. Hum. Behav. 87 , 155–173 (2018).

Filo, K., Funk, D. C. & Alexandris, K. Exploring the role of brand trust in the relationship between brand associations and brand loyalty in sport and fitness. Int. J. Sport Manag. Market. 3 , 39–57 (2008).

Funk, D. C., Filo, K., Beaton, A. A. & Pritchard, M. Measuring the motives of sport event attendance: Bridging the academic-practitioner divide to understanding behavior. Sport Market. Q. 18 , 126 (2009).

Downward, P. & Rasciute, S. Does sport make you happy? An analysis of the well-being derived from sports participation. Int. Rev. Appl. Econ. 25 , 331–348 (2011).

Dirin, A., Nieminen, M., Laine, T. H., Nieminen, L. & Ghalebani, L. Emotional contagion in collaborative virtual reality learning experiences: An eSports approach. Educ. Inf. Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11769-7 (2023).

Nagorsky, E. & Wiemeyer, J. The structure of performance and training in esports. PLoS One 15 , e0237584. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237584 (2020).

Reitman, J., Anderson-Coto, M., Wu, M., Lee, J. S. & Steinkuehler, C. Esports research: A literature review. Games Cult. 15 , 155541201984089. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412019840892 (2019).

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

HJ Institute of Technology and Management, 71 Jungdong-Ro 39, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 14721, Republic of Korea

Department of Physical Education, Kookmin University, 77, Jeongneung-Ro, Seongbuk-Gu, Seoul, 02707, Republic of Korea

Seung-A. Shin

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

H.J. wrote the original manuscript of this study. S.S. was responsible for the revision of the article.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Seung-A. Shin .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Jo, H., Shin, SA. Investigating viewer engagement in esports through motivation and attitudes toward metaverse and NFTs. Sci Rep 14 , 19934 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70847-z

Download citation

Received : 27 September 2023

Accepted : 21 August 2024

Published : 27 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70847-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Behavioral intention
Non-fungible tokens
Theory of planned behavior

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

Explore articles by subject
Guide to authors
Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Anthropocene newsletter — what matters in anthropocene research, free to your inbox weekly.

Open access
Published: 26 August 2024

Public attitudes towards personal health data sharing in long-term epidemiological research: a Citizen Science approach in the KORA study

Ina-Maria Rückert-Eheberg 1 ,
Margit Heier 1 , 2 ,
Markus Simon 1 ,
Monika Kraus 1 , 3 ,
Annette Peters 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 &
Birgit Linkohr 1 , 3

BMC Public Health volume 24 , Article number: 2317 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

72 Accesses

Metrics details

Loss to follow-up in long-term epidemiological studies is well-known and often substantial. Consequently, there is a risk of bias to the results. The motivation to take part in an epidemiological study can change over time, but the ways to minimize loss to follow-up are not well studied. The Citizen Science approach offers researchers to engage in direct discussions with study participants and to integrate their opinions and requirements into cohort management.

Guided group discussions were conducted with study participants from the KORA cohort in the Augsburg Region in Germany, established 40 years ago, as well as a group of independently selected citizens. The aim was to look at the relevant aspects of health studies with a focus on long-term participation. A two-sided questionnaire was developed subsequently in a co-creation process and presented to 500 KORA participants and 2,400 employees of the research facility Helmholtz Munich.

The discussions revealed that altruistic motivations, (i.e. supporting research and public health), personal benefits (i.e. a health check-up during a study examination), data protection, and information about research results in layman’s terms were crucial to ensure interest and long-term study participation. The results of the questionnaire confirmed these aspects and showed that exclusively digital information channels may be an obstacle for older and less educated people. Thus, paper-based media such as newsletters are still important.

Conclusions

The findings shed light on cohort management and long-term engagement with study participants. A long-term health study needs to benefit public and individual health; the institution needs to be trustworthy; and the results and their impact need to be disseminated in widely understandable terms and by the right means of communication back to the participants.

Peer Review reports

In a long-term prospective cohort study, the motivation of people to participate over an extended period and trustfully share their health data is essential to investigating causal relationships between health and disease in constantly changing environments. However, loss-to-follow up, i.e. declining willingness to take part in follow-up examinations and questionnaires, is a major problem in all long-term prospective cohort studies [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], raising questions about the generalizability of results [ 4 ]. Information on the reasons to participate is often gathered at the initial sign-up of the study by short non-participant questionnaires [ 5 , 6 , 7 ], satisfaction polls after the study examination for internal conduct improvement, witness statements [ 8 ] or by chance when study participants comment to staff or leave remarks in questionnaires. Non-participants often report acute health problems or stressful life-events, but also unspecific reasons like lack of interest or time constraints. In good epidemiological practice, efforts to characterize the loss of follow-up during analysis are made [ 9 ] and particular groups can be identified, e.g. less educated groups or middle-aged men, depending on the cohort [ 10 , 11 ]. However, cohort management should seek to maximize participation in follow-up studies in the first place by trying to meet participants’ expectations. Personal attitudes towards data sharing may change during long-term studies, particularly in the light of the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic. To our knowledge, systematic research into cohort management strategies in long-term epidemiological studies is rare.

Citizen Science, also called “participatory research,” has increasingly been supported by public organizations in and outside of academic institutions to meet information requirements, increase transparency, and improve people’s attitudes towards science [ 12 ]. In 2022, the White Paper “Citizen Science Strategy 2030 for Germany” was published that comprehensively informs about Citizen Science, action areas, networking, funding, volunteer management, and many other aspects [ 13 ]. Meanwhile, a wide range of scientific projects covering all areas of interest are offered to the public [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Participatory research strategies have been introduced into health research in various initiatives (e.g. [ 17 ]) with the overarching goal “to reduce concerns about the use of data through intensive exchange with interested citizens and to demonstrate the opportunities it offers” [ 18 ]. Citizen Science in public health can be characterized by typology according to aim, approach, and size, depending on the level of engagement with the community [ 19 ].

Recently, Marcs et al. published a scoping review on Citizen Science approaches in chronic disease prevention where they used Citizen Science to identify problems from the perspective of community members, generate and prioritize solutions, develop, test and/or evaluate interventions, and/or build community capacity [ 20 ]. Frameworks for a systematic development of participatory epidemiology have also been proposed [ 21 ].

Our aim was to employ Citizen Science approaches to engage in direct discussion with study participants from a well-established epidemiological study to evaluate how to maximise study participation long-term by high response rates and low subsequent withdrawal of consent. We were particularly interested in the reasons for continuing to take part in follow-up studies as well as concerns and wishes regarding the collection and use of health data. The research methods combined Citizen Science approaches like qualitative research and co-design elements with a classical quantitative approach in a nested but work-efficient study design. The project was conducted in a randomly selected subgroup of participants of a long-term prospective cohort study and, for comparison, a group of independent citizens and employees of a large health research institution.

The Citizens Science project was embedded in the KORA study (Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg), an adult population-based prospective cohort study established in 1984 in the City of Augsburg and the adjacent rural counties Augsburg and Aichach-Friedberg in Southern Germany [ 22 ]. Briefly, the KORA-study consists of four cross-sectional baseline surveys (S1 from 1984/85 with N = 4,022 (response: 79.3%); S2 from 1989/90 with N = 4,940 (response: 76.9%); S3 from 1994/95 with 4,856 (response: 74.9%); and S4 from 1999/2001 with 4,261 (response: 66.8%)). The participants were randomly selected from population registries aged 25–74 years (S1: 25–64 years). The KORA study is still in active follow-up with a KORA study centre located in the City of Augsburg. A general health survey was sent out in 2021 to all S1 to S4 participants still living in the study area and with consent for recontact. 6,070 out of 9,109 participants answered the survey (66.6%).

The starting point of the project was qualitative research with three guided discussion groups: two with KORA study participants and one with newly recruited citizens. In a co-creation process at a subsequent meeting, a questionnaire was developed with a smaller group of volunteers from the discussion groups. For the quantitative part of the study, this questionnaire was mailed to participants of the KORA study and distributed to all employees of Helmholtz Munich.

Discussion groups

During the preparation of the study setup, a pilot discussion group was conducted with seven acquaintances of the involved scientists. For the two discussion groups with KORA volunteers, 183 KORA study participants were selected (criteria: 50% women, 50% participants of the latest KORA general health survey 2021 with online survey completion and 50% paper-based completion, born 1949–1969, residing in Augsburg or nearby). They were invited in writing by post and contacted by telephone. Citizens were recruited via a newsletter advertisement of the Volunteer Centre Augsburg [ 23 ], and posters and flyers that were distributed in shops, restaurants, the library, the University Hospital Augsburg, and other public places in Augsburg. To compensate expenses, e.g. for travelling, we paid a small expense allowance.

The discussions took place between May and June 2023 in the KORA Study Centre in Augsburg. Following a short impulse presentation on the KORA study, the attendees were asked to note their motivations, concerns, and wishes regarding the participation in a long-term observational health study separately on index cards. The number of cards was not specified. The participants had the opportunity to present each card to the group before it was displayed on a whiteboard sorted by the respective category. Guided by two moderators, the raised aspects were discussed in greater depth along with a set of prepared questions. To provide more information on data privacy and protection in the KORA study, the consent form and study information from the most recent KORA general health survey in 2021 were distributed. Each discussion group lasted about 90 min and was rounded up with a little get-together at the end. The discussions were audiotaped with Audacity ® 3.2.5 and a microphone of the conference system Logitech CC3000e ConferenceCam and transcribed subsequently. In the aftermath, the index cards were coded according to reoccurring themes. One of the authors, who was part of all three discussion groups, developed a coding scheme with the help of the audiotapes. The scheme was reviewed by another author who was not present at the discussions, and consensus was found in terms of discrepant interpretation. Anonymized quotes were selected and translated for publication purposes.

Questionnaire development

The discussion group participants were invited to a subsequent meeting to develop the questionnaire together with the researchers in a co-creation process. The aim was to recruit six volunteers (two per group) to discuss a prepared questionnaire draft in the light of the results from the discussion groups. The questionnaire was designed for mailing to the KORA study participants first and modified slightly for the employees of Helmholtz Munich thereafter. It consisted of questions on the three pre-defined categories motivations, concerns, and wishes and a section on personal data such as sex, age, and school education. Many of the questions were formatted as 5-point Likert scales.

The questionnaire was piloted at the Institute of Epidemiology, and the final version was also translated into English for the Helmholtz Munich employees (Supplement).

Questionnaire survey

The paper version was posted to 500 selected KORA participants, equally balanced by sex. They were randomly chosen from the KORA S1-S3 studies from a total of N = 2,933 participants born between 1964 and 1945, still living in the study area, and with consent for recontact. 400 of them had taken part in the latest KORA general health survey in 2021, while 100 had not. The approximately 2,400 Helmholtz employees were invited to complete the questionnaire personally on paper in the canteen on campus or online (in PDF format).

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All discussion group participants gave their written informed consent to take part in the discussions. The questionnaire was conducted anonymously, and no written informed consent was required. This study protocol was approved by the ethics committee of the Bavarian Medical Association (EC 23010).

Statistical analysis

The data from the completed questionnaires was transferred to a database and analyzed primarily with R and RStudio (Boston, MA, USA). Characteristics of the qualitative study groups were reported with absolute numbers, and characteristics of the quantitative questionnaire study population with numbers and percentages. The R-package „Likert“ was used to create Likert scale charts (Figs. 1 and 2 ). Percentages were calculated to sum the two categories “not important” and “not very important”, and the two categories “important” and “very important”, respectively. The category “neutral” was also visualized, and the percentages were given. Figure 3 was set up in Excel. Percentages were calculated and displayed by education level after exclusion of participants with missing information on education ( N = 1) and those who had no school-leaving certificate ( N = 2). Significance tests were not performed because the statistics were descriptive and not adjusted for confounding factors.

Reasons to participate in the KORA study or a long-term health study. Percentages on the left represent purple responses, percentages on the right represent green responses

Concerns about data protection, linkage of study data with secondary health information, and use for non-public research. Percentages on the left represent green responses, percentages on the right represent red responses

Preferred information channels to disseminate research results of the KORA study, stratified by school education

Twenty-four people participated in the three discussion groups (17 probands of the KORA study, 7 citizens, 11 women, and 13 men). Their age range was 42 to 78 years (mean age: 65 years). 14 people reported high (12–13 years), 9 intermediate (10 years), and one person low (9 years) school education.

Table 1 shows the results of the group discussions stratified by category. There was no major difference between KORA participants and the citizen group. Most ideas were raised in the category motivations, followed by wishes and concerns. We excluded statements that went beyond the scope of a health study (concerns: general criticism of the health system (3x) and study staff would not listen (1x); wishes: individual health advice (8x) and contact between participants (2x)).

The number of people who referred to one of the aspects listed in the table is depicted in column N.

For many volunteers, a motivation to take part in the KORA study or a health study in general was the free preventive medical check-up in the form of the study examinations.

Discussion Group 1 , KORA participant: “So , my motivation to join was to get information about my health that I wouldn’t have gotten otherwise.”

Additionally, the discussants placed great importance on the benefits for the public, their contribution to health research, and their interest in it.

Discussion Group 3 , KORA participant: “In terms of motivation , the focus is , of course , quite clearly on the fact that the benefit is for the general public.” Discussion Group 1 , KORA participant: “And then , of course , that one contributes to general research.”

The professional conduct of the study was also mentioned several times.

The participants raised fewer issues in the category concerns than in the categories motivations and wishes. The main aspects were protection and security of health data in KORA or generally in health studies.

Discussion Group 1 , KORA participant: “My concerns are (…) data protection and data usage. Not particularly in relation to Helmholtz Munich , but the overall (…) misuse , data hackers , cybercrime , all that stuff. And that will increase even more in the future.” Discussion Group 2 , Citizen: “…it is always difficult with data protection in an international comparison. We have very high standards here , but can we maintain them in the long term? Because , of course , we also create barriers that are incomprehensible to others.”

Some of these concerns were not directed at the discussants themselves but rather at younger people who might suffer greater harm through misuse. Discrimination in professional life or when taking out insurance were mentioned as examples in this context.

Discussion Group 1 , KORA participant: “Personally , I wouldn’t mind (…) , but with younger , working people , I would probably have a different opinion. Because today , you can supposedly already say that people might get certain diseases at some point. (…) And I think that is dangerous if this information goes to the insurance companies or to the employers themselves (…).”

The participants did express their trust in Helmholtz Munich as a publicly funded research institution, and the consent form and study information were considered informative and clear; some participants even found them too detailed.

A minority of the participants had no worries whatsoever.

Discussion Group 3 , KORA participant: “I really can’t say anything about concerns. If my data were published with my name , I wouldn’t care at all.”

In the category wishes, the participants pointed out that more communication on study results and their translation into the health care system would motivate them long-term to participate in a study.

Discussion Group 2 , Citizen: “(…) the research results must be disseminated more widely. In my opinion , they have primarily been intended for experts.” Discussion Group 2 , Citizen: “I find the contributions on the Internet (…) terrible. The layperson gets all mixed up. You’d have to clean up that mess , too.”

Many participants indicated that simple, brief, and comprehensible communication was appreciated. Some discussants preferred digital formats, while others explicitly stated that they wanted paper-based communication only. Overall, the discussion group participants were open to health research and were interested in more frequent examinations and additional study offers.

A two-page questionnaire was developed in a meeting between two out of the 24 discussion group participants and two researchers. The participants pointed out some complicated questions and assessed the overall comprehensibility.

The survey was completed by 278 KORA participants (response rate: 67% in those who had participated in the latest KORA follow-up and 9% in those who had not participated) and 285 Helmholtz Munich employees (response rate: about 12% as the exact number of employees was not available), resulting in a total study population of 563 people. The characteristics of the study population are displayed in Table 2 . Approximately the same number of women and men took part in the survey. The KORA study participants were between 58 and 78 years old (mean age: 67.9 years). The Helmholtz Munich employees were younger, mostly between 20 and 50 years old (mean age: 39.8 years). About one-third of the KORA participants had low (9 years), intermediate (10 years), and high (12–13 years) levels of school education. In contrast, most of the Helmholtz Munich employees (89.2%) had a high level of education. 71.4% of the Helmholtz Munich employees worked scientifically, and 70.4% had German citizenship.

In the questionnaire, participants were asked how important they rated the three listed reasons to participate in the KORA study or a long-term health study (Fig. 1 ). The answers of the KORA study participants and the Helmholtz employees were very similar. A majority of about 90% deemed “contributing to health research” and “benefits for the general public” as very important or important. “Free comprehensive medical check-ups” were also seen as important or very important by about 70%, while about 20% took a neutral position on this aspect.

Differences between the two participant groups were found regarding questions about concerns in relation to data protection and data linkage (Fig. 2 ). Only a small proportion of the KORA study participants had reservations about data protection in the KORA study (3%). Concerns or strong concerns increased with regards to linking their study data to secondary health data such as diagnoses by their physicians (7%), prescription and treatment data by their health insurance (14%), but it decreased with regards to the cause of death sometime in the future (7%). In comparison, 35% of the Helmholtz Munich employees had concerns or strong concerns about data protection in a long-term health study. Data linkage was seen critically by 35% regarding study and physician diagnosis data, by 41% regarding study and health insurance data, and by 17% regarding study and death certificate data.

A larger proportion in both groups (29% of the KORA participants and 57% of the Helmholtz Munich employees) indicated concerns or strong concerns about the utilization of their health data by non-public research organizations.

The KORA participants were asked how they would like to be informed about the research results of the KORA study. Multiple selections were allowed. Figure 3 shows the percentages stratified by school education. Participants with a high level of school education preferred digital channels such as electronic newsletters and websites, in contrast to participants with low or intermediate school education, who preferred information, i.e. newsletters by paper mail. About 20% of each group indicated that they would appreciate coverage of scientific research results via newspapers, radio, and TV, while books were only interesting for a small proportion of participants. Less than 10% did not wish for any information. Of the 147 participants who chose a newsletter by paper mail, 20% also selected a newsletter by email, and 4% also selected the website category – thus, 77% of those who chose paper mail wanted no digital information.

Using Citizen Science approaches, this project examined the motivations, concerns, and wishes of research participants to help slow down the decline in follow-up study participation. The KORA study was established almost four decades ago and is still in active follow-up with relatively high response rates, e.g. 64% in an examination in 2018/19 [ 24 ] and 66.7% in a general health survey in 2021. Longitudinal data is particularly informative for life-course health research, but few studies exist on how to keep up motivation in follow-up studies. The findings from the discussion groups and the questionnaire survey showed that participants can be motivated to provide their personal health data for scientific purposes over long periods of time if their expectations are met. Three main reasons to participate in a long-term health study were identified: the benefit to the public, scientific progress, and personal health. Those findings are consistent with a previous study led by KORA scientists in 2010 on the public perceptions of cohort studies and biobanks during the recruitment phase of the German National Cohort (NAKO) [ 25 ]. They found that in general, citizens approve epidemiological research based on expectations for communal and individual benefits (e.g., health check-ups and health information). This shows that the basic motivation for study participation does not change between study initiation and long-term follow-up. Collaboration with science [ 26 ], making a contribution to society [ 27 ], and receiving information about personal health [ 28 ] have also been known as motivations for study participation in clinical studies. In a recent study on retaining participants in longitudinal studies of Alzheimer’s disease, altruism and personal benefit were the factors associated with continued study participation as well [ 29 ].

In the discussion groups, data protection did not come up as a major concern and was not necessarily directed at the KORA study. In the questionnaire, participants had no strong concerns about their data in the KORA study, even for data linkage. This is in line with the findings by Bongartz et al. that the trustworthiness of those conducting research appeared to be most important for the decision to participate in a health-related study [ 30 ]. However, Helmholtz Munich employees expressed more concerns with regards to data protection and data linkage. A likely interpretation for this difference is that KORA participants referred to a specific study that they had a lot of experience with, while Helmholtz employees imagined some theoretical long-term health study. Moreover, the Helmholtz employees were, on average, younger, higher educated, and probably more informed about data protection and data security risks. Our findings showed that institutional trust is essential for long-term participation in a health study. Once trust is gained at initial sign-up, it is important to maintain it. The comprehensive study by Tommel et al. also supports the importance of trust [ 31 ]. They explored citizens and healthcare professionals’ perspectives on personalized genomic medicine and personal health data spaces in questionnaires and interviews. Cohort management can help maintain trust, but overall satisfaction with the health system, public health policy, or pandemics is outside its scope.

About one-third of the KORA participants and about two-thirds of the Helmholtz Munich employees expressed concern about sharing data with non-public research organizations. This is in line with findings that people are generally prepared to participate in epidemiological research if it is conducted by a trusted public institution, but that there is widespread distrust of research conducted or sponsored by pharmaceutical companies [ 32 , 33 ]. However, this degree of concern in both groups was somewhat surprising, as most KORA participants had given consent to sharing their data with industry previously, and Helmholtz Munich contributes to the translation of research into medical innovation with commercial partners.

The discussion group participants wished to be informed about the results and impact of the research in a generally understandable format. The information should be addressed to them personally, such as through a newsletter, rather than in the press, TV, or the internet. A notable proportion of the KORA participants wished to be informed via non-digital means. This is an important finding for those running population-based studies such as the German National Cohort [ 34 ] and their financing bodies. While the finding may be specific to the setting in Southern Germany and a long-term cohort study with aged participants, it is important to monitor the information preferences. In addition to digital tools, paper-based methods are still needed for many more years to not lose large groups of the general population. Future research should focus particularly on the digital readiness of older citizens, so that cohort management strategies can engage participants at their level. In long-term health studies, morbidity and mortality are often relevant health outcomes. Public health policies that enable secondary data linkage could also compensate for loss to follow-up and limit selection bias.

Strengths and limitations

A strength of this project is its diverse group of participants, which includes stakeholders from a long-term epidemiological study, independent citizens, and staff from a research institution earning their living in health science research.

The discussion groups were structured but allowed participants to explain their own narratives and introduce new issues. The questionnaire was administered to two very different groups of participants, and in part, similar results were obtained that confirmed each other (i.e., important motivations to take part in health research (Fig. 1 )).

With respect to limitations, a Citizen Science project depends on participants who are interested and motivated to take part. It is quite difficult to find enough participants, and only 24 discussion group volunteers do not necessarily represent the “general” public, especially as discussants with low education were underrepresented. Participants living in rural areas were completely absent due to the recruitment strategy that they had to live in a reasonable travel distance from the KORA study center. The dates and times of the discussion groups were fixed by the researchers and probably discouraged very busy people. However, the small fee and snacks seemed to motivate some of the participants with lower economic status to take part.

In addition, it cannot be ruled out that the ideas of the discussants as well as the answers of the questionnaire survey were influenced by social desirability, perhaps on a subconscious level, and people might thus act somewhat differently in real life than they indicated they would in a theoretical setting. In a group discussion, participants may give answers that they believe to be expected and that will please the interviewer or moderator. Social desirability bias was certainly less of an issue in the questionnaire survey as it was anonymous. However, the outcomes of the discussion groups generally agreed with the responses to the questionnaire given to KORA participants. This questionnaire represents the views of a pre-selected group of people who were recruited up to forty years ago and who still consent to be contacted again for follow-up research. The response to the questionnaire by the KORA participants was as expected: It was high among those who had participated in the latest KORA general health survey in 2021, but it was very low in those who did not participate at the time. This shows that participants who are lost to follow-up are difficult to re-engage.

Finally, the development of the questionnaire was intended to be a co-creation process between selected discussion group participants and scientists. However, the interest of the discussion group members in co-creation was low, and only two participants were willing to take part in this process. They improved the comprehensibility of the questionnaire draft but saw themselves clearly as contributors rather than co-creators. A successful co-creation process requires more capacity building than was possible in this project. As Laird et al. pointed out, Citizen Science approaches often face barriers like building up longer-term collaborative relationships, and their implementation is often time and resource constrained [ 35 ].

The Citizen Science approach opens a new possibility to get in touch with study participants more closely and to integrate their opinions and requirements into cohort management.

On the one hand, people are altruistically motivated when they decide to take part in a long-term health study, and they enjoy the possibility to contribute to public benefit and scientific progress. On the other hand, they also see benefits for their personal health. Concerns do not seem to prevail. Feedback in layman’s terms on the long-term results of the study is highly appreciated and should be addressed to the participant personally.

Cohort management should include regular feedback of results as a thank you for the data donation and contribution to society.

In other words, a long-term health study needs to benefit public and individual health, to be trustworthy regarding data protection and data use, and to provide long-term research results in generally understandable terms and in the preferred communication mode back to the participants.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request via the application tool KORA.passt ( https://helmholtz-muenchen.managed-otrs.com/external/ ).

Abbreviations

Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg

Osler M, Linneberg A, Glumer C, Jorgensen T. The cohorts at the Research Centre for Prevention and Health, formerly ‘The Glostrup Population studies’. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40(3):602–10.

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Rabel M, Meisinger C, Peters A, Holle R, Laxy M. The longitudinal association between change in physical activity, weight, and health-related quality of life: results from the population-based KORA S4/F4/FF4 cohort study. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(9):e0185205.

Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Volzke H, Schossow J, Schmidt CO, Jurgens C, Richter A, Werner A, et al. Cohort Profile Update: the study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP). Int J Epidemiol. 2022;51(6):e372–83.

Zivadinovic N, Abrahamsen R, Pesonen M, Wagstaff A, Toren K, Henneberger PK, et al. Loss to 5-year follow-up in the population-based Telemark Study: risk factors and potential for bias. BMJ Open. 2023;13(3):e064311.

Hoffmann W, Terschüren C, Holle R, Kamtsiuris P, Bergmann M, Kroke A, et al. [The problem of response in epidemiologic studies in Germany (Part II)]. Gesundheitswesen. 2004;66(8–9):482–91.

Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar

Enzenbach C, Wicklein B, Wirkner K, Loeffler M. Evaluating selection bias in a population-based cohort study with low baseline participation: the LIFE-Adult-study. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2019;19(1):135.

Holle R, Hochadel M, Reitmeir P, Meisinger C, Wichmann HE. Prolonged recruitment efforts in health surveys: effects on response, costs, and potential bias. Epidemiology. 2006;17(6):639–43.

NaKo - Botschafter. https://nako.de/studie/nako-botschafter/ . Accessed 07 May 2024.

Nohr EA, Liew Z. How to investigate and adjust for selection bias in cohort studies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2018;97(4):407–16.

Powers J, Tavener M, Graves A, Loxton D. Loss to follow-up was used to estimate bias in a longitudinal study: a new approach. J Clin Epidemiol. 2015;68(8):870–6.

Kendall CE, Raboud J, Donelle J, Loutfy M, Rourke SB, Kroch A, et al. Lost but not forgotten: a population-based study of mortality and care trajectories among people living with HIV who are lost to follow-up in Ontario, Canada. HIV Med. 2019;20(2):88–98.

European Citizen Science Platform. https://eu-citizen.science. Accessed 07 May 2024.

Bonn A, Brink W, Hecker S, Herrmann TM, Liedtke C, Premke-Kraus M, Voigt-Heucke S et al. White Paper Citizen Science Strategy 2030 for Germany ( https://www.mitforschen.org/sites/default/files/grid/2024/07/24/White_Paper_Citizen_Science_Strategy_2030_for_Germany.pdf) 2022.

mit:forschen!. Gemeinsam Wissen schaffen (ehemals Bürger schaffen Wissen). www.buergerschaffenwissen.de. Accessed 07 May 2024.

Zooniverse. People-powered research. www.zooniverse.org. Accessed 07 May 2024.

European Commission - Marie. Skłodowska-Curie Actions. https://marie-sklodowska-curie-actions.ec.europa.eu/news/marie-sklodowska-curie-actions-funds-44-projects-to-bring-research-closer-to-education-and-society-across-europe . Accessed 08 May 2024.

Schütt AM-F, Weschke E. Sarah. Aktive Beteiligung Von Patientinnen Und Patienten in Der Gesundheitsforschung. Eine Heranführung für (klinisch) Forschende. Bonn/Berlin: DLR Projektträger; 2023.

Google Scholar

NFDI4Health. Nationale Forschungsdateninfrastruktur für personenbezogene Gesundheitsdaten. https://www.nfdi4health.de . Accessed 07 May 2024.

Den Broeder L, Devilee J, Van Oers H, Schuit AJ, Wagemakers A. Citizen Science for public health. Health Promot Int. 2018;33(3):505–14.

PubMed Google Scholar

Marks L, Laird Y, Trevena H, Smith BJ, Rowbotham S. A scoping review of Citizen Science Approaches in Chronic Disease Prevention. Front Public Health. 2022;10:743348.

Bach M, Jordan S, Hartung S, Santos-Hovener C, Wright MT. Participatory epidemiology: the contribution of participatory research to epidemiology. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2017;14:2.

Holle R, Happich M, Lowel H, Wichmann HE, Group MKS. KORA–a research platform for population based health research. Gesundheitswesen. 2005;67(Suppl 1):S19–25.

Freiwilligen-Zentrum Augsburg. https://www.freiwilligen-zentrum-augsburg.de/ . Accessed 07 May 2024.

Rooney JP, Rakete S, Heier M, Linkohr B, Schwettmann L, Peters A. Blood lead levels in 2018/2019 compared to 1987/1988 in the German population-based KORA study. Environ Res. 2022;215(Pt 1):114184.

Starkbaum J, Gottweis H, Gottweis U, Kleiser C, Linseisen J, Meisinger C, et al. Public perceptions of cohort studies and biobanks in Germany. Biopreserv Biobank. 2014;12(2):121–30.

Costas L, Bayas JM, Serrano B, Lafuente S, Muñoz MA. Motivations for participating in a clinical trial on an avian influenza vaccine. Trials. 2012;13:28.

Richter G, Krawczak M, Lieb W, Wolff L, Schreiber S, Buyx A. Broad consent for health care-embedded biobanking: understanding and reasons to donate in a large patient sample. Genet Med. 2018;20(1):76–82.

Akmatov MK, Jentsch L, Riese P, May M, Ahmed MW, Werner D, et al. Motivations for (non)participation in population-based health studies among the elderly - comparison of participants and nonparticipants of a prospective study on influenza vaccination. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2017;17(1):18.

Gabel M, Bollinger RM, Coble DW, Grill JD, Edwards DF, Lingler JH, et al. Retaining participants in Longitudinal studies of Alzheimer’s Disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2022;87(2):945–55.

Bongartz H, Rübsamen N, Raupach-Rosin H, Akmatov MK, Mikolajczyk RT. Why do people participate in health-related studies? Int J Public Health. 2017;62(9):1059–62.

Tommel J, Kenis D, Lambrechts N, Brohet RM, Swysen J, Mollen L et al. Personal Genomes in Practice: Exploring Citizen and Healthcare Professionals’ Perspectives on Personalized Genomic Medicine and Personal Health Data Spaces Using a Mixed-Methods Design. Genes (Basel). 2023;14(4).

Slegers C, Zion D, Glass D, Kelsall H, Fritschi L, Brown N, et al. Why do people participate in epidemiological research? J Bioeth Inq. 2015;12(2):227–37.

Richter G, Borzikowsky C, Lesch W, Semler SC, Bunnik EM, Buyx A, et al. Secondary research use of personal medical data: attitudes from patient and population surveys in the Netherlands and Germany. Eur J Hum Genet. 2021;29(3):495–502.

Peters A, German National Cohort C, Peters A, Greiser KH, Gottlicher S, Ahrens W, et al. Framework and baseline examination of the German National Cohort (NAKO). Eur J Epidemiol. 2022;37(10):1107–24.

Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar

Laird Y, Marks L, Smith BJ, Walker P, Garvey K, Jose K et al. Harnessing citizen science in health promotion: perspectives of policy and practice stakeholders in Australia. Health Promot Int. 2023;38(5).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank all participants of the discussion groups and the questionnaire survey for their contributions, the staff for data collection and research data management, and the members of the KORA Study Group (https://www.helmholtz-munich.de/en/epi/cohort/kora) who are responsible for the design and conduct of the KORA study.

The KORA study was initiated and financed by the Helmholtz Zentrum München – German Research Center for Environmental Health, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and by the State of Bavaria. Data collection in the KORA study is done in cooperation with the University Hospital of Augsburg. The project was supported by the NFDI4Health (National Research Data Infrastructure for Personal Health Data) citizen-science 2023 initiative to support participatory research ( https://www.nfdi4health.de/community/citizen-science.html ).

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Munich, Germany

Ina-Maria Rückert-Eheberg, Margit Heier, Markus Simon, Monika Kraus, Annette Peters & Birgit Linkohr

KORA Study Centre, University Hospital of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany

Margit Heier

German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK e.V.), Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany

Monika Kraus, Annette Peters & Birgit Linkohr

Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry and Epidemiology (IBE), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany

Annette Peters

Partner Site München-Neuherberg, German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Munich-Neuherberg, Germany

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

IMRE contributed to the conception, design, and conduct of the study, analyzed and interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript. MH contributed to the conception, design, and conduct of the study, interpreted the data, and revised the manuscript. MS contributed to the design and conduct of the study, interpreted the data, and revised the manuscript. MK contributed to the design and conduct of the study, interpreted the data, and revised the manuscript. AP contributed to the conception and design of the study, interpreted the data, and revised the manuscript. BL contributed to the conception, design, and conduct of the study, interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. They agree to be accountable for their own contributions and that questions that may arise on the accuracy or integrity of the work will be appropriately investigated, resolved, and documented.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ina-Maria Rückert-Eheberg .

Ethics declarations

Consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Rückert-Eheberg, IM., Heier, M., Simon, M. et al. Public attitudes towards personal health data sharing in long-term epidemiological research: a Citizen Science approach in the KORA study. BMC Public Health 24 , 2317 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19730-0

Download citation

Received : 17 May 2024

Accepted : 08 August 2024

Published : 26 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19730-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Citizen science
Participatory research
Public engagement
Health data sharing
Epidemiological cohort management
Co-creation

BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

General enquiries: [email protected]

IMAGES

(PDF) The effect of employees motivation on organizational performance
Employee motivation paper research
(PDF) A STUDY ON MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS FOR EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION IN
😊 Research paper on employee motivation. Apa research papers on
(DOC) QUESTIONNAIRE: LEVEL OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
📌 Essay Example: Employees Motivation in an Organization

VIDEO

Eugene Weekly sets up GoFundMe to help recover from embezzlement
The analysis impact of extrinsic and intrinsic factor on employees motivation of IT Gig worker of UK
Enhancing Work Motivation Key Factors #Motivation #Productivity #Workplace #Recognition
This Exam Paper Never Leaks 🤯😱| SSC Motivation #ssc #shorts
MODULE 07: How to Motivate Employees
Attracting and Motivating The Right Employees

COMMENTS

(PDF) IMPACT OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION ON ORGANIZATIONAL ...
Although employee motivation and human resources practice are significantly affected by extrinsic rewards such as promotions, salary increments and other benefits (Kalogiannidis, 2021; Elrayah and ...
(PDF) Employee Motivation and its Effects on Employee Productivity
This research report examines employee motivation and its impact on employee performance. The study examines some common theories of motivation that can be used in an organization to improve ...
Conceptual paper Understanding employee motivation and organizational
Empirical evidence demonstrates that motivated employees mean better organizational performance. The objective of this conceptual paper is to articulate the progress that has been made in understanding employee motivation and organizational performance, and to suggest how the theory concerning employee motivation and organizational performance may be advanced.
PDF Factors Influencing Employee Motivation and Its Impact on Employee
searched, there is in fact a research gap when observing how employee motivation impacts on employee performance. Previous studies on employee motivation mainly focused on the factors that contributed to its being attained. However, not much research on the subject matter discussed how employee moti-vation impact on employee performance.
Work Motivation: The Roles of Individual Needs and Social Conditions
2.1. Work Motivation: A Conceptual Background. Work motivation is considered "a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form direction intensity and duration" [].Nicolescu and Verboncu (2008) [] argued that work motivation contributes directly and indirectly to employees ...
Frontiers
The aims of the current paper were (1) to shed light on the relationship between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and HWI of time (HWI-TC) and effort (HWI-WI) and JE, (3) to assess convergent and discriminant properties of JE in relation to HWI-TC and HWI-WI, and (4) to gauge the moderation effects of both worker status (working students vs. non ...
Effect Of Work Motivation And Wellbeing On Employee Performance
Irum, et.al (2014), in their research paper, title impact of employee motivation on employee performance. That employee motivation is the factor that influences employee
A literature review on motivation
In past research papers few dimensions of motivation were used to explain the different models motivation theory which has direct influence on employee motivation. The novelty of this study lies in its theoretical framework where authors have made an attempt to come up with a construct having dimensions that directly or indirectly influences ...
Employee Motivation and Productivity: a Review of Literature and
This research report examines employee motivation and its impact on employee performance. ... and productivity and concludes that motivation has a link to productivity since 'motivated employees are productive employees'. The paper further suggests that relevant motivation theories should be applied to elicit and drive employee performance ...
Leadership Styles and Employees Motivation: Perspective From an ...
The employees' motivation, performance and productivity should increase if they are treated with good leadership style. Leadership styles can be categorized as ... The research paper examines the role of leaders and managers working in Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), an autonomous organization assigned with the
New work: New motivation? A comprehensive literature review on the
In this paper, we investigate existing research and assess whether current models and theories are suitable for explaining how workplace technologies influence employee motivation. This paper departs from prior studies by focusing on motivational theories and studies from the point of view of changing workspaces in the digital era in a ...
An Empirical Study of Employees' Motivation and Its Influence Job
Companies have to make sure that employee satisfaction is high among the workers, which is a precondition for increasing productivity, responsiveness, quality, and recognition service. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the level of employee satisfaction and work motivation. It also deals with the effect the culture has on employee satisfaction.
How Does Work Motivation Impact Employees' Investment at Work and Their
For the Israeli sample, a pencil-and-paper research survey was distributed to 341 total potential participants in two universities and one college. One of the authors provided the questionnaire in several courses (MBA and management, human resource management, psychology, and more), at the end of each class session.
Leadership's Impact on Employee Work Motivation and Performance
Leadership is a major factor in terms of motivating employees, leading to enhanced. performance. A study was conducted to examine the influence of supervisory leadership. style on employee work motivation and job performance in organizations, specifically in. a K-12 school setting.
PDF A Study on Employees Work Motivation and its Effect on their
This research paper investigates the relationship between employee work motivation and their performance in the workplace and business productivity. It examines the main and common motivation theories and different approaches to motivate employees. The main aim is to find a
A Study on Employee Motivational Factors and Employee Engagement in
This research article focuses to find how employee motivational factor influences employee engagement (EE). The key objectives of the research were aimed to identify the key employee motivational factor, to determine the extent of influence motivational factor has on EE and to find the moderating role of work from home (WFH) on employee motivational factors and EE.
Performance Appraisal on Employees' Motivation: A Comprehensive
The proposed research will focus on the impacts of the performance appraisal on the employees' motivation . 1.1 Research Questions. The existing systematic literature review illustrates the importance of the performance appraisal fairness on employee's motivation, which is affected by other important factors.
Employee motivation and job performance: a study of basic school
Motivation as a meaningful construct is a desire to satisfy a certain want and is a central pillar at the workplace. Thus, motivating employees adequately is a challenge as it has what it takes to define employee satisfaction at the workplace. In this study, we examine the relationship between job motivation factors and performance among teachers of basic schools in Ghana. The study employs a ...
IMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION & JOB SATISFACTION FOR ...
The paper concludes with recommendations for employers on strategies for enhancing job satisfaction and work motivation among their employees. Work motivation and Job satisfaction is a study of a ...
PDF "A Study on Employee Motivation and Its Impact on Employee Performance"
Journal of Research in Business and Management Volume 10 ~ Issue 11 (2022) pp: 200-203 ISSN(Online):2347-3002 www.questjournals.org *Corresponding Author: Revanth Kumar A. G 200 | Page Research Paper "A Study on Employee Motivation and Its Impact on Employee Performance" 1Revanth Kumar A. G, *2Prof. Kavita Achchalli, 3Dr. Janet ...
PDF A Study on the relationship between employee motivation and work
racteristics influence behavior and job performance. (Jenica, 2007, p.29). Motivation is used to engage employees in the work. Human behavior mostly complex; Som. times their needs are driven by their unconscious motives some by conscious. Maslow, whilst the more recent cognitive psychologists describe motiv.
PDF An Assessment of the Role of Motivation on Employees' Job Performance
Proceedings of the 16th National Student Research Forum, September 1, 2022 St. Mary's University Page 60 An Assessment of the Role of Motivation on Employees' Job Performance Eden Belete, St. Mary's University Abstract The aim of this research paper is to assess the effect of motivation on job satisfaction and lead
A qualitative study identifying implementation strategies using the i
An employee at each FQHC acted as a study contact and assisted with recruitment. The contacts advertised the study through word-of-mouth to coworkers and relayed the contact information of those interested to research staff. Patients were informed about the study from FQHC employees and flyers while visiting the FQHC for HIV testing.
A Study of Employee Motivation in Organization
Employee motivation research papers furth er this point by . stating that, "For any effective work to occur, ... As employee motivation is an influential factor in defining productivity, the ...
Investigating viewer engagement in esports through motivation and
Figure 1 illustrates the research model employed in this paper. The study proposes that hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment have a significant impact on attitudes toward esports, attitudes ...
Public attitudes towards personal health data sharing in long-term
Loss to follow-up in long-term epidemiological studies is well-known and often substantial. Consequently, there is a risk of bias to the results. The motivation to take part in an epidemiological study can change over time, but the ways to minimize loss to follow-up are not well studied. The Citizen Science approach offers researchers to engage in direct discussions with study participants and ...
Employee Motivation: Recognition, Salary, Organizational Climate and
More the number of motivated and satisfied employees in an organization better are the chances of the organization to achieve its goal and attain ultimate profitability (Saari & Judge, 2004).A ...
(PDF) Exploring the Impact of Work-Life Balance on Employees: A
Many studies have shown that low work-life balance (WLB) can be harmful to health. Poland is a country with one of the lowest indicators on the WLB scale among European countries but there are ...

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Introduction

Work Motivation

Job Engagement

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and JE

Heavy Work Investment

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and HWI

Worker’s Status—Buffering Effect

Country Difference—Buffering Effect

Materials and Methods

Participants

Data Analyses

Control Variables

Common Method Bias

Theoretical Implications

Practical Implications

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Data Availability Statement

Ethics Statement

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITY: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS

An Empirical Study of Employees’ Motivation and Its Influence Job Satisfaction

Bayad Jamal Ali

Govand Anwar

An Empirical Study of Employees’ Motivation and its Influence Job Satisfaction

Bayad Jamal Ali (Contact Author)

Knowledge University ( email )

How Does Work Motivation Impact Employees’ Investment at Work and Their Job Engagement? A Moderated-Moderation Perspective Through an International Lens

Takuma Kimura

Associated Data

Introduction

Work Motivation

Job Engagement

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and JE

Heavy Work Investment

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and HWI

Worker’s Status—Buffering Effect

Country Difference—Buffering Effect

Materials and Methods

Participants

Data Analyses

Control Variables

Common Method Bias

Theoretical Implications

Practical Implications

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Data Availability Statement

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

Performance Appraisal on Employees’ Motivation: A Comprehensive Analysis

Access this chapter

Similar content being viewed by others

Is the Employees’ Performance Appraisal Process Different in the Large Romanian Companies? An Empirical Research

Impact of motivation on the job performance of public sector employees: the case of Morocco

Employee empowerment, performance appraisal quality and performance

Author information

Corresponding author

Editor information

Rights and permissions

Copyright information

About this paper

Download citation

Share this paper

Employee motivation and job performance: a study of basic school teachers in Ghana

Introduction

The concept of motivation and self-determination theory (SDT)

SDT and job performance

Conceptual framework and hypothesis development

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 2

The aim, design and setting of the study

Sampling technique and data analysis

Hypothesized theoretical equation

Results and discussion

Availability of data and material

Abbreviations

Acknowledgements